The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the
current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and
destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is
called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
4. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some
of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and run
applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users connected
over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over a
network.
5. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which handles
byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not want
TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP
1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
 The OSI Model - Features, Principles and Layers
There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world.
So to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed
which are compatible to communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO
stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open
System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a
complete communication system. They are:
1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Datalink Layer
7. Physical Layer
Below we have the complete representation of the OSI model, showcasing all the layers and
how they communicate with each other.

Feature of OSI Model

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.
Functions of Different Layers
Following are the functions performed by each layer of the OSI model. This is just an
introduction, we will cover each layer in details in the coming tutorials.
OSI Model Layer 1: The Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

OSI Model Layer 2: Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic
control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers
are full.

OSI Model Layer 3: The Network Layer

1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

OSI Model Layer 4: Transport Layer

1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units and
passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently
by the network layer.

OSI Model Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss
is avoided.

OSI Model Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application
layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.
2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.
 Client Server Architecture
A Computer networking model where one or more powerful computers (servers) provide
the different computer network services and all other user'of computer network (clients)
access those services to perform user's tasks is known as client/server computer networking
model.
• In such networks, there exists a central controller called server. A server is a specialized
computer that controls the network resources and provides services to other computers in
the network.
All other computers in the network are called clients. A client computer receives the
requested services from a server.
• A server performs all the major operations like security and network management.
• All the clients communicate with each other via centralized server
• If client 1 wants to send data to client 2, it first sends request to server to seek permission
for it.
The server then sends a signal to client 1 allowing it to initiate the communication.
• A server is also responsible for managing all the network resources such as files,
directories, applications & shared devices like printer etc.
• If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first seeks permission from the server
by sending a request.

The design of applications for a distributed computing environment required that they
effetely be divided into two parts: client (front end) and server (back end). The network
model on which they were implemented mirrored this client-server model with a user's PC
(the client) typically acting as the requesting machine and a more powerful server machine
to which it was connected via either a LAN or a WAN acting as the supplying machine. It
requires special networking operating system. It provides user level security and it is more
expensive.

Advantages of Client Server Networks

1. Centralized back up is possible.
2. Use of dedicated server improves the performance of whole system.
3. Security is better in these networks as all the shared resources are centrally
administered.
4. Use of dedicated servers also increases the speed of sharing resources.
Disadvantages of Client Server Networks
1. It requires specialized servers with large memory and secondary storage. This leads to
increase in the cost.
2. The cost of network operating system that manages the various clients is also high.
3. It requires dedicated network administrator.