MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 1

Lecture 24

Prandtl-Glauert Rule
We shall now turn to subsonic flows past thin aerofoils. As follows from the analysis in
Lecture 23, in order to describe the flow behaviour one has to solve the following equation
for the potential perturbation function ϕ0

2 ∂ 2 ϕ0 ∂ 2 ϕ0
(1 − M∞ ) + = 0, (24.1)
∂x2 ∂y 2
where M∞ is the free stream Mach number.
The boundary conditions for equation (24.1) are the condition of attenuation of the
perturbations far from the aerofoil

ϕ0 → 0 as x2 + y 2 → ∞, (24.2)

and the impermeability condition on the upper and lower aerofoil surfaces.

 df+
∂ϕ0 V∞ dx on y = 0+,
= (24.3)
∂y V df− on y = 0 − .

∞
dx
Once a solution to the boundary-value problem (24.1)–(24.3) is found, one can calculate
the pressure coefficient
p − p∞ 2 ∂ϕ0
Cp = 1 = − . (24.4)
ρ V2
2 ∞ ∞
V∞ ∂x
Suppose now that the same aerofoil is placed in an incompressible fluid flow. In this
case the velocity potential ϕ satisfies Laplace’s equation (i.e. set M∞ = 0 in (24.1) above)

∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
+ 2 = 0. (24.5)
∂x2 ∂x
As the aerofoil is thin and induces only small perturbations in the flow field, we can write
again
ϕ = V∞ x + ϕ̃0 (x, y). (24.6)
Here ϕ̃0 is supposed small; the ‘tilde’ is used to distinguish the incompressible case from
compressible one.
Substitution of (24.6) into (24.5) results in the following equation

∂ 2 ϕ̃0 ∂ 2 ϕ̃0
+ = 0. (24.7)
∂x2 ∂y 2

In order to solve equation (24.7) we have to impose upon the potential perturbation
function ϕ̃0 (x, y) the attenuation condition

ϕ̃0 → 0 as x2 + y 2 → ∞, (24.8)
MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 2

and the impermeability condition on the aerofoil surface


 df+
∂ ϕ̃0 V∞ dx on y = 0+,
= (24.9)
∂y V df− on y = 0 − .

∞
dx
The pressure p may be found from Bernoulli’s equation. For an incompressible flow we
recall that it is written as
p V2 p∞ V∞2
+ = + .
ρ 2 ρ 2
Representing the velocity components in the form

u = V∞ + ũ0 , v = ṽ 0 ,

we can can easily show that Bernoulli’s equation reduces to the linearized form

p = p∞ − ρV∞ ũ0 .

Further, taking into account that the perturbation of the longitudinal velocity is related
to the perturbation of the potential as

∂ ϕ̃0
ũ0 = ,
∂x
we see that the pressure coefficient

p − p∞ 2 0 2 ∂ ϕ̃0
C̃p = 1 = − ũ = − . (24.10)
2
ρV∞2 V∞ V∞ ∂x

We shall now show that if the incompressible flow behaviour is known† then there
is no need to solve the compressible problem (24.1)–(24.3). All the properties of the
compressible flow may be easily found using the Prandtl-Glauert rule. It turns out that
the compressible equations (24.1)–(24.4) may be converted into the incompressible form
(24.7)–(24.10) using simple affine transformations. When making these transformations
we do not want the independent variables x, y used in (24.7)–(24.10) to be confused with
those in (24.1)–(24.4). For this reason we are going to denote x, y in (24.7)–(24.10) as
x̃, ỹ, respectively. Further, we allow the shape functions f˜± (x̃) to be distinct from the
compressible case. As a result the incompressible problem takes the form

∂ 2 ϕ̃0 ∂ 2 ϕ̃0
+ = 0. (24.11)
∂ x̃2 ∂ ỹ 2
ϕ̃0 → 0 as x̃2 + ỹ 2 → ∞, (24.12)

 df˜+
∂ ϕ̃ 0

V ∞ on ỹ = 0+,
= dx̃ (24.13)
∂ ỹ ˜
V∞ df− on ỹ = 0−,


dx̃
†
From experimental observations or as a result of solving the boundary-value problem (24.7)–(24.9).
MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 3

and the formula (24.4) for the pressure coefficient is rewritten as

2 ∂ ϕ̃0
C̃p = − . (24.14)
V∞ ∂ x̃
We now return to the compressible equations (24.1)–(24.4) and represent their solutions
in the form
ϕ0 = Aϕ̃0 , x = x̃, y = B ỹ, f± = C f˜± , (24.15)
where A, B and C are constant coefficients.
Substituting the expressions in (24.15) into (24.1)–(24.3) yields

2 ∂ 2 ϕ̃0 A ∂ 2 ϕ̃0
(1 − M∞ )A + = 0, (24.16)
∂ x̃2 B 2 ∂ ỹ 2
ϕ̃0 → 0 as x̃2 + ỹ 2 → ∞, (24.17)

 df˜+
A ∂ ϕ̃ 0

CV ∞ on ỹ = 0+,
= dx̃ (24.18)
B ∂ ỹ ˜
CV∞ df− on ỹ = 0 − .


dx̃
Comparing (24.16)–(24.18) with (24.11)–(24.13) it is easily seen, that setting
2 1 A
1 − M∞ = , =C (24.19)
B 2 B
reduces the compressible equation to its incompressible form.
If we have identical aerofoils then C = 1 and, solving equations (24.19), we find
1 1
A= p , B=p .
1 − M∞
2 1 − M∞
2

Thus, the Prandtl-Glauert transformation (24.15) takes the form

1 1
ϕ0 = p ϕ̃0 , x = x̃, y=p ỹ, (24.20)
1 − M∞
2 1 − M∞
2

and applying these to the pressure coefficient (24.4) gives

2 ∂ϕ0 2 1 ∂ ϕ̃0 C̃p
Cp = − =− p =p .
V∞ ∂x V∞ 1 − M∞
2 ∂ x̃ 1 − M∞2

Thus, we can claim that the pressure coefficient Cp at any point on a thin
2 −1/2
aerofoil surface in an compressible flow is (1 − M∞ ) times the pressure
coefficient C̃p at the same point on the same aerofoil in incompressible flow .
This is called the Prandtl-Glauert rule.
If we wish to have the same pressure coefficients over two different aerofoils, one in an
incompressible flow and the other in a subsonic compressible flow, then we require A = 1
in (24.15) (i.e. φ0 = φ̃0 ). We can achieve this by altering the aerofoil thickness; from (24.19)
this yields
1 p
B=p , C = 1 − M∞ 2 .
1 − M∞ 2
p
Thus, the thickness of the aerofoil in the subsonic compressible
p flow is 1 − M∞2 times

the thickness of the incompressible aerofoil, i.e. f± = 1 − M∞ 2 f˜ .

±
MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 4

Ackeret’s Formula
If the flow past a thin aerofoil is supersonic (M∞ > 1) then the general solution of
equation (24.1) may be written as
ϕ0 (x, y) = h(ξ) + g(η). (24.21)
Here f and g are arbitrary functions of the arguments
ξ = x − βy, η = x + βy,
p
with constant β being related to the Mach number as β = M∞ 2 − 1. The straight lines

ξ = const. and η = const. are called characteristics of the flow.

Let us restrict our attention to the flow above the aerofoil. It should be noted that
unlike in subsonic flows, the perturbations produced in the supersonic flow below the
aerofoil are incapable of penetrating into the flow region above the aerofoil and vice vérsa.
Their mutual interference is confined to the region which lies downstream of the trailing
edge between two characteristics emerging from the trailing edge. This means that the flow
fields above and below the aerofoil are independent of one another and may be considered
separately.
Notice that function g(η) in (24.21) represents perturbations that propagate along the
characteristics of the second family
x + βy = const.
These perturbations may exist in the flow field only if there is another object flying above
and upstream of the aerofoil. Therefore, when dealing with an isolated aerofoil we have
to set g(η) = 0 and write the solution of equation (24.1) as‡
ϕ0 (x, y) = h(ξ), ξ = x − βy. (24.22)
In order to determine function h(ξ) we shall use the impermeability condition on the
upper surface of the aerofoil, i.e. the top line of (24.3):

∂ϕ0  df+
= V∞ . (24.23)
∂y y=0
 dx

Substitution of (24.22) into (24.23) leads to

df+
−βh0 (x) = V∞
dx
which being integrated gives
V∞
f+ (x).
h(x) = −
β
So, we see that in the flow above the aerofoil the velocity potential perturbation function
is
V∞
ϕ0 (x, y) = − p f+ (x − βy). (24.24)
M∞2 −1

‡
In the flow below the aerofoil one has to set h(ξ) = 0 so that
ϕ0 (x, y) = g(η).
MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 5

In order to find the pressure field we substitute (24.24) into (23.27), which yields

f+0 (x − βy)
p = p∞ + ρ∞ V∞2 p .
M∞ 2 −1

In particular, on the aerofoil surface, y = 0,

f+0 (x)
p = p∞ + ρ∞ V∞2 p . (24.25)
M∞
2 −1

The analysis may be repeated for a supersonic flow below the aerofoil, and it is easily
found that the pressure field on the lower surface is given by

f−0 (x)
p = p∞ − ρ∞ V∞2 p . (24.26)
M∞
2 −1

Thus, taking into account that f±0 (x) represents the angle θ± (x) made by the tangent
to the aerofoil contour (on the upper/lower side respectively) with the direction of the
oncoming flow, we can write (24.25) and (24.26) as

θ± (x)
p = p∞ ± ρ∞ V∞2 p . (24.27)
M∞ 2 −1

The expressions (24.25), (24.26) or equivalently (24.27) are called Ackeret’s formula.
This formula gives a convenient means to determine the Drag and Lift on a thin aerofoil
in a supersonic flow.

Drag on a Supersonic Aerofoil

To illustrate how to employ Ackeret’s formula we work through the example given in
Exercise Sheet 9, Question 3. This requires us to determine the drag on a thin aerofoil in
supersonic flow (shown in figure 24.1); the lift could be calculated in a similar fashion.

α
V∞ c x

Figure 24.1: An aerofoil at angle of attack α in a supersonic free-stream.

We start with the upper surface of the aerofoil. The pressure on this surface may be
calculated (see Figure 24.2) according to the Ackeret formula (24.25). The pressure force
acting on a small element dl of the aerofoil contour is

P+ = p+ dl ≈ p+ dx. (24.28)
MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 6

dl {
y = f+ (x) }| θ
z dD+

P+

Figure 24.2: The upper surface of the aerofoil.

The approximaton takes account of the fact that the aerofoil is thin, and therefore dl ≈ dx.
The x-component of this force represents a contribution of the surface element dl to the
aerofoil drag
df+
dD+ = P+ sin θ ≈ P+ θ = P+ . (24.29)
dx
Substitution of (24.25) and (24.28) into (24.29) yields
 
2 df+ /dx df+
dD+ = p∞ + ρ∞ V∞ p dx,
M∞2 −1 dx
which, being integrated over the entire upper surface, gives
Zc  
df+ /dx df+
D+ = p∞ + ρ∞ V∞2 p dx.
M∞2 − 1 dx
0

Now we turn to the lower surface of the aerofoil (see Figure 24.3). The pressure on
this surface is given by Ackeret’s formula in the form (24.26). The pressure force acting
P−

}
−dD−
θ {z y = fl (x)
| dl

Figure 24.3: The lower surface of the aerofoil.

on a small element dl of this surface is

P− = p− dl,
and so gives a contribution to the aerofoil drag
dD− = −P− sin θ = −p− dl sin θ.
MATH45111: Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Dynamics 7

As we are dealing with a thin aerofoil, we can write

df−
dD− ≈ −p− dx θ = −p− dx. (24.30)
dx
Substituting (24.26) into (24.30) and integrating over the entire lower surface of the aerofoil
gives
Zc  
2 df− /dx df−
D− = − p∞ + ρ∞ V∞ p dx.
M∞ 2 −1 dx
0
Hence, the total drag of the aerofoil is
Zc  
df+ df−
D = D+ + D− = p ∞ − dx
dx dx
0
(24.31)
Zc  2  2 
ρ∞ V∞2 df+ df−
+p + dx.
M∞2 −1 dx dx
0

Since
f+ (0) = f− (0), f+ (c) = f− (c),
the first integral in (24.31) vanishes, and we can confirm that
Zc  2  2 
ρ∞ V∞2 df+ df−
D=p + dx. (24.32)
M∞2 −1 dx dx
0

We can simplify the expression for the drag by measuring the angle of the upper and
lower surfaces about the chord angle α (see figure 24.1), i.e.
df+ df−
= −α + θ+ (x), = −α + θ− (x).
dx dx
This allows us to express formula (24.32) in the form
Zc n
ρ∞ V∞2  2  2 o
D=p 2α2 − 2αθ+ (x) − 2αθ− (x) + θ+ (x) + θ− (x) dx,
M∞2 −1
0

and since
Zc Zc
θ+ (x)dx = 0, θ− (x)dx = 0,
0 0
we arrive at the conclusion that
Zc n
ρ∞ V∞2  2  2 o
D=p 2α2 + θ+ (x) + θ− (x) dx.
M∞2 −1
0

Finally, this may be expressed as the drag coefficient:

Zc n
2  2  2 o
CD = p 2α2 + θ+ (x) + θ− (x) dx. (24.33)
c M∞2 −1
0