CE 4021
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS AND
HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
Munidasa P. Ranaweera
Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology
04 July 2017
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
Behaviour of structures subjected
to time dependent loadings is
studied under structural dynamics.
Dynamic loads include those due to
wind, earthquakes, machinery,
blasts, waves, traffic, etc.
These will produce accelerations,
velocities, and large displacements
and forces in the structure.
DYNAMIC LOADS
Examples of dynamic loads include:
Vibrating machines, moving vehicles,
human movements, wind gusts, ocean
waves, blast loads, impact loads and
earthquake loads
Types of Dynamic Loads
Categories of Dynamic Loads
• Deterministic and nondeterministic,
vibrating machine load vs earthquake load
• Periodic and nonperiodic, vibrating machine
vs blast or earthquake
• Continuous and transient, pile-driving vs
blast
• Man-made and natural, vibrating machine,
traffic, construction activities and blast vs
earthquake, wind and sea waves
Impact of those dynamic loads
1. Low level: affect normal operation of
sensitive equipment.
The allowable ground vibration for some
equipment could be as low as <0.01µm
2. Intermediate level: disturb occupants,
human perception
>0.3mm/s, annoying >3mm/s
3. High level: cause structural damage, or
cosmetic damage (cracks on plasters, etc)
Golden gate Bridge – San Francisco - USA
Suspension Bridge
Opened in 1937
Material: Steel
Width: 90 ft (27.4 m)
Height: 746 ft (227 m)
Longest span
4,200 ft (1,280.2 m)
Clearance:
220 ft (67.1 m)
at high tide
Longest in the world
till 1964
GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE DAMPERS
The bridge is mounted on seismic isolators, which deform
back and forth during the earthquake , softening the
vibrations that the structure experiences.
The forces can be reduced by as much as two-thirds as
compared to a non-isolated bridge.
Layers of steel and rubber
are bonded together to form
the isolator.
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
Response of a structure to dynamic
loads depends on the dynamic
properties of the structure.
Basics of dynamic analysis can be
explained using a 1 DOF system.
(Ref: Dynamics of Structures, A.K. Chopra, Prentice-Hall, 2001)
DYNAMICS OF A STRUCTURE WITH ONE DOF
Eg: Two idealized structures ( u is the displacement along x)
m
Mass m x,u x, u
k/2 k/2
Stiffness k
Light column with Light frame with
heavy mass at top heavy slab at top
(water tower) (shear frame)
EQUATION OF MOTION
Kinetic Diagram (KD) u, u, u
Free Body Diagram (FBD)
u = displacement
k u, c u, F (t)
u = velocity
u = acceleration
F(t) = applied force
Newton’s Law - F(t) – k u – c u =mu k = stiffness
c = damping coefficient
(viscous damping)
m u + c u + k u = F (t) m = mass
F(t) = 0, c=0
Simple Harmonic Motion: u = d cos (wo T)
wo = (k/m)1/2 = natural circular frequency (radians/s)
T = 2p/wo = 2p(m/k)1/2 = natural period of vibration (s)
f = 1/T = wo /2p = natural cyclic frequency (Hz)
F(t) = 0
A e –(zwo t)
z= damping ratio = c/ccr
where ccr = 2mwo = 2k/wo = critical damping coefficient
If z < 1 the system is underdamped and exhibits oscillatory motion
If z = 1 the system is critically damped, and
If z > 1 the system is over damped
Normal structures are underdamped ( z < 0.2 )
dmax/dstatic = Dynamic response factor
If the excitation force has a frequency of w, very large
displacements (and stresses) will occur as w approaches wo.
This is called Resonance, and should be avoided.
ONE DOF SYSTEM WITH GROUND MOTION
(e.g. earthquake excitation)
ug = Ground displacement
u = Displacement of mass
uT relative to ground.
m
uT = u + ug = Total displacement
of mass
Elastic and damping forces are
produced due to u, and
acceleration is related to uT .
k
Hence the equation of motion is:
ug ku + cu + muT = 0
i.e.
mu + cu + ku = -mug
Same equation as before with an external force of mass times ground
acceleration in a direction opposite to the direction of the acceleration.
MULTI DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS
For a n DOF system the equation of motion is;
MD+CD+KD=F
Here, D = nodal displacement vector (function of t)
M = mass matrix (lumped or consistent)
C = viscous damping matrix
K = stiffness matrix
F = nodal force vector (function of t)
This system of n equations is solved by an incremental
method with a time step of Dt.
MULTI DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS
n DOF system will have n natural frequencies
and n mode shapes.
These are determined by solving the equation
M D + K D = 0.
For a non-trivial solution of this equation
[ K – w2 M ] = 0.
This is an Eigenvalue problem where the n
Eigenvalues w are the Natural Frequencies of
the structure.
HIGH RISES
A high rise is a tall building or structure
High Rise Building – Definition
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH):
“A building whose height creates different conditions
in the design, construction, and use than those that
exist in common buildings of a certain region and
period”
The International Conference on Fire Safety in High-Rise
Buildings:
“Any structure where the height can have a serious
impact on evacuation"
Emporis* Standard:
A high-rise building is a multi-storey structure with at
least 12 floors or 35 meters (115 feet) in height.
(12 Storeys/stories )
*Emporis.com is one of the world's largest available platforms concerning
building-related information. There you find buildings, companies and photos in
more than 50,000 cities worldwide. In 2005 the CTBUH partnered with Emporis
to develop a comprehensive database of high-rise buildings
Skyscraper
A skyscraper is a very tall high-rise building
There is no official definition or a precise cutoff
height above which a building may clearly be
classified as a skyscraper.
However, as per usual practice in most cities, the
definition is used empirically, depending on the
relative impact of the shape of a building to a
city's overall skyline.
Thus, depending on the average height of the rest
of the buildings and/ or structures in a city, even
a building of 80 meters height (approximately
262 ft) may be considered a skyscraper
provided that it clearly stands out above its
surrounding built environment and significantly
changes the overall skyline of that particular city.
Skyscraper (ctd.)
A loose convention in the United States
and Europe now draws the lower limit
of a skyscraper at 150 m (500 ft)
A skyscraper taller than 300 m (984 ft)
may be referred to as supertall
Shorter buildings are still sometimes
referred to as skyscrapers if they
appear to dominate their surroundings.
Skylines
Chicago
Hong Kong
Colombo
The Ranking of Tall Buildings
Ranking was originally based on a building's height from
the sidewalk level of the main entrance to the
architectural top of the building. The "architectural top"
included towers, spires (but not antennas), masts or
flagpoles.
In 1996, as Petronas Twin Towers were nearing
completion, CTBUH expanded its system to rank the
tallest buildings in three categories;
the highest occupied floor,
the top of the roof, and
the top of the pinnacle or spire (Spire: any structure
beyond occupiable floors that is architecturally
significant and structurally integrated into the building)
In 2005 the CTBUH partnered with Emporis to develop a
much larger database of high-rise buildings with height
data and expanded categories of technical data
Timeline - [till 1311 when Lincoln cathedral spire reached a height of 160 m,
the Great Pyramid was the tallest structure]
The Empire State Building
(New York City, New York)
The world's tallest building for more than
forty years, from its completion in 1931 until
construction of the World Trade Center's
North Tower in 1972
Height:
Antenna/Spire: 449 m (1,472 ft)
Roof: 381 m (1,250 ft )
Floor count: 102
Floor area: 257,000 m² (2,769,000 ft2 )
Material: Steel (encased in concrete)
Architects: Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon
The Willis Tower
( Chicago, Illinois)
The tallest building in USA since 1974
(and in the world till 2004 ?)
Height
Antenna/Spire: 527 m (1730 ft )
Roof: 442 m (1451 ft)
No. of Floors: 108
Floor area: 418,064 m² (4.56 million ft²)
Material: Steel
Use: Office
Designers: Skidmore Owings & Merrill
Fazlur Khan - Bangladesh
Considered the greatest structural
engineer of the second half of the 20th
century (introduced bundled tube
concept)
Petronas Twin Towers
( Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia)
They were the world's tallest buildings
from 1998 to 2004 if measured from
the level of the main entrance to the
structural top.
Height
Spire: 452 m (1,483 ft)
Roof: 379 m
Top floor: 375 m
Floor count: 88
Floor area: 395,000 m² (4,252,000 ft2 )
Material: Concrete (columns & core)
Composite floors
Designer: Cesar Pelli (Argentine-
American architect)
What is
Taller?
Petronas Willis Tower (Sears Tower)
One World Trade Center
(New York City, New York)
Tallest building in USA
Height: Antenna/Spire 541 m (1775) ft)
Floor count: 94
(*CTBUH Def: Building is a structure
that can be occupied)
Burj Dubai (2010)
(Dubai, United Arab Emirates)
Tallest Structure in the World
Height: Antenna/Spire~828 m (2,717 ft)
Roof~643 m (2,111 ft)
Top floor~624 m (2,048 ft)
Floor count: 164
Floor area: 334,000 m² (3,595,000 ft2)
Material: Concrete (to ~600 m) & Steel
Designers: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
High Rises in Colombo – 20th Century
Echelon Towers
(150 m - 1996)
BOC Tower
(126m - 1987)
People’s Bank
Head Office
( 59 m - 1966)
21st Century - Altair - 240 m (68 Floors)
LOTUS TOWER
Height = 350 m
0-263 m - Concrete
263-350 m - Steel
Tower at 263 m
21st Century - Future
Asia’s tallest tower to be built in SL
The World Capital Centre (WCC) signed a
US$ 2 billion investment agreement with the
Board Of Investment (BOI), for the much
hyped and long awaited tallest building in
the Asian region and the 9th tallest to be in
the world.
Twin tower with 117 floors.
Height of 625 metres.
1,200 residential units,
2,000 hotel rooms
3,000 retail outlets
21st Century - Future
Galle Face - Now
Galle Face - Then
Ancient Times
LOVAMAHAPAYA - Now
LOVAMAHAPAYA
(Brazen Palace, Anuradhapura)
Dutugamunu - 2nd Century BC
Timber structure supported
on stone columns
Height: 45.7 m (150 ft)
Storeys: 9
Ref: S de S. Wijesundera,
Construction Through the Ages,
IESL Centenary Commemoration
Publication, 2006
Proliferation of High Rise Buildings
High-rise buildings became possible with
the availability of:
• New Mechanical devices (lifts, cranes
etc.)
• Stronger building materials (HPC)
• Efficient structural systems (tubular)
• Powerful analysis techniques (FEA)
• Modern construction techniques (lift
slab, slip form)
Growth of Height of High-rises in USA
Problems With High Rise Buildings
High rise structures pose particular
design challenges for structural and
geotechnical engineers, particularly if
situated in a seismically active region.
High rise buildings also pose serious
challenges to firefighters during
emergencies and evacuations pose
significant problems.
Classification of High Rise Buildings
Classification of high rise buildings could be
based on certain engineering and systems
criteria which defines both physical as well
as design aspects of the building
Material:
Steel, concrete, composite
Load resisting system:
Gravity loads, Lateral loads
For the structural engineer, the most
important classification is based on the
lateral load resisting system
Weight of Steel in Tall Buildings
Classification Based on Lateral Load Resisting
Design of High Rise Buildings
In the design of high rise buildings against wind
and earthquake forces, the lowest natural
frequency (f1) or the highest natural period (T1 )
plays an important role.
According to the Australian Wind Code, if f1 < 1 Hz
(or T1 >1 s ) the structure is wind sensitive.
An approximation for T1 given in the Australian
Earthquake Code is:
T1 = h/46 seconds (AS1170.4-1993)
T1 = 1.25kth0.75 seconds (AS1170.4-2007)
where h is the total height of the structure in
metres, and kt depends on the type of the
structure (for concrete frame kt = 0.075).
Any structure subjected to periodic loads of
frequency f should not have natural frequencies
closer to f, to avoid resonance.
DYNAMIC ANALYSES AVAILABLE IN
COMPUTER PACKAGES
1. MODAL ANALYSIS
A modal analysis gives natural frequencies and
mode shapes of the building.
A modal analysis should be done before any
other dynamic analysis.
Usually modal analysis takes into account only the
mass due to self weight of the structure. Masses
due to superimposed dead loads (SDL) and live
loads (LL) have to be specifically applied if relevant.
(Normal practice is to take mass due to full SDL and
50% of LL)
2. TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS
Time history analysis is used to determine the
dynamic response of a structure to any time
dependent loading(Periodic, Transient, Seismic)
The full dynamic equation;
M D + C D + K D = F(t)
is solved in time history analysis, and the
variation of displacement, force/stress,
velocity, acceleration, etc. with time at
various locations can be found.
In seismic analysis, the motion given by the
accelerograph is directly applied to the base
of the building, in small increments of time.
3. RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD
In seismic analysis, if only the maximum values of
displacements and member forces are required, the
response spectrum method can be used, and it is
more economical to use than the time history
method.
This method gives recognition to many modes of
vibration of the building. It assumes that each mode
behaves as an equivalent independent 1DOF
system with a characteristic frequency. Since the
actual deflected shape is a combination of all modal
shapes, (higher modes to a lesser degree than
lower ones), the total response of the building to
ground motion can be obtained by superposition
using the acceleration response spectrum.
Hence the method is called the modal superposition
method, and is applicable to linear elastic analyses
only.
