APPENDIX 2. Formulas and Graphs for Wall-Frame and Core Structures: ‘A2.1. Formulas and Graphs for Deflections and Forces A2.1.1 Uniformly Distributed Horizontal Loading A212. Triangularly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2.1.3 Concentrated Horizontal Load at the Top Bibliography Index 502 502 502 (MME CHAPTER 1 Tall Buildings ‘This book is concerned with tll building structures. Tallness, however, isa rel- ‘ive matter, and tll buildings cannot be defined in specific tems related justo height orto the numberof floors. The taliness ofa building isa matter ofa person's or community's cicumstance and their consequent perception: therefore, a mea- surable definition of a tll building cannot be universally applied. From the struc- {ural engineer's point of view, however, a tall building may be defined as one that, trcause ofits eight, i affected by lateral forces due o wind or earthquake actions {o an extent that they play an important role inthe structural design. The influence ofthese actions must therefore be considered from the very beginning of the design process. 4.4. WHY TALL DUILDINS? Tall towers and buildings have fescinated mankind from the beginning of civilic zation, their construction being initially for defense and subsequertly for ecclesi- ‘stical purposes. The growth in modem tll building construction, however, which began in the 1880s, has been largely for commercial and residential purposes. ‘Tall commercial buildings are primarily a response to the demand by business activities to be as close to each other, and to the city center, as possible, thereby putting intense pressure on the available land space. Also, because they form dis- Linctive landmarks, tall commercial buildings are frequently developed in city cen= ters as prestige symbols for corporate organizations. Further, the business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility, has fuelled a need for more, fre= quently high-rise, city center hotel accommodations. ‘The rapid growth of the urban population and the consequent pressure on lim lied space have considerably influenced city residential development. The high cost of land, the desire 0 avoid 2 continuous urban sprawl, and the need to pre~ serve important agricultural production have all contributed to drive residential buildings upward. In some cites, for example, Hong Kong and Rio de Janeiro, local topographical restrictions make tall buildings the only feasible solution for housing needs.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH, HEIGHT, AND STRUCTURAL FORM The feasibility and desirability of high-rise structures have always depended on the available materials. the level of construction technology, and the state of de velopment of the services necessary for the use of the building, As a result, sig nificant advances have occurred from time to time with the advent of a new ma terial, construction facility. or form of service Multistory buildings were a feature of ancient Rome: four-story wooden tene- ‘ment buildings, of post and lintel construction. were common. Thase built after the great fire of Nero, however, used the new brick and concrete materials in the form of arch and barrel vault structures. Through the following centuries. the two basic construction materials were timber and masonry. The former lacked strength for buildings of more than about five stories, and always presented a fire hazard. The later had high compressive strength and fire resistance, but its weight tended to overload the lower suppons. With the rapidly increasing number of masonry high-rise buildings in North Americe toward the end of the nineteeath century, the limits ofthis form of construction became apparent in 1891 in the 16-story Mon: adnock Building in Chicago. With the space in its lower floors largely occupied by walls of over 2 m thick, it was the last tall building inthe city for which massive load-bearing masonry walls were employed. ‘The sociceconomic problems that followed industialization in the rineteenth cemiury, coupled with an increasing demand for space in the growing US. cities, created a strong impetus to tall building construction. Yet the ensuing growth could ‘ot have deen sustained without two major technical innovations thal occurred in the middle of that century: the development of higher strength and structurally ‘more efficient materials, wrought iron and subsequent stel, and the introduction of the elevator (cf. Fig. 1.1). Although the elevator had been developed some 20 years earlier, its potential in high-rise buildings was apparently not realized until is incorporation in the Equitable Life Insurance Building in New York in 1870. For the first time, this made the upper stories as attractive to rent as the lower ‘ones, and, consequently, made the taller building financially viable. ‘The new materials allowed the development of lightweight skeletal structures, permitting buildings of greater height and with larger interior open spaces and windows, although the early wrought-iron frame structures still employed loud- bearing masonry facade walls. The first high-rise building totally suppomted by a metal frame was the 11-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago in 1883, fol- lowed in 1889 by the first all-steel frame in the 9-story Rand-McNally Build ‘Two years later, in the same city, diagonal bracings were introduced in the facade frames of the 20-story Masonic Temple to form vertical trusses, the forenunnes of ‘modem shear wall and braced frame construction. It was by then appreciated that a that height wind forces were an important design consideration, Improved de sign methods and construction techniques allowed the maximum height of steel frame structures to increase steadily. reaching a height of 60 stories with the con struction of the Woolworth Building in New York in 1913. This golden age of a ee ee v00 ore stent | yaiied eettins i i © | I | 1 - | ! 5 i i! #4 Cast veonere | cnieaqo | i inert | é I : i | 20b ou’ elerator —————————— vei 8s 0 Fig 11 Growth in igh of the fist great er of American skyscraper, ‘American skyscraper construction culminated in 1931 in its crowning glory. the Enmpire State Building, whose 102-story braced steel frame reached a height of 1250 ft (381 m). ‘Although reinforced concrete construction began sround the tum of the century. itdoes not appear to have been used for multistory buildings until after the end of Worid War I. The inherent advantages of the composite material. which could be readily formed to simltanecusly satisfy both aesthetic and load-carrying require ments, were not then fully appreciated, and the early systems were purely imita- tions of their steel counterparts, Progress in reinforced concrete was slow and intermittent, and, at the time the steel-framed Empire State Building was com- pleted, the tallest conezete building, the Exchange Building in Seattle, had attained ‘height of only 23 stories. ‘The economic depression of the 1930s put an end to the great skyscraper era, and it was not until some years after the end of World War Il that the constriction ‘of high-rise buildings recommenced, with radically new structural and architec+ tural solutions, Rather than bringing significant increases in height, however, these ‘modem developments comprised new structural systems, improved material qual= ities and services, and better design and construction techniques. It was not until 1973 that the Empire State Building was eclipsed in height by the twin towers of the L10-story, 1350 fi (412 m) high World Trade Cemer in New York, using framed-tube construction, which was followed in 1974 by the 1450 ft (442 m) high bundied-tube Sears Tower in Chicago. Different structural systems have gradually evolved for residential and office buildings. reflecting their éiffeing functional requirements. In modem office buildings. the need to satisfy the differing requirements of individual clients foroor space arrangements led to the provision of large column-free open areas to allow fexibility in planning. Improved levels of services have frequently neces- sitated the devotion of entire floors to mechanical plant, but the spaces lost can often be utilized also to accommodate deep girders or trusses connecting the ex- teriorand interior strctural systems. The earlier heavy intemal partons and ma- sonry cladding, with their contributions to the reserve of stiffness and strength, have largely given way to light demountable partitions and glass curtain walls, forcing the basic stnicture alone to provide the required strength and stiffiacss against both vertical and lateral loads: Other architectural features of commercial buildings that have influenced struc tural form are the large entrances and open lobby areas at ground level, the mul- tistory atriums. and the high-level restaurants and viewing galleries that may re Quire more extensive elevaior systems and associated sky lobbies. ‘A residential building's basic functional requirement is the provision of self contained individual dwelling units. separsted by substantial partitions that provide adequate fire and acoustic insulation. Because the partitions are repeated from story to story, modem designs have utilized them in a structural capacity. leading to the shear wall, cross wall, or infilled-frame forms of construction. ‘The trends to exposed structure and architectural cutouts. and the provision of setbacks at the upper levels to meet daylight requirements, have also been features of modem architecture. The requirement to provide adequately stiff and strong structures, while accommodating these various features, led to radical develop- ‘ments in structural framing, and inspired the new generation of braced frames. framed-tube and hull-core structures. wall-frame systems. and outrigger-braced structures described in Chapter 4. The latest generation of “*postmodem’” build- ings, with theit even more varied and iregular extemal architectural treatment, has led to hybrid double and sometimes triple combinations of the structural monoforms used for modem buildings. Speed of erection is vital fector in obtaining a retum on the investment in- Volved in such large-scale projects. Most tall buildings are constructed in con- gested city sites, with difficult access; therefore careful planning and organization of the construction sequence become essential. The story-to-siory uniformity of ‘most muitisiory buildings encourages construction throvgh repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques. Progress in the ability to build tall has gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of construction, such as slip- and flying-formwork, concrete pumping. and the use of tower. climbing, and large mobile cranes. 1.3. THE TALL BUILDING STRUCTURE Ideally, inthe early stages of planning a building, the entire design team, including ‘he architect, structural engineer, nd services engineer, should collaborate to agree on a form of structure to satisfy their respective requiremests of function, safety and serviceability, and servicing. A compromise between conflicting demands will SO ee be almost inevitable. In all but the very tallest structures, however. the structural arrangement will be sabservient tothe architectural requirements of space arrange: ment and aesthetics. Often, this will lead to a less-than-ideal structural solution that will tax the ingenuity. and probably the patience. of the strictural engineer, ‘The two primary types of vertical load-resisting elements of tall buildings are solumas and walls, the lattr acting either independently as shear walls or in as: seinblies as shear wall cores. The building function will lead naturally to the pro: Aision of walls to divide end enclose space, and of cores to contain and convey services such as elevators. Columns will be provided, in otherwise unsupported fegions, to transmit gravity loods and, in some types of structure, horizontal loads also. Columas may also serve architecturally as, for example, facade mllions, ‘The inevitable primary function ofthe structural elements isto resis the gravity loading from the weight of the building and its contents. Since the loading on Aifferent floors tends to be similar. the weight of the floor system per unit floor atea is approximately constznt, regardless ofthe building height. Because the grav- ity load on the columns increases down the height of a building, the weight of columns per unit area increases approximately linearly with the building height. The highly probable second function of the vertical structural elements is to resist also the parasitic load caused by wind and possibly earthquakes. whose mag- titles will be obtained from National Building Codes or wind tunnel studies, The tending moments on the building caused by these lateral forces inerease with at least the square of the height, ard their effects will become progressively more ‘important as the building height increases. On the basis of the factors above. the relative quantities of material required in the floors. columns. and wind bracing af ‘traditional steel frame and the penalty on these due to increasing height are ap: proximately as illustrated in Fig. 4.1 Because the worst possitle effects of lateral forces occur rarely. ifever. in the life of the building, it is imperative to minimize the penalty for height to achieve fn optimum design. The constant search for more efficient solutions led 10 the innovative designs and new structural forms of recent years (cf. Chapter 4). In developing a suitable system for resisting lateral forces, the engineer seeks to de~ Vise stiff horizontal interconnections between the various Vertical components 10 form composite assemblies such as coupled walls and rigid frames, which, as dem- ‘onstrated in later chapters, create a total structural assembly having a lateral stiff ‘ess many times greater than the sum of the lateral stffaesses of the individual vertical components. 1.3.1, The Design Process Once the functional layout of the structure has been decided, the design process generally follows a well-defined iterative procedure. Preliminary calculations for member sizes are usually based on gravity loading augmented by an arbitrary in- ¢rement to aczount for wind forces. The cross-sectional areas of the vertical mem- bers will be based on the accumulated loadings from their associated tributary areas, with reductions to account for the probability that not all floors will besubjected simultaneously to their maximum live leading, ‘The intial sizes of beams ‘and slabs are normally based on moments and shears obtained from some simple ‘method of gravity load analysis. such as two-cycle moment distibution, or from ‘codified mid- and end-span values, A check is then made on the maximum horizontal deflection, and the forces in the major structural members, using some rapid approximate analysis technique. Ifthe deflection is excessive, or some of the members are inadequate, adjustments ‘are made 10 the member sizes or the structural arrangement. If certain members attract excessive loads, the engineer may reduce their stifiness to redistribute the toad to less heavily stressed components. The procedure of preliminary analysis checking. and adjustment is repeated until a satisfactory solution is obiained. Invariably. alterations to the initial layout of the building will be required as the client's and architect's ideas of the building evolve. This will call for siructural ‘modifications, or perhaps a radical rearrangement, which necessitates a complete review of the structural design. The various preliminary stages may therefore have to be repeated a number of times before a final solution is reached A rigorous final analysis, using a more refined analytical model, will then be ‘made to provide a final check on deflections and member strengths. This will usu ally include the second-order effects of gravity loads on the lateral deflections and member forces (P-Delta effects). A dynemic analysis may also be required if. as a result of wind loading. there is any likelihood of excessive deflections duc © oscillations or of comfort criteria being exceeded, or if earthquake loading has 1© be considered. At some stage in the procedure the deleterious effects of differential movements due to creep. shrinkage. or temperature differentiale sill also be checked. Inthe design process. a thorough knowledge of high-rise structural components and their modes of behavior is a prerequisite to devising an appropriate load-re sisting system. Such a system must be efficient. economic, and should minimize the structural peralty for height while maximizing the satisfaction of the basic serviceability requirements. With the increasing availability of general-purpose structural analysis programs. the formation of a concise and properly represent tive model has become an important part of tall building analysis: this also requires a fundamental knowledge of structural behavior. Modeling for analysis is ‘cussed in Chapter 5. 1.4 PHILOSOPHY, SCOPE, AND CONTENT The iterative design process described above involves different levels of structural analysis, ranging from relatively crude and approximate techniques for the prelim- inary stages to sophisticated and accurate methods for the final check. The major pam of this book is devoted therefore to a discussion and comparison of the dif ferent practical methods of analysis developed for the range of structural forms encountered in tall buildings. The emphasis throughout is on methods particular to tall building structures, with less importance placed on methods for general 18 RABONBOETAE 7 Hiruetural analysis, which are treated comprchensively in other texts. It is thus assumed thatthe reader is already familiar with the fundamentals of the stiffness ‘matsix method and the finite element method of analysis, ‘The methods of analysis presented are, almost without exception, static, and assume linear elasiic behavior of the structure. Although wind and earthquake forees are transient in nature, itis reasonable and practical to represent them inthe majority of design situations by equivalent static foree distributions, as described In Chapter 3. Although recognizing that concrete and masonry behave in a nonlin= fear manner, 2 linear elastic analysis is still the most important tool for deciding a {ull busiding’s structural design. Techniques do exist forthe prediction of inelastic behavior, but they are not yet sufficiently well developed to be appropriate for lindertaking 2 detailed analysis of a highly indeterminate tall building structure, ‘The main emphasis of static linear analysis is applied to both components and ‘assemblies found in tall buildings, ranging from the primary rigid frames, braced tnd inflled frames, and shear walls. to the more efficient composite systems that include coupled shear walls, wall-frame and framed-tube structures, shear wall ores, and ourigger-braced structures. Methods suitable for both preliminary and final analyses are described and, Where appropriatc. deiailed worked examples are given to illustrate the steps in Yolved. Although compuier-bascd matrix technigues form the most versatile and. ‘ecurate methods for practical structural analysis, attention is also devoted (0 the ‘more limited and approximate continuum techniques. These serve well to provide 449 understanding of siructural behavior and their generalized solutions indicate ore clearly and repidly the influcnee of changes in suntwial parameters, Such fn understanding can be valuable in selecting « suitable model for computer anal- ysis. The book concludes with a series of Appendices that include useful design ormulss and charts, and a selective Bibliography of significant references to the subject matter ofthe various chapters. Itis impracticable to deal comprebensively in a single volume with all aspects ‘of tall building structures. Important associated topics. therefore, including foun- dation systems, the detailed treatment of wind and earthtake forces and the as- sociated dynamic structural analysis, and construction procedures, which form ma jor subjects in their own right, have had to be omitted. For a general discussion (on all aspects of tall buildings. architectural, social. and technical, the reader is referred to the Reports and Proceedings ofthe Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, particularly the five-volume series of definitive Monographs [1.1] 1.5 RAISONS D'ETRE The authors believe that a book devoted tothe analysis ané design of tall building strictures is mented on a numter of counts. During the lat few decades a lange body of knowledge on the subject has scenved from an intensive worldwide te- search effort. The pace of this research has now abated, but the wesuls are widely dispersed and stil onerally available only in research journals. Many of the anal-{ysis techniques that have been developed are virtually unique (otal buildings, and they form the foundations of an academic discipline that has required the research results 10 be digested, consolidated, and recorded in a coherent and unified form. Meanwhile high-rise construction continues apace, and there is a continuous de- ‘mand for information from engineers involved in high-rise design, while structural engineering gradvate students are enrolled in courses and conducting further re- search on tall building structures. This text is aimed to be of value to both the design office and those in the clastroom or laboratory. ‘The object of the book is therefore to offer a coherent and unified treatment of the subject analysis and design of high-rise building structures, for practicing struc- tural enginesrs concerned with the design of tall buildings, and for senior under- graduate and postgraduste structural engineering students, REFERENCE 1.1 Monograph on Planning and Desien of Tall Buildings. Vols. CB. CL. PC. SB. and SC. ASCE, 1980. = CHAPTER 2 ‘Design Criteria ‘Tall buildings are designed primarily to serve the needs of an intended occupancy. whether residential, commercial, or, in some eases, @ combinstion of the two. The Mominant design requiremen is therefore the provision of an appropriate internal layout for the building. At the same time, itis essential forthe arc the client's expectations conceming the aesthetic qualities of the building's exte~ Nior. The main design criteria are, therefore, architectural, and it is within these Hat the engineer is usually constrained 1o fit bis structure. Only in exceptionally {all buildings will structural requirements become a predominant consideration, ‘The basic layout will be contained within a structural mesh that must be mini= ‘mally obtrusive to the functional requirements of the building. Simultaneously, there must be an integration ofthe building structure with the various service sys fems—heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, water supply and waste disposal, electrical supply, and vertical ransportation—which are extensive and complex, land constitute a major part ot the cost of a tall building, Once the functional layout has been established. the engineer must develop a ructural system that will satisfy established design criteria as efficiently and eco- Homically as possibie, white Atting into the architectural layout. The vital srdc- tural criteria are an adequate reserve of strength against failure, adequate lateral stiffness, and an efficient performance during the service life ofthe building. ‘This chapter provides a brief description of the important criteria that must be ‘considered in the structural design of a tall building. Most of the principles of structural design apply equally to low-rise as to high-rise buildings, and therefore, for brevity, special attention is devoted to only those aspects that have particular consequences for the designers of high-rise buildings. 2.1. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY Chapter 1 described how radical changes in the structural form of tall buildings ‘occurred in the construction period that followed World War II. Over the same Period, a major shift occurred in design philosophy, and the Code formats have progressed from the earlier working stressor ultimate strength deterministic bases fo modem more generally accepted probabilty-based approaches. The probabilis- tic approach for both structural properties and loading conditions has led to the 9limit sates design philosophy, which is now almost universally accepted, The aim Of this approach is t enstre that all structures and ther constituent components are designed to resist with reasonable safety the wor loads and deformations that ar Hiable to occur during construction and serve, and to have adequate durability ducing thee lifetime. ‘The entire structure, or any part of it, is considered as having “failed’™ when itreaches any one of vaious “limit states." when it no longer meets the prescribed limiting design conditions. Two fundamental types of limit state mast be cons ‘ered: (1) the ultimate limit states corresponding to the loads to cause failure, cluding instability: since events associated with collapse would be catastrophic, ‘endangering lives and causing serious financial losses. the probability of failure ‘must be very low; and (2) the serviceability limit states. which involve the criteria ‘goveming the service life of the building. and which. because the consequences of ther failure would not be catastrophic. are permitted 4 much higher probability of occurrence. These are concerned with the fitness of the building for normal use rather than safety, and are of less ertical importance A particular limit tate may be reached asa result ofan adverse combination of random effects. Partial safety factors are employed for different conditions that ‘reflect the probability of certain occurrences or circumstances of the structure and loading existing. The implicit objective ofthe design calculations is then to ensure that the probability of any particular limit state being reached is maintained below an accepiable vale for the type of structure concemed. ; The following sections consider the criteria that apply in particular tothe design of tall buildings. 2.2 LOADING ‘The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both permanent and transient, that it will be called on to sustain during its construction and subsequent service life, These forces will depend on the size and shape of the building, as well as on its geographic location, and maximum probable values must be established before the design can proceed. The probable accuracy of estimating the dead and live loads, and the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of different combinations of gravity loading. both deed and live. with either wind or earthquake forces, is included in limit states design through the use of prescribed factors. The load systems that must be considered are described in Chapter 3. 2.2.1 Sequential Leading For loads that are applied after completion of the building, such as live, wind, or seismic loading, the analysis is independent of the construction sequence. For dead loads, however, which are applied to the building frame as construction proceeds. the effects of sequemtial loading should be considered to assess the worst conditions to which any component may be subjected, and also to determine the true behavior of the frame. (EA BIWENESS ANDORETLIMTATIONS «11 {In multistory reinforced concrete construction, the usual practice isto shore the {freshly placed floor on several previously cast floors. The construction loads in the Supporting floors duc wo the weight ofthe wet concrete and formwork may appre- clably execed the loads under service conditions. Such loads depend on the s€- ‘quence and rate of erection {fcolumn axial deformations are calculated as though the dead foads are applied to the completed structure, bending moments in the horizontal components Will fesult from any differential column shortening that is shown to result. Because of the cumulative effects over the height ofthe building, the effects are greater in the highest levels of the building. However, the effects of such differential movernents Would be greatly overestimated because in reality, during the Construction s¢- uence. a panicular horizontal member is constructed on columns in Which the Initial axial deformations due to the dead weight of the structure up to that panics tla level have already taken place. The deformations of that paticular foot will then be caused by the loads thai are applied subsequent to its construction, Such sequential effects must be considered if an accurate assessment of the structural factions due to dead loads is to be achieved. 2.3 STRENGTH AND STABILITY For the ultimate limit state. the prime design requirement is that the building strue- lure should have adequate strength to resist, and to remain stable under, the worst Drobable losd action that may arcur during the lifetime ofthe building, including the petiod of construction. This requires an analysis of the forces and stresses that will oesur bets as a result of the most critical possible load combi ‘mented moments that may arise from second-order additional deflections (P-Delta effects) (cf. Chapter 16}. An adequate reserve of strength, using preseribed load factors, must be present. Particular attention must be paid to critical members, hose failure could prove catastiophic in initiating a progressive collapse of pant of or the entire building. Any additional stresses caused by restrained differential movements due to creep, shrinkage, or temperature must be included (cf. Chapter 18) In addition, a check must be made on the most fundamental condition of eq Librium, to establish that the applied lateral forces will not cause the entire building {© topple as a ngid body about one edge of the base. Taking moments about thal clge. the resisting moment of the dead weight ofthe building must be greater than ‘he overturning moment for stability by an acceptable factor of safety the mem- ions, including the aug- 2.4 STIFFNESS AND DRIFT LIMITATIONS ‘The provision of adequate stiffness, particularly lateral stiffness, is a major con sideration in the design of a tall building for several important reasons. As far as ‘he ultimate limit state is concerned, lateral deflections must be limited to preventsecond-order P-Delta effects due 10 gravity loading being of such a magnitude as to precipitate collapse. In tems of the serviceability limit states, deflections must first be maintained at a sufficiently low level to allow the proper functioniag of nonsiructural components such as elevators and doors: second. to avoid distress in the structure, (0 prevent excessive cracking and consequent loss of stiffness. and toavoid any redistribution of load to non-load-bearing partitions. infils, cladding, or glazing: and third, the stricture must be sufficiently stiff to prevent éynamic ‘motions becoming large enough to cause discomfort to occupants, prevent delicate work being undertaken, or affect sensitive equipment. Infact itis in the particular need for concem for the provision of lateral stiffness thatthe design ofa high-rise building largely departs from that of a low-rise building. One simple parameter that affords an estimate of the lateral stiffness ofa build- ing is the drift inden, defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection at the top of ‘the building to the total height. In addition, the corresponding valve for a single story height, the intersiony drift index, gives a measure of possible localized ex- cessive deformation. The control of lateral deflections is of particular importance for modem builcings in which the traditional reserves of stifiness due to heavy internal panitions and outer cladding have largely disappeared. It must be sressed, however, that even if the dnift index is kept within traditionally accepted limits, such as sip, it does not necessarily follow that the dynamic comfon criteria wil also be satisfactory, Problems may anise, for example, if there is coupling between bending and torsional oscillations that leads to unacceptable complex motions oF ‘accelerations. In addition to staic deflection calculations, the question of the dy- namic response, involving the lateral acceleration, amplitude, and period of osci nay aby have w be evsidered, ‘The establishment of a drift index limit is a major design deci:ion, but, unfor- tunately, there are no unambiguous or widely acczpted values, or even, in some of the National Codes concemed, any firm guidance. The designer is then faced ‘with having to decide on an appropriate value. The figure adopted will reficc the building usage, the type of design criterion employed (For example, working or tukimate load conditions), the form of construction, the materials employed, in- cluding any substantial infills or claddings, the wind loads considered, and, in Particular, past experience of similar buildings that have performed satisfactorily Design drift index limits that have been used in different countries range from 0.001 to 0.005. To put this in perspective, a maximum horizontal top deflection ‘of between 0.! and 0.5 m (6 to 20 in.) would be allowed in a 33-story, 100-m (330-f.) high building, or, alternatively, a relative deflection of 3 to 15 mm (0.12 10.0.6 in.) over a story height of 3 m(10 fi). Generally, lower values should be used for hotels or apanment buildings than for office buildings, since noise and movement end to be more disturbing in the former. Consideration may be given to whether the stiffening effects of any internal panitions infill, or claddings are included in the deflection calculations. ‘The consideration ofthis limit state requires an accurate estimate of the lateral deflections that occur, and involves an assessment of the stifiness of cracked ment- bers, the effecis of shrinkage and creep and any redistribution of forces that may —e— rc eee ‘osu, and of any rotational foundation movement, tn he desiga process, the Sif ‘ness of joints, particularly in precast or prefabricated structures, must be given special attention to develop adequate lateral stiffness ofthe structure and wo prevent any possible progressive failure. ‘The possibility of torsional deformations musi 101 be overlooked In practice, non-toad-bearing infill, partitions, external wall panels, and win- dow glazing should be designed with sufficient clearance or with flexible supports 1p accommodate the ealculsted movements Sound engineering judgment is required when deciding on the drift index limit tobe imposed. However. for conventional stares, the prefered acceptable rae 1s 0.0015 to 0.003 (that is. approximately cl to slo) and sufficiert stiffness must the provided to ensure that the top deflection does not exceed this value under extreme load conditions. As the height of the building increases, drift index eaef- ficients should be decreased to the lower end of the range to keep the top story Weflection to a suitably low level. Succeeding chapters describe how deflections may be computed. ‘The drift criteria apply essentially to quasistatic conditons. Whea extreme force ‘conditions are possible, or where problems involving vortex shedding or other Unusual phenomena may occur, a more sophisticated approach involving a dy- tami analysis may be required. If excessive, the drift of a structure can be reduced by changing the geometric coniiguration 10 alter the mode of lateral load resistance, increasing the bending ‘stiffness of the horizontal members, adding additional stiffness by the inclusion of stiffer wall or core members, achieving stiffer connections. and even by sloping the exterior columns. In extreme circumstances, it may be necessary to add dam- pers, which may be of the passive ot active type 2.5 HUMAN COMFORT CRITERIA fa tall flexible structure is subjected to lateral or torsional deflections under the action of fluctuating wind loads, the resulting oscillatory movements can incuce & wide range of responses in the building’s occupants, ranging from mild discomfort to acute nausea. Motions that have psychological or physiological effects on the ‘occupants may thus result in an otherwise acceptable structure becoming an un- desirable or even unrentable building, ‘There are as yet no universally zecepted international standards for comfort criteria, although they are under consideration, and engineers must base their de~ sign criteria on an assessment of published data. It is generally agreed that accel- eration is the predominant parameter in determining human response to vibrat but other factors such as period, amplitude, body orientation, visual and acoustic cues, and even past experience can be influential. Threshold curves are available that give various limits for human behavior, ranging from motion perception through work difficalty to ambulatory limits, in terms of acceleration and peried.‘A dynamic analysis is then required 10 allow the predicted response of the building to be compared with the threshold limits ‘The questions of human response (9 motion, comfor criteria, und their influ. ence on structural design are considered in Chapter 17. 2.6 CREEP, SHRINKAGE, AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS {In very ull concrete buildings. the cumulative vertical movements dus to creep and sbrinkage may be sufficiently large to cause distress in nonstructural element snd to induce significant structural actons in the horizontal elements. especially in the upper regions of the building. In assessing these long-term deformations. the influence of number of significa factors must be considered, particularly the conerete properties, the loading history and age of the concrete at load appli- cation, and the volume-surface ratio and amount of reinforcement in the members pends on the ductility of the type and material of the structure, the possibility of fhilure of the vertical load system, the degree of redundancy of the system that \would allow some localized failures without overs failure, and the ability of the secondary system, in the case of dual systems, 10 stabilize the building When the primary system suffers significant damage. ‘The factor W'is normally the total dead load of the building. ‘The value of V from Eq. (3.3) gives the magnitude of the total base shear that rust be distributed over the height of the structure for the equivalent static anal ysis Distribution of Total Base Shear. Having determined a valve for the total base shear itis necessary, in order to proceed with the analysis, to allocate the base shear as effective horizontal loads at the various floor leve's. In deciding on ‘an appropriate distribution for the horizontal load the following factors are consid- cred,1. The effective toad ata loor level isequal to the product of the mass assigned {0 that floor and the horizontal acceleration at that level ‘The maximum acceleration at any level of the structure in the fundamental mode is proportional to its horizontal displacement in that mode, 3. The fundamental mode for a regular structure, consisting of shear walls and frames, is approximately linear from the base. A reasonable distribution ofthe tou! base shear V throughout the height would be im aocondance witha linear acceleration distribution, as given by wi Zw Rey (3.5) ‘where ; and w, are those portions of W assigned te levels / and x, respectively: that is, the weight at or adjacent to levels /and.x, and assigned to those levels for the purpose of the analysis. For structures whose weight is distibuted uniformly over their height the hor ‘zontal load distribution resulting from Eq. (3.5) forms atriangle, with s maximum, value at the top. Such a distribution has been found to be appropriate for buildings of relatively stocky proportions where only the fundamental mode is significant. In more slender. longer period buildings. however, higher modes become signif icant, casing a greater propnrtinn of the total horizontal inertia forces to act near the top: the intensity ofthis effect is related to the period ofthe building. Conse- ‘quently. ths is reflected in the UBC (3.2), and in other Codes. by applying a part ‘of the total loading as a concentrated horizontal force F, at the top of the building. ‘The remainder of the total base shear is then distributed over the height of the building as an inverted triangle. Torsion in any story of the building is prescribed in the UBC [3.2]. to be taken as the product of the story shear and an eccentricity resulting from the addition of a calculated eccentricity ofthe mass above, from the center of rigidity of the story. and an accidental eccertrcity of 5% ofthe plan dimension of the building perpen- dicular to the direction of the force being considered. If torsional iregularites eist, the accidental eccentricity isto be increased by an amplification factor re- lating the maximum story drift at one end of the structure to the average of the story drifts ofthe two ends of the structure. Explanatory material and related technical information useful to the designer in the application of the cesign procedure for this equivalent static approach is pro- ‘vided in the tentative commentary of the 1988 earthquake code of the Structural Engineers Association of California (3.12). ‘The Applied Technology Council (ATC) produced a report in 1978 with sec- fond printing in 1984, Tentative Provisions jor the Development of Seismic Regu laiions for Buildings, ATC 3-06 Amended {3.13}, for the consideration of building authorities across the United States. Its recommendations indicate the likely de ee velopment in the equivalent lateral force procedures of the major Codes. Details in the approach of the ATC 3-06 have been reviewed by Berg [3.14]. Many of the ATC’ provisions have been used by SEAOC, and consequently the Intemational Conference of Building Officials, ay well as the National Research Council of Canada, as key resource documents to develop their new code editions, Recom= mended Lateral Force Requirements and Tenuative Commentary (3.12), Uniform Building Code [3.2], ané National Building Code of Canada (3.7, 3.8}, respec= tively. 3.3.2. Modal Analysis Procedure “The equivalent static load type of analysis is suitable for the majority of hi siructures. If, however, either the lateral load resisting clements or the vertical cistibution of mass are significantly integular over the height of the building, as in buildings with large foor-to-floor variations of ioternel configuration, or with setbacks, an analysis that takes greater consideration of the dynamic characterst of the building must be made. Usually. in such cases, a modal analysis would be sppropriate ‘A detailed explanation of the theory and procedure of modal analysis is given in Chapter 17 and in other texts [3.15, 3.16]. Reviewing the method briefly, how= ever, in a modal analysis a lumped mass mode! of the building with horizontal degrees of freedom at each floor is analyzed to determine the modal shapes and modal frequencies of vibration. The results are then used in conjunction with an earthquake decign response spectrum, and estimates of the modal damping. 10. determine the probable maximum response of the stmcture from the combined: effect of its various modes of oscillation Buildings in which the mass at the floor levels is highly eccentric from the corresponding centers of resistance will be subjected to torque. causing the pos- ¥ Of significant torsional vibrations and of coupling between the lateral and torsional mode. The modal method can also be applied to the analysis of such a building, by adding to the structural model a third, rotational, degree of freedom. st each floor level ‘The modal method is applicable, in the strictest sense, only 10 linear elastic systems. Consequently, the results for a building structure's response are, at best, only an epproximate estimate, because of its typically being designed to suffer significant inclasti: deformations in only moderate earthquakes. More accurate valves of response may be obtained for some buildings by the modal analysis method, using modified design response specira for inelastic systems [3.16]. 3.4 COMBINATIONS OF LOADING Methods of accounting for load combinations and their effects on the design of members vary according to the Code used and to the design philosophy. The com- bination of dead and live loading with reductions inthe live loading to allow forthe improbability of fully louded tributary areas, and considering paitemed tive leading for the worst effects, have already been discussed, ‘The approaches to combinations of loading by two non American Codes, the Uniform Building Code (3.2) and the National Building Code of Canada (3.7). will be referred to as representative of many of the major building Codes. 3.4.1 Working Stress Design ‘The UBC and NBCC both assume that wind and earthguoke louling need not be taken to act simultaneously. The UBC considers the improbability of extreme grav- ity and wind, or earthquake, loadings acting simultaneously by allowing for the combination 2 one-third increase in the permissible working stresses. which is equivalent to a 25% reduction in the sum of the gravity and wind. or earthquake. loading, The NBCC approach to allowing for the improbability ofthe loads acting simul- taneously is to apply a reduction factor to the combined loads rather than (0 allow an increase in the permissible stresses, with greater reductions for the greater num- ber of load types combined, 3.4.2 Limit States Design Im limit states design, the adequacy of the building and its members is checked aaguinst factored loads in order to satisfy the various safety and serviceability limit slates. ‘The UBC requires thatthe strength must be able to resist the actions resulting from the combination of the individually factored dead and live loads, where the Youd factors take into account the variability of the load and load pattems. Ifa wind load or earthquake load is tobe included, a reduction factor is applied tw the combination of the individually factored joads to allow for the improbability ‘ofthe maximum values of the wind or earthquake, and other live loads occurring simukaneously. In the NBC, three factors are required to account for combinations of loading in limit states design: a load factor, which accounts for the variability of the loads as before; a load combination factor, which is applied to loads other than dead loads and accounts for the improbability of their extreme values acting simulta neously; and an importance factor, which allows a reduction where collapse isnot likely to have serious consequences Inboth the UBC and the NBCC the strength requirement is satisfied by ensuring that the factored resistance of the members is not less tha the corresponding ac- tions caused by the factored loads. 3.4.3 Plastic Design In buildings in which plastic design is used for parts or the whole of the stes! framed stricture, available methods of analysis are based on proportional cystems of loading, that is load combinations in which increasing tosds maintain their rel ative magnitudes. Consequently, all the loads within a combination are given the same load factor. SUMMARY Loading on high-rise buildings differs from loading on low-rise buildings mainly in its accumulation over the height to cause very large gravity and lateral load forees within the structure. In buildings that are exceptionaly slender or flexible, the building dynamics can also become imponant in influencing the effective load. ing. Gravity loading consists of dead loading. which can be predicted reasonably sccurately. and live loading, whose magnitudes are estimates based on experience tnd field surveys. and which are predictable with much less accuracy. The prob Ability of net all pars of a floor supported by a beam. and of not all floors sup: poned by a column, being subjected to the full live loading simultaneously, provided for by reductions in the beam loading and in the eclumn loading, re: spectively, in accordance with various formulas. Its sometimes necessary to con: sider also the effects of construction loads, Wind loading becomes significant for buildings over about 10 siories high. and ogressively more so with increasing height. For buildings that are not very tall or slender, the wind loading may be estimated by 2 static method. Modem static ‘methods of determining « design wind loading account for the region ofthe Country where the building is to be located. the exposure of the particular location. the effects of gusting, and the importance of the building in a postwindstorm situation For exceptionally tall. slender. or flexible buildings, itis recommended that & Wind tunel test on a model is made to estimate the wind loading. Boundary layer Wind tunnels, which simulate the variation of wind speed with height, and the sting are used for this purpose. For buildings that do not quite fal into the category that demands a wind tunnel ‘esi, or for those that are in that category but whose budget does not allow such a test, dynamic methods of calculating the wind lead have been developed. Earthquake loading is a result of the dynamic response of the building to the shaking of the ground. Estimates of the loading account for the properties of the tnvcture and the record of earthquakes in the region, For unexceptionally high buildings with unexceptional structural arrangements an equivalent lateral force ‘method is recommended. In this, the loading is estimated on the basis of a simple approximation forthe structure's fundamental period its dead loud, the anticipated stond acceleration oF velecity, and other factors relating to the sol site cond tions, structure type and the importance of its use. The method gives the value of the maximum horizontal base shear, which is then distributed as an equivalent lateral load over the height of the building s0 that a static analysis can, be per formedIfthe building is exceptionally tall, or iregular in its struciure or its mass dis- {nbution. a modal analysis procedure is recommended for estimating the earth- quake loading. The modal shapes and frequencies of vibration are analyzed: these ‘are used in conjunction with an earthquake design response spectrum and estimates of the modal damping to determine the probable maximum responses. The modal ‘method can also allow for the simultanecus torsional oscillation of the building. Methods of combining types of loading vary according to the design method and the Code of Practice concemed. Although dead load is considered to act in full all the time, live leads do not necessarily do so. The probability of the full gravity live loading acting with either the full wind, earthquike. or temperature loading is low. and of all of them acting together is even lower. This is reflected in the Codes by applying a greater reduction factor to those combinations incor- Porating more different types of loading. Wind and earthquakes are assumed never {0 act simultaneously REFERENCES 3.1. Talt Building Criteria and Loading. Monograph on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Vel. CL, ASCE, New York, 1980, 3.2 Uniform Building Code, 1988, Inerrational Conference of Building Officials, Whit tier, California, 3.3 Cook, N. J. The Designer's Guide 1o Wind Loading of Building Structures, Part} Building Research Establishment Repon., Butterworths. London. 1985. 3.4 Simiu, E. and Scanlan, R. H. Wind Effects on Structures, 2nd ed.. Wiley Inersci ‘ence, New York, 1986, 3.5, Davenport A. G. “Gust leading factors," J. Sruet, Div., Proc. AS.C.E. 93, June 1967, 12-34, 3.6 Simis, E. “Equivalent static wind leads for tall building design," J. Struct. Div. Proc. A.S.C.E. W02, April 1976, 719-737, 3.7 Nationot Building Code of Canada, 1990, National Research Council of Canada, Owawa, Canada. 3.8 Supplemen: to the National Building Code of Canada, 1990. Ni ‘Council of Canada, Ortawa, Canada, 39° The BOCA Baste Building Code—1990, Building Officials and Code Adminisrators iemational. Homewood, Hliols, 3.10. The National Building Code—1976, American Insurance Association, New York 3.11 Sandard Building Code, 1988 Eltion, Souhem Building Code Congress Interaa- tional, Birmingham, Alabama. 312 Recommended Lateral Force Requirements end Commentary, Seismology Commit- tee, Structural Engineers Association of California, 1988 3.13. Tentative Provisions for dhe Development of Seismic Regulations for Buildings, ATC 4-06 Amended. Applied Technology Council, National Bureau of Standards, Wash: ington. D.C., 1984 I Research S14 Bmp. G. V. Seismic Design Codes and Procedures, Eanbquake Engineering Re- search Institute, Berkeley, California, 1982, 3S Clough, R. W. and Penzien, 1. Dynamics of Sructures, McGraw: Hill, New York, 1975, 3.16 Newmark, NM. and Hall. W. J. Earthquake Spectra and Design, Eantbquake En- sneering Research Insitute. Berkeley. California, 1982.