An Introduction to Condensate Polishing

Condensate Polishing – A Preventative Approach

Condensate polishing is an important part of water treatment for any utility or industrial power generating system. This
includes power generating facilities using once-through steam generators (OTSG), critical and supercritical steam
generators, nuclear-fueled boiling water reactors (BWR) and pressurized water reactors (PWR).
Figure 1 is a block diagram of a typical steam-condensate loop. As shown in this diagram, steam from the boiler passes
through a series of turbines and expends most of its’ energy. The low-pressure steam is then condensed in a heat
exchanger system where it is recovered in hotwells and routed to storage tanks. This condensed water or “condensate” is
then recycled to the boiler and converted back into steam. The continuous cycling or re-circulation of the steam and
condensate is commonly referred to as the steam-condensate loop or steam-condensate cycle. Recovering and recycling
the return condensate stream is an obvious way to significantly reduce the cost of operation.
Within this cycle, some water is lost due to leaks and boiler blowdown, so a continuous make-up water source is required to
maintain the total energy within the cycle. A local river, lake or well is used as the source for make-up water. In order to
maintain a feedwater stream with a low level of dissolved solids the raw water is demineralized using ion exchange (IX)
resins, reverse osmosis (RO) membranes or a combination thereof. In some cases, demineralization of the make-up water
is accomplished via evaporation. Regardless of the technology, the operation is commonly referred to as the “make-up water
demineralizer” system. In most cases, the make-up water is injected into the condenser hotwells or storage tanks.
The boiler make-up water is only one determinant of feedwater purity, the other being the condensate return stream. In fact,
condensate purity is of greatest concern in high-pressure utility units, where condensate represents the bulk of boiler
feedwater, making it the major potential source of contaminant introduction. To this end, purification or “polishing” of the
return condensate is an essential ingredient to guarantee a high quality feedwater stream to the downstream boiler.

The Role of Ion Exchange in Condensate Polishing

The role of ion exchange technology is fundamental to condensate polishing. And condensate polishing is a unique
application for ion exchange resins. Unlike treatment of make-up water, the condensate polishing system must deal
principally with impurities that arise inside the steam system itself, rather than those that figure in the raw water analysis.
These include a return condensate stream with a limitless inventory of impurities – solid, gel-like, and dissolved. These
impurities originate from a host of sources, such as vacuum-induced leaks, corrosion of metal surfaces and careless repair
work. Under normal conditions the raw condensate is considered high quality with respect to dissolved contaminants,
however, corrosion products are picked up as the steam and condensed water pass through piping, heat exchangers and
other associated equipment in the steam-condensate loop. A far more serious threat is the inleakage of dissolved
contaminants that occurs when cooling water in the condenser system leaks into the condensate stream. For these reasons,
condensate polishing is an operation that cannot be taken casually or ignored.

Figure 1. Typical Steam Turbine Loop

 Saturated
Steam
▼

▼ ▼ ▼
▼
HP IP LP
▲ Turbine Turbine Turbine
Blowdown
▼
▲
Economizer ▼
Condenser Cooling Water
Reheat Steam

▲
▲
Boiler Hotwell
Make-Up

▲
▲
Demineralization
Water System
▼
Deaerator ▼
L-P Heaters Condensate
Storage Raw Water
▲

▲
▼

▲
H-P Heaters Condensate
▼ ▼
▼ Polishers
▲
▲

▼ ▼
Another aspect of condensate polishing is high flow rate design, because full-flow polishing of the large flows of condensate
may be necessary. In addition, water temperatures are often high and in some systems can approach the temperature limits
of the resins.
The original designs for condensate polisher systems incorporated two approaches: 1) the use of deep beds of bead type ion
exchange resins, and 2) the use of powdered ion exchange resin presented as a precoat on a filter element. A more recent
development is the combination of a non-precoat filter system followed by a deep-bed ion exchange resin system. In all
designs the purpose of the condensate polisher is twofold: removal of suspended solids by filtration and removal of dissolved
solids by ion exchange.
For deep-bed systems the removal of suspended corrosion products occurs by in-depth filtration. This means the
suspended particulates penetrate deep into the bed of the ion exchange beads instead of their accumulation on the top
surface of the bed. The filtration capacity of a deep bed is increased via this mechanism. High flow rates and proper bead
size are critical to obtain in-depth filtration. Part of the requirement of “condensate grade” resins include a specification on
bead size distribution to balance the pressure drop and filtration characteristics with those of the surface area available for
mass transfer and ion exchange kinetics.
Even under high flow rate conditions the dissolved ionic contaminants should be easily removed by deep-beds of ion
exchange resins. Normally the mixed bed consists of cation resin initially in the hydrogen form and anion resin in the
hydroxide form. In some cases, the cation resin is used in an amine form after an initial period in the hydrogen form. This
provides a means of extending the service cycle run length and reducing the costs associated with regeneration. More
discussion on this topic is provided in the section on “Operating Cycle Options”.
Powdered resin precoat systems offer good filtration but are limited in their demineralization capacity since the resins volume
are restricted by the available precoat depth on the septum filter. No additional information is presented in this publication for
powdered resin systems.

The Type of Condensate Polishing Operation Depends on the Operating Parameters

Boiler Pressure
Low Pressure. At steam pressures below 600 psig (41 bar), condensate polishing is normally not required. In these low
pressure systems, boiler feedwater is treated to prevent hard scale formation and corrosion in the boiler. Some type of
chemical addition, such as phosphate addition, is used. Boiler water salts are kept from the steam cycle by control of the
entrainment carryover and by boiler blowdown. Gross particulate filtration and decarbonation are also employed.
Medium Pressure. For boiler pressures of 600 to 2,400 psig (41 to 165 bar), control of silica, control of corrosion, and
removal of particulate matter are required. Control of silica is necessary to prevent silica from volatilizing with the steam and
depositing on the turbine blades. Makeup feedwater demineralization with an anion bed can control silica levels in the water
if it cannot be controlled economically with boiler blowdown.
Depending on the feedwater composition and concentration, chemicals may be added to the boiler water to control
corrosion. Phosphates are typically used, but all volatile treatment (AVT) may also be used. AVT uses ammonia or other
volatile amines to adjust water pH and control corrosion. Condensate “scavenging” is often used to remove corrosion
products from condensate returning from the turbine. Condensate scavenging uses a cation resin deep bed operated in the
sodium or amine form to filter the particulate matter. This method also removes hardness ions.
While many systems in the 600 to 2,400 psig (41 to 165 bar) pressure range do not require condensate polishing, there are
exceptions. For example, nuclear-fueled boiling water reactors (BWR) have historically been “zero solids” systems, even
though the boilers used are typically in the range of 1,250 psi (86 bar). They have stringent feedwater quality requirements
and full-time condensate polishing requirements. Neither AVT nor phosphate chemistry is practical in BWR primary systems
since condensate circulating through the nuclear reactor has the potential for induced radioactivity.
High Pressure. As pressure increases beyond 2,450 psi (169 bar), water chemistry becomes “zero solids chemistry”.
Demineralization of make-up water becomes mandatory to satisfy the water quality requirements of the major contaminant ions,
such as sodium and silica. Chemical treatment of the boiler or steam generator system shifts from phosphate to AVT using
ammonia or amines such as morpholine or monoethanolamine to elevate pH and control corrosion in the high temperature and
wet-steam areas of the steam-condensate loop. The optimum pH range depends on the materials of construction; at least 9.3
for all-ferrous systems and 8.8-9.2 for systems containing copper. Full-flow condensate polishing is a critical operation for the
removal of soluble and insoluble corrosion products, and for the removal of contaminant ions as a result of condenser inleakage.
In North America, pressurized water reactor (PWR) plants using recirculating-type steam generators (RSG’s) have focused
their secondary cycle water chemistry program on the minimization of insoluble corrosion product transport and sodium-to-
chloride molar ratio control in the tubesheet crevice areas of the steam generator. A shift to the use of organic amines
(monoethanolamine in most cases) for pH control and procedural changes in the resin regeneration process have been
instrumental in achieving the desired improvements in secondary cycle water chemistry. In addition to AVT chemistry,
hydrazine is added to scavenge trace amounts of dissolved oxygen and maintain reducing conditions.
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) continues to work closely with the utility industry to help define the water
quality requirements for PWR secondary cycles and BWR primary cycles. Table 1 provides a summary of the year 2000
revision by EPRI for the recommended guidelines of the major contaminant ions in PWR steam generator and BWR reactor
water systems. Recognize that the values shown in Table 1 represent the maximum allowable levels to satisfy Action Level
1 status. In actual practice, plant chemists are striving for less than 1 ppb concentration levels for all contaminant ions listed
in Table 1. An understanding of the design and operational limitations of the deep-bed condensate polishing system
becomes the most critical aspect of that effort.

Condensate Polishing Systems Currently Used or Proposed for Operation

Ion exchange resins can be used in a number of ways to treat condensate. Several of the most widely used approaches will
be presented in some detail and the main features and limitations of each will be described.

Cation Exchange — “Condensate Scavenging”

Used mainly with industrial low- and medium-pressure boilers, a deep bed of a strong acid cation exchange resin operated in
the sodium or amine form can act as a “condensate scavenger.” This type unit is primarily for the removal of corrosion
products from the condensate. Insoluble particulate corrosion products are filtered in-depth on the resin bed and some
hardness ions are interchanged with the cation on the resin. The choice of cation resin ionic form depends on the chemistry
of the circulating water system.

Cation/Anion Mixed Bed

The most common ion exchange system used in condensate polishing is a mixed bed of strong acid cation exchange resin
and strong base anion exchange resin. Mixed beds produce very high quality demineralized water, because ion leakage
from either cation or anion resin is quickly removed from the water by the other resin. Deep-bed, in-depth filtration (see
Figure 2) is accomplished by maintaining the flow rate high enough to keep surface filter cakes from forming. Typically, the
flow velocity is about 50 gpm/ft2 (120 meters/hr.). Using a bed depth of approximately 3 feet (1 meter) allows pressure drop
across the bed to be maintained at economically acceptable levels. In most cases, a mixed bed condensate polishing system
consists of several vessels operating in parallel (see Figure 3). Used resins are transferred to a separate system for cleanup
and regeneration. In some cases, systems employ disposable mixed bed resins.

Table 1. EPRI Guidelines for Maximum Impurity Levels in Figure 2. Particulate Filtration in a Typical
PWR Steam Generator and BWR Reactor Water Systems Cation/Anion Mixed Bed
Raw Condensate In
▲
Inlet
Action Level 1 Action Level 1 Distributor

Parameter PWR Steam Generator BWR Reactor Water

▲

Sodium 5 ppb – Resin

Return

Chloride 10 ppb 5 ppb

Sulfate 10 ppb 5 ppb
Underdrain
Distributor
▲
▲
Resin
Polished Removal
Condensate Out

(Particulate shown in gray.)

Figure 3. Battery of Condensate Polishers
Raw Condensate

▲
▲
▲ ▲ ▲

Bypass Valve
Mixed Mixed Mixed
Cation/Anion Cation/Anion Cation/Anion
Bed Bed Bed

▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

▲
Polished Condensate

External regeneration or regeneration of each resin outside of the condensate polishing vessel has proven to be the most
practical approach. Isolation of the regenerant chemicals from the recirculating water loop significantly reduces the
incidence of condensate contamination by regenerants. The amount of time that the polisher is offline is reduced, as well. In
external regeneration, the only interruption in polisher service is for transfer of the used resin to the regeneration system and
the introduction of newly regenerated resin to the condensate vessel. One regeneration system can service multiple
condensate polisher vessels. A typical external regeneration system is shown in Figure 4. This is the most widely used
system today in North America and requires these basic steps.
The used resins must be:
(1) transferred completely from the operating vessel to the regeneration system;
(2) cleaned to remove the particulate contaminants collected by filtration from the condensate;
(3) separated as completely as possible for the regeneration;
(4) regenerated independently with the appropriate chemical solution;
(5) rinsed thoroughly with demineralized water;
(6) remixed carefully;
(7) transferred to the next available condensate polisher while exercising care to minimize resin separation.
To accomplish these steps, many types of resin transfer and separation systems have been developed over the years.
Several systems and techniques will be discussed in a later section covering system design parameters.
A second approach, which eliminates resin separation, resin regeneration crossover, and regenerant quality problems, is the
use of a disposable mixed bed. This approach requires the manufacture and shipment of very clean, and highly regenerated
resins by the resin supplier. Disposable mixed bed systems are commonly used for condensate polishing in BWR’s, where
disposal costs of radioactive waste regenerants would be prohibitive.

Figure 4. Typical External Regeneration System

CATION REGENERATION TANK ANION REGENERATION TANK RESIN STORAGE TANK

▲
▲

▲ ▲ ▲
Exhausted Resins
▲ Vent
▲ ▲
▲ Vent
▲

▲ Vent
▲
▲

Caustic
▲

Anion
Acid Resin
▲

Transfer
▲

▲ ▲
▲ ▲ ▲
Water

Water
Air

Water

▲ Anion Resin
Air

▲ Cation Resin
▲

▲ ▲ Regenerated
Mixed Resin
▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

▲ ▲

Chemical Wastes Wastewater

Lead Cation Resin Followed by Mixed Bed of Strong Cation/Strong Anion Resins
When AVT is used to control pH and corrosion in a steam-condensate cycle the amine will carry overhead and transport with
the steam. Ultimately the amine-laden steam condenses thereby creating a condensate with amine levels ranging from 0.2
to 1 ppm depending on the plant chemistry program. When this condensate is processed through a condensate polisher the
amine involved is readily exchanged onto the cation resin. Eventually, the cation resin becomes sufficiently exhausted to the
amine form resulting in an amine breakthrough in the condensate polisher effluent stream. In most cases, the service cycle
run time is terminated at the amine break and the polisher bed is taken off-line for resin regeneration back to the active
(H/OH) form.
One suggested technique for increasing the run time on the mixed bed polisher is to treat the condensate with a hydrogen
form cation resin to remove the amine prior to contact with the mixed bed (see Figure 5). By taking this amine load off the
mixed bed, mixed bed run lengths can be extended to months. Corrosion products are also removed by the lead cation bed,
eliminating solids contamination of the mixed bed. Regeneration of the lead cation can be done on a more frequent basis
than the mixed bed, thereby reducing the difficulties of mixed bed regeneration.

Cation-Anion-Cation Stacked Bed (Tripol System)

This process uses a single tank with compartments to contain separate layers of cation, anion, and cation resins (see Figure
6). The resins are never mixed, with each resin going to its own external regeneration vessel. The lead cation resin is
typically not run past the ammonia break in AVT systems. Leakage from the lead cation is polished in the trailing cation
resin. Final water quality produced depends on the trailing cation resin regenerant rinse-down, and on the leachable
characteristics of both cation resins.1

Figure 5. Lead Cation Bed with Mixed Bed Condensate Polisher Figure 6. Cation-Anion Stacked Bed

Raw Condensate Raw Condensate

▲

▲
▲

▲ ▲

Lead Lead Lead Cation

▲

Cation Bed Cation Bed

Resin

Resin Anion Resin

▲ ▲ Transfer
▲ ▲

▲ ▲

Trail Cation
Resin
Mixed Mixed
Cation/Anion Cation/Anion
▲

Bed Bed
▲
▲

Resin Polished Condensate

▲ ▲
Transfer
▲ ▲
▲

Polished Condensate
Operating Cycle Options
DOWEX Resin Selections for Condensate Polishing
Tables 2 and 3 provide a listing of the DOWEX cation and anion exchange resins that are commercially available for use in
condensate polishing. The best choice of resins will depend on the chemistry of the operating cycle and the design and
operating characteristics of the specific plant. In some situations, there may be more than one choice and an actual field trial
would be necessary to determine the best resin selection.

Table 2. Typical Bulk Properties (H+ Form) for DOWEX Cation Exchange Resins

Resin Copolymer Total Exchange Water Retention Avg. Diameter

Type Capacity (eq/liter) Capacity (%) (microns)
Uniform Size Resins MONOSPHERE 575C 12% gel 2.15 41 – 46 550
MONOSPHERE 650C 10% gel 2.0 46 – 51 650
MONOSPHERE 750C 10% gel 1.9 46 – 51 750
GUARDIAN* CR-1 8% gel 1.7 51 – 57 550
MONOSPHERE MP-525C 20% macro 1.6 50 – 54 500
Gaussian Size Resins HGR-W2 10% gel 2.0 47 – 51 750 – 850
HCR-W2 8% gel 1.8 48 – 54 750 – 850
MSC-1 C 20% macro 1.6 50 – 56 750 – 850

Table 3. Typical Bulk Properties (OH- Form) for DOWEX Anion Exchange Resins

Resin Copolymer Total Exchange Water Retention Avg. Diameter

Type Capacity (eq/liter) Capacity (%) (microns)
Uniform Size Resins MONOSPHERE 550A gel 1.1 55 – 65 590
MONOSPHERE 700A gel 1.1 55 – 65 700
MONOSPHERE MP-725A macro 0.8 65 – 75 690
Gaussian Size Resins SBR-C gel 1.1 50 – 60 700 – 800
SBR-P-C gel 1.0 60 – 68 700 – 800
MSA-1-C macro 0.8 65 – 72 700 – 800

Table 4 gives examples of the different ratios of cation and anion resin used in condensate polishing applications. In some
cases the ratio is based on volume, while in others it is based on a 1:1 (H/OH) ratio by equivalents. As indicated in Table 4,
the ratio selection depends on the type of operating cycle and source of condenser cooling water.

Table 4. Typical Ratios of Cation to Anion Resin Used in Mixed Bed Condensate Polishing

Cation/Anion Ratio Cation/Anion Ratio

By Volume (H+/OH-) By Equivalent (H+/OH-) Plant Type Notes
2:1 1:1 Nuclear BWR Hydrogen Cycle with Neutral pH Feed
1:1 or 2:3 Nuclear PWR/Fossil Hydrogen Cycle with Elevated pH Feed
Nuclear PWR For plants with seawater or high TDS
Cooling water source
Hydrogen Cycle Operation
Hydrogen cycle operation literally means the cation resin in the mixed bed always has some hydrogen exchange capacity –
even at the endpoint that triggers the end of the service cycle. When cations, such as sodium, are exchanged onto the
cation resin, hydrogen ions are released and acids are formed, i.e., HCl, etc. These acids are immediately exchanged onto
the anion exchange resin in the mixed bed and hydroxide ions are released. The hydrogen and hydroxide ions combine to
form water. The result: effluent water of exceptional quality.

BWR Primary Cycle – Neutral pH Condensate

In BWR primary cycles the condensate is kept near neutral pH conditions. Because the quantities of insoluble corrosion
products (crud) are much higher in relation to dissolved solids, the condensate polisher serves primarily as a filter for crud
removal. The filtering ability of a deep-bed of cation and anion exchange resin is considerably greater than that of inert
media, such as sand or coal, of the same particle size. This is due to the highly charged surface of the resin particle.
Under normal conditions, the low concentration of dissolved solids in the condensate results in very little exhaustion of the
ion exchange resin. Despite this, thirty days is a typical service cycle run time of a BWR condensate polisher bed and after
removal from service the resin is transferred to an external cleaning station. The cleaning method most common in North
America employs ultrasonic energy. In an ultrasonic resin cleaner (URC) the resins pass downward through a tall, slender
vessel having ultrasonic transducers on its wall. Energy input must be sufficient to break crud loose from the surfaces of the
resin beads, but low enough to avoid bead breakage. Crud and resin fines are drawn off at the column top.
In general, the URC method enables polishers to reduce insoluble iron to about 2.5 to 3 ppb. Note that this falls short of the
0.5 to 1.5 ppb level now targeted by North American industry guidelines. A promising alternative system – the Advanced
Resin Cleaning System (ARCS) – is a vibrating screen assembly for separating cleaned resin beads and fines from transfer
and cleaning water. Recycle of the cleaning water minimizes wastewater generation. Results from a full-scale installation at
a BWR station in the southeastern region of the United States indicate that ARCS, used consistently, can remove more
insoluble iron from the resin resulting in an improvement in feed water iron to less than 1.5 ppb.
Another area of development in BWR condensate polishing relates to a different design for the cation resin. Over a decade
of Dow research has been dedicated to the manufacture of cation resin beads with enhanced crud removal capability.
Activity continues in Japan and the U.S. for the evaluation of several lower cross-linked cation resins. The DOWEX
GUARDIAN CR-1 resin is a commercially available cation resin product used in the U.S. BWR market because of its
enhanced crud removal characteristics (see Table 2). The manufacturing process incorporates a proprietary technology to
chemically “stabilize” this product. A full-scale field trial at a BWR station in the northeastern region of the United States
began in January 1998. The trial clearly showed a significant improvement in iron removal capability compared to a
conventional cation resin, such as DOWEX HGR-W2.
Hydrogen Cycle with All Volatile Treatment (AVT)
With AVT in the steam-condensate cycle, the load on the cation exchange resin is near a 1 ppm concentration level which under
normal conditions is many orders of magnitude greater than the steady-state amount of contaminant ions, such as sodium, in
the condensate return stream. The amine used in AVT exchanges onto the functional site of the cation exchange resin. When
the service cycle run time is terminated at or before the onset of amine breakthrough, the operation of the condensate polisher is
referred to as the “hydrogen cycle”. Hydrogen cycle operation is necessary to prevent the occurrence of the sodium “spike”.
This spike occurs because residual sodium left on the cation resin after regeneration will be displaced from the resin by the
amine. The concentration of sodium in the spike is a function of the amine type and its’ concentration in the condensate, the
amount of sodium on the cation resin, and the selectivity of the cation resin for the amine relative to the sodium.
In order to extend the service run time of the condensate polishers in hydrogen cycle operation, a resin volume ratio of 2:1
cation to anion resin has been employed. Extending the run time reduces the frequency of regeneration thereby reducing the
costs associated with regeneration chemicals, manpower and waste disposal. If the TDS of the cooling water is high, as with
seawater, an increase in the percentage of anion resin in the mixed bed may be necessary to provide more protection from
influent anions (see Table 4).
With hydrogen cycle operation the utilization of the cation resin is limited. A 1996 survey4 of PWR stations in North America
indicated that only 45-65% of the cation resin converts to the amine form prior to the onset of amine breakthrough. A cation resin
with higher capacity and smaller diameter is now available commercially as DOWEX MONOSPHERE 575C (see Table 2). The
combination of greater surface area and density of exchange sites enables greater utilization of the fixed volume of cation resin.

The Ammonia Cycle with All Volatile Treatment (AVT)

Operating the polishers past the ammonia break is one way to reduce the operating costs in a system with AVT chemistry.
When operating in the ammonia cycle, ion exchange shifts from H+/OH- chemistry to NH4+/OH- chemistry. The cation resin,
now in the ammonium form, exchanges ammonium ions for contaminating ions, such as sodium. Because this on-line
ammoniation competes with the selectivity for sodium, it is essential to minimize the sodium residual on the cation resin
during the regeneration cycle. This can be achieved with the proper choice of resin products and regeneration procedures.
More discussion on this topic is provided in the section on “Factors Affecting Resin Performance.” Some operations start
with pre-ammoniated resins to eliminate step-change increases in sodium leakage. The drawback of this method is loss of
hydrogen capacity as part of the total run length.
While increased run length and reduced regeneration costs are very attractive, there is a risk. Namely, the driving force for
the uptake of contaminant ions is significantly reduced by virtue of hundredfold increases in the competing ion
concentrations. For instance, in the ammonia cycle, the competing ion, NH4+, is at a solution concentration near 10-5
equivalents per liter. In contrast, the competing ion, H+, in the hydrogen cycle is at a solution concentration of only 10-7
equivalents per liter. Consequently, sodium leakages will be much greater (as much as 100x) with ammonia cycle operation.
Many stations that choose to operate in the ammonia cycle use a 20% cross-linked macroporous cation resin due to a belief
that this resin offers a higher selectivity coefficient for sodium relative to ammonia. The literature5 contains data that states
the resin’s preference for one cation over another is a function of the degree of cross-linkage within the resin matrix. Figure
7 shows this data as the relationship between the cross-linkage and ion selectivity. However, as shown in this figure, the
selectivity for sodium relative to ammonia is about 0.71 to 0.72 for both the 20% macroporous and the 10% gel cation resins.
Suffice to say, a lot more work is still required to truly understand the selectivity properties in multi-component systems.

Figure 7. Cation Resin Selectively vs. Cross-Linkage

24

22
DOWEX MSC-1
20 20
Cross-linkage as Percent, DVB

18

16

14 H+ Na+ NH4+

12 DOWEX HGR-W2
DOWEX
MONOSPHERE 650C
10 10
DOWEX HCR-W2
8 8

4
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Selectivity
Operating in the ammonia cycle also affects the operation of the anion exchange resin. In the presence of the ammonium
ion, dissolved carbon dioxide ionizes to form the carbonate ion. Carbonate is a divalent ion, and consequently it is much
more selectively held by the anion resin in dilute solutions of monovalent ions (i.e., service cycle where the OH- ion is at a
solution concentration near 10-5 equivalents per liter). As a result, the carbonate ion will selectively displace chloride and
sulfate ions from the strong base functional sites of the anion resin.
The anion resin in a condensate polisher also serves to protect against silica contamination sourced from condenser
inleakage and/or make-up water. But with operation in the ammonia cycle, the concentration of hydroxide ions is roughly
100 times greater than that in the hydrogen cycle. So the already low silica selectivity of the anion resin is further
compounded by the high pH conditions. Consequently, silica leakages may be much greater with ammonia cycle operation.
The anion resin’s selectivity for silica is also affected by temperature. At temperatures in excess of 120˚F (49˚C), silica
leakage may increase due to lower selectivity. At temperatures above 140˚F (60˚C), silica can hydrolyze from the resin,
leaving little, if any, effective capacity for silica. Any of these conditions may dictate a condensate polisher design with a
higher percentage of anion resin.
Aging is another consideration of anion exchange resin, particularly with respect to surface kinetics, and therefore, leakage
of sulfate ions. The deterioration of strong base anion exchange resin usually results in the formation of some weak base
functionality. Weak base sites are kinetically slower than strong base sites. If sulfuric acid comes in contact with the anion
resin due to cross-contamination during the regeneration, then the anion resin is converted to the bisulfate form. In the
subsequent rinse steps, sulfuric acid can be hydrolyzed from either two adjacent bisulfate ions or from the weak base sites of
the resin, resulting in increased sulfate leakage. In addition, the accumulation of any of the variety of aromatic-based organic
species on the anion resin surfaces can eventually impact the resins’ surface kinetic properties. This phenomenon, too, will
cause impaired performance of the anion resin during rinse-down operations, not to mention the ability to manage condenser
inleakage situations.