Chapter 4 Fuel-air cycles and actual cycles

In the previous chapter, a detailed discussion of air-standard cycles, particularly

for IC engines has been given. The analysis was based on highly simplifying
assumptions. Because of this, the estimated engine performance by air-standard cycle
analysis is on the higher side compared to the actual performance.
In an actual engine, the working fluid is a mixture of air, fuel vapour and residual
gases from the previous cycle. Further, the specific heats of the working fluid are not
constant but increase with temperature. Finally, the products of combustion are
subjected to a certain dissociation at high temperatures. If the actual physical
properties of the gases in the cylinder before and after the combustion are taken into
account, a reasonably close value to actual pressures and temperatures existing within
the engine cylinder can be estimated. The mean effective pressures and efficiencies,
calculated by this analysis, in the case of well designed engines are higher only by a
few percent from the actual values obtained by tests. The analysis based on the actual
properties of the working medium viz. fuel and air is called the fuel-air cycle analysis
and even this has simplifying assumptions. However, they are more justifiable and
close to the actual conditions than those used in the air-standard cycle analysis.

4.1 Fuel-air cycles and their significance

By air-standard cycle analysis, it is understood how the efficiency is improved by

increasing the compression ratio. However, analysis cannot bring out the effect of
air-fuel ratio on the thermal efficiency because the working medium was assumed to
be air. In this chapter, the presence of fuel in the cylinder is taken into account and
accordingly the working medium will be a mixture of fuel and air. By fuel-air cycle
analysis it will be possible to bring out the effect of fuel-air ratio on thermal efficiency
and also study how the peak pressures and temperatures during the cycle vary with
respect to fuel-air ratio.
The fuel-air cycle analysis takes into account the following:
(i) The actual composition of the cylinder gases: the cylinder gases contains fuel,
air, water vapour and residual gas. The fuel-air ratio changes during the
operation of the engine which changes the relative amounts of CO2, water
vapour, etc.
(ii) The variation in the specific heat with temperature: specific heat increase with
temperature except for mono-atomic gases. Therefore, the value of γ also

changes with temperature.

(iii) The effect of dissociation: The fuel and air do not completely combine
chemically at high temperature (above 1600 K) and this leads to the presence
of CO, H2, H and O2 at equilibrium conditions.
(iv) The variation in the number of molecules: the number of molecules present
 after combustion depends upon fuel-air ratio and on the pressure and
temperature after the combustion.
Besides taking the above factors into consideration, the following assumptions
are commonly made:
(i) There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
(ii) Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium.
(iii) There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any
process, i.e. they are adiabatic. Also the compression and expansion processes
are frictionless.
(iv) In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid motion can be ignored
inside the cylinder.
With particular reference to constant volume fuel-air cycle, it is also assumed that
(v) The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with the air.
(vi) The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead centre ( at constant
volume).
As already mentioned, the air-standard cycle analysis shows the general effect of
only compression ratio on engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle analysis gives
the effect of variation of fuel-air ratio inlet pressure and temperature on the engine
performance. It will be noticed that compression ratio and fuel-air ratio are very
important parameters of the engine while inlet conditions are not so important.
The actual efficiency of a good engine is about 85% of the estimated fuel-air
cycle efficiency. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine
can be made from fuel-air cycle analysis. Also, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures which affect the engine structure and design can be estimated reasonably
close to an actual engine. Thus the effect of many variables on the performance of an
engine can be understood better by fuel-air cycle analysis.

4.2 Effect of variable specific heat

All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat with
temperature. This increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law.
However, over the temperature range generally encountered for gases in heat engines
(300 K to 2000 K) the specific heat curve is nearly a straight line which may be
approximately expressed in the form
C p = a1 + k1T 
 (4.1)
C v = b1 + k1T 
Where, a1, b1 and k1 are constants. Now,
R = C p − C v = a1 − b1 (4.2)

Where, R is the characteristic gas constant.

Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly and may be expressed in
the form
C p = a1 + k1T + k 2T 2 （4.3）
 C v = b1 + k1T + k 2T 2 (4.4)
In Eqn.5.4 if the term T2 is neglected it becomes same as Eqn.5.1. Many expressions
are available even up to sixth order of T for the calculation of Cp and Cv.
The physical explanation for increase in specific heat is that as the temperature is
raised, larger fractions of the heat would be required to produce motion of atoms
within the molecules. Since temperature is the result of motion of the molecules, as a
whole, the energy which goes into moving the atoms does not contribute to
proportional temperature rise. Hence, more heat is required to raise the temperature of
unit mass through one degree at higher levels. This heat by definition is the specific
heat. For air, the values are
C p = 1.005 kJ/kg K at 300 K C v = 0.717 kJ/kg K at 300 K
C p = 1.345 kJ/kg K at 2000 K C v = 1.057 kJ/kg K at 2000 K

Since the difference between Cp and Cv is constant, the value of γ decreases

with increase in temperature. Thus if the variation of specific heats is taken into
account during the compression stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be
lower than if constant values of specific heat are used. This point is illustrated in
Fig.1.

Fig.1 Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

With variable specific heats, the temperature at the end of compression will be 2′ ,
instead of 2. The magnitude of drop in temperature is proportional to the drop in the
value of ratio of specific heats. For the process 1-2, with constant specific heats
γ −1
v 
T2 = T1  1  (4.5)
 v2 
With variable specific heats,
 k −1
v 
T2′ = T1  1  (4.6)
 v 2′ 
cp
where, k = . Note that v2 = v2′ and v1 / v 2 = v1 / v 2′ = r .
cv

For given values of T1, p1 and r, the magnitude of T2′ depends on k, constant

volume combustion, from point 2′ will give a temperature T3′ instead of T3. This is

due to the fact that the rise in the value of Cv because of variable specific heat, which
reduces the temperature as already explained.
The process, 2′ → 3′ is heat addition with the variation in specific heat. From 3′ ,
if expansion takes place at constant specific heats, this would result in the process
3′ → 4′′ whereas actual expansion due to variable specific heat will result in 3′ → 4′
and 4′ is higher than 4′′ .

4.3 Effect of dissociation

Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion
products at high temperature. Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to
combustion. During dissociation the heat is absorbed whereas during combustion the
heat is liberated. In IC engine, mainly dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 occurs,
whereas there is a very little dissociation of H2O.
The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 °C and
the reaction equation can be written as
CO2 ⇔ 2CO + O2

Similarly, the dissociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above 1300 °C and is written
as
H 2 O ⇔ 2 H 2 + O2

Carbon monoxide is most significant when rich mixtures are being burned, and
there is insufficient oxygen for full oxidation of the fuel. There is almost no
dissociation in the burnt gases of a lean fuel-air mixture. This is mainly due to the fact
that the temperature produced is too low for this phenomenon to occur.
 Fig.2 Effect of dissociation on temperature

Figure 2 shows a typical curve that indicates the reduction in the pick temperature
due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio. With no dissociation maximum
temperature is attained at chemically correct air-fuel ratio. With dissociation
maximum temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich. Dissociation reduces
the maximum temperature by about 300 °C even at chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
In the fig.5.2, lean mixture and rich mixtures are marked clearly.

Fig.3 Effect of dissociation on power

The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Fig.3 for a typical

four-stroke spark-ignition engine operating at constant speed. If there is no
dissociation, the brake power output is maximum when the mixture ratio is
stoichiometric. The shaded area between the brake power graphs shows the loss of
power due to dissociation. When mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation. As the
air-fuel ratio decrease i.e. as the mixture becomes rich the maximum temperature rises
and dissociation commences. As the mixture becomes richer, dissociation effect tends
to decline due to incomplete combustion.
Dissociation effects are not so pronounced in a CI engine as in an SI engine. This
is mainly due to
(i) the presence of a heterogeneous mixture and
(ii) excess air to ensure complete combustion
Both these factors tend to reduce the peak gas temperature attained in the CI
engine.

Fig.4 Effect of dissociation on a p-V diagram

Figure 4 shows the effect of dissociation on p-V diagram of Otto cycle. Because
of lower maximum temperature due to dissociation the maximum pressure is also
reduced and the state after combustion will be represented by 3′ instead of 3. If there
was no re-association due to fall of temperature during expansion the expansion
process would be represented by 3′ → 4′′ but due to reassociation the expansion
follows the path 3′ → 4′ . By comparing with the ideal expansion 3 → 4 , it is
observed that the effect of dissociation is to lower the temperature and consequently
the pressure at the beginning of the expansion stroke. This causes a loss of power and
also efficiency. Though during recombining the heat is given back it is too late to
contribute a convincing positive increase in the output of the engine.

4.4 Effect of number of moles

As already mentioned, the number of molecules present in the cylinder after
combustion depend upon the fuel-air ratio, type and extend of reaction in the cylinder.
According to the gas law
pV = NR T
The pressure depends on the number of molecules or moles present. This has direct
effect on the amount of work the cylinder gases can impart on the piston.

4.5 Comparison of air-standard and fuel-air cycles

In this section reasons for difference between air-standard cycles and fuel-air
cycles is discussed.

Fig.5 Effect of relative fuel-air ratio on efficiency ratio

Figure 5 shows variation of efficiency with mixture strength of fuel-air cycle

relative to that of air cycle showing the gain in efficiency as the mixture becomes
leaner. It is seen from Fig.5 that the efficiency ratio (fuel-air cycle
efficiency/air-standard cycle efficiency) increases as the mixture becomes leaner and
leaner tending towards the air-standard cycle efficiency. It is to be noted that this trend
exists at all compression ratios.
At very low fuel-air ratio the mixture would tend to behave like a perfect gas with
constant specific heat. Cycles with very lean mixtures tend towards air-standard
cycles. In such cycles the pressure and temperature rises. Some of the chemical
reactions involved tend to be more complete as the pressure increases. These
considerations apply to constant-volume as well as constant pressure cycles.
The simple air-standard cycle analysis cannot predict the variation of thermal
efficiency with mixture strength since air is assumed to be the working medium.
However, fuel-air cycle analysis suggests that the thermal efficiency will deteriorate
as the mixture supplied to an engine is enriched. This is explained by the increasing
losses due to variable specific heats and dissociation as the mixture strength
approaches chemically correct values. This is because, the gas temperature goes up
after combustion as the mixture strength approaches chemically correct values.
Enrichment beyond the chemically correct ratio will lead to incomplete combustion
and loss in thermal efficiency. Therefore, it will appear that thermal efficiency will
increase as the mixture is made leaner. However, beyond a certain leaning, the
combustion becomes erratic with loss of efficiency. Thus the maximum efficiency is
within the lean zone very near the stoichiometric ratio. This gives rise to combustion
loop, as shown in Fig.6 which can be plotted for different mixture strengths for an
engine running at constant speed and at a constant throttle setting. This loop gives an
idea about the effect of mixture strength on the specific fuel consumption.
 Fig.6 Specific fuel consumption vs mean effective pressure at constant speed and
constant throttle setting

4.6 Effect of operating variables

The effect of the common engine operating variables on the performance is better
understood by fuel-air cycle analysis. The details are discussed in the following
sections.

4.6.1 Compression ratio

The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with the compression ratio in the same
manner as the air-standard cycle efficiency, principally for the same reason (more
scope of expansion work). This is shown in Fig.7.
The variation of indicated thermal efficiency with respect to the equivalence ratio
for various compression ratios is given in Fig.8. The equivalence ratio, φ , is defined

as ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to chemically correct fuel-air ratio on mass basis. The
maximum pressure and maximum temperature increase with compression ratio since
the temperature, T2, and pressure, p2, at the end of compression are higher.
 Fig.7 Effect of compression ratio and mixture strength on Efficiency

Fig.8 Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency for various compression ratios

4.6.2 Fuel-air ratio

(i) Efficiency: as the mixture is made lean (less fuel) the temperature rise due
to combustion will be lowered as a result of reduced energy input per unit
mass of mixture. This will result in lower specific heat. Further, it will
lower the losses due to dissociation and variation in specific heat. The
efficiency is therefore, higher and, in fact, approaches the air-cycle
 efficiency as the fuel-air ratio is reduced as shown in Fig.9.

Fig. 9 Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency

(ii) Maximum power: fuel-air ratio affects the maximum power output of the
engine. The variation is shown in Fig.10. As the mixture becomes richer,
after a certain point both efficiency and power output falls as can be seen
from the experimental curve (Fig.9 and 10). This is because in addition to
higher specific heats and chemical equilibrium losses, there is insufficient
air which will result in formation of CO and H2 during combustion which
represents a direct wastage of fuel. However, fuel-air cycle analysis
cannot exactly imitate the experimental curve due to various simplifying
assumptions made.

Fig.10 Effect of fuel-air ratio on power

(iii) Maximum temperature: at a given compression ratio the temperature after

combustion reaches a maximum when the mixture is slightly rich i.e.,
around 6% or so (F/A=0.072 or A/F=14:1) as shown in Fig.11. At
chemically correct ratio there is still some oxygen present at the point 3
(in the p-V diagram, refer Fig.1) because of chemical equilibrium effects a
rich mixture will cause more fuel to combine with oxygen at that point
 thereby raising the temperature T3. However, at richer mixtures increased
formation of CO counters this effect.

Fig.11 Effect of equivalence ratio on T3 and p3

(iv) Maximum pressure: The pressure of a gas in a given space depends on its
temperature and the number of molecules the curve of p3, therefore
follows T3, but because of the increasing number of molecules p3 does not
start to decrease until the mixture is some what richer than that for
maximum T3 (at F/A=0.083 or A/F 12:1), i.e. about 20 per cent rich
(fig5.11).
(v) Exhaust temperature: the exhaust gas temperature, T4 is maximum at the
chemically correct mixture as shown in Fig.12. At this point the fuel and
oxygen are completely used up.

Fig.12 Effect of fuel-air ratio on the exhaust gas temperature

 (vi) Mean effective pressure (mep): The mean effective pressure increases
with compression ratio. It follows the trend of p3 and p4 and hence it is
maximum at a fuel-air ratio slightly richer than the chemically correct
ratio as shown in Fig.13.

Fig.13 Effect of fuel-air ratio on mep

4.7 Comparison of air-standard and actual cycles for SI engine

The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles
in many respects. These differences are mainly due to:
(i) The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely
atomized liquid fuel in air combined with the products of combustion left from
the previous cycle.
(ii) The change in chemical composition of the working substance before and after
combustion, also due to dissociation.
(iii) The variation of specific heats with temperature.
(iv) The change in the composition and temperature due to dissociation and
re-combination.
(v) The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
(vi) The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
(vii) The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e. loss of work on the expansion
stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve.
(viii) Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
Most of the factors listed above tend to decrease the thermal efficiency and power
output of the actual engines. On the other hand, the analysis of the cycles while taking
these factors into account clearly indicates that the estimated thermal efficiencies are
not very different from those of the actual cycles.
Out of all the above factors, major influence is exercised by
(i) Time loss factor i.e. loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and air and
also for combustion.
(ii) Heat loss factor i.e. loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls.
(iii) Exhaust blowdown factor i.e. loss of work on the expansion stroke due to
early opening of the exhaust valve.
These major losses which are not considered in the previous chapter are discussed
in the following sections.

4.7.1 Time loss factor

In air-standard cycles the heat addition is assumed to be an instantaneous process
whereas in an actual cycle it is over a definite period of time. The time required for
the combustion is such that under all circumstances some change in volume takes
place while it is in progress. The crankshaft will usually turn about 30 to
40° between the initiation of the spark and the end of combustion. There will be a

time loss during this period and is called time loss factor.
The consequence of the finite time of combustion is that the peak pressure will
not occur when the volume is minimum i.e. when the piston is at TDC; but will occur
some time after TDC. The pressure, therefore, rises in the first part of the working
stroke from b to c as shown in figure 14. The point 3 represents the state of gases
assuming the combustion is instantaneous and an additional amount of work equal to
area shown hatched would have been done. This loss of work reduces the efficiency
and is called time loss due to progressive combustion or merely time losses.

Fig.14 The effect of time losses shown on p-V diagram

 The time taken for the burning depends on the flame velocity which in turn
depends on the type of fuel and the fuel-air ratio and also on the shape and size of the
combustion chamber. Further, the distance from the point of ignition to the opposite
side of the combustion space also plays an important role.

Fig.15 Spark at TDC, advance 0°

Fig.16 combustion completed at TDC, advance 35°

In order that the peak pressure is not reached too late in the expansion stroke,
the time at which the combustion starts is varied by varying the spark timing. Figures
15 and 16 show the effect of spark timing on p-V diagram from a typical trial. With
spark at TDC (Fig.15) the peak pressure is low due to the expansion of gases. If the
spark is advanced to achieve complete combustion close to TDC (Fig.16) additional
work is required to compress the burning gases. This represents a direct loss.
In either case, viz. with or without spark advance, the work area is less and the
power output and efficiency are lowered. Therefore, a moderate or optimum spark
advance (Fig.17) is the best compromise resulting in minimum losses on both the
compression and expansion strokes. Table 4.1 compares the engine performance for
various ignition timings.

Fig.17 Optimum advance 15° − 30°

Table 4.1 cycle performance for various ignition timings for r=6 (typical values)

4.7.2 Heat loss factor

During the combustion process and the subsequent expansion stroke the heat
flows from the cylinder gases through the cylinder walls and cylinder head into the
water jacket or cooling fins. Some heat enters the piston head and flows through the
piston rings into the cylinder wall or is carried away by the engine lubricating oil
which splashes on the underside of the piston.

4.7.3 Exhaust blowdown

The cylinder pressure at the end of power stroke is about 7 bar depending on the
compression ratio employed. If the exhaust valve is opened at the bottom dead centre,
the piston has to do work against high cylinder pressures during the early part of the
exhaust stroke. If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion stroke
is lost. The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 40 to 70° before BDC
thereby reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway (say 3.5 bar) before the exhaust
stroke begins.
The difference of work done in expelling the exhaust gases and the work done by
the fresh charge during the suction stroke is called the pumping loss. The pumping
loss increases at part throttle because throttling reduces the suction pressure. Pumping
loss also increases with speed. The gas exchange processes affect the volumetric
efficiency of the engine. The performance of the engine, to a great deal, depends on
the volumetric efficiency.

Fig.18 Effect of exhaust blowdown on PV diagram

Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is an indication of the breathing ability of the engine and is
defined as the ratio of the volume of air actually inducted to swept volume. The
volumetric efficiency is affected by many variables, some of the important ones are:
(i) The density of the fresh charge: as the fresh charge arrives in the hot cylinder,
heat is transferred to it from the hot chamber walls and the hot residual exhaust
gases, raising its temperature. This results in a decrease in the mass of fresh
charge admitted and a reduction in volumetric efficiency. The volumetric
efficiency is increased by low temperatures (provided there are no heat transfer
effects) and high pressure of the fresh charge, since density is thereby increased.
(ii) The exhaust gas in the clearance volume: As the piston moves from TDC to
BDC on the intake stroke, these products tend to expand and occupy a portion of
the piston displacement greater than the clearance volume, thus reducing the space
available to the incoming charge. In addition, these exhaust products tend to raise
the temperature of the fresh charge, thereby decreasing its density and further
reducing volumetric efficiency.
(iii) The design of the intake and exhaust manifolds: The exhaust manifold should
be so designed as to enable the exhaust products to escape readily, while the
intake manifold should be designed so as to bring in the maximum possible fresh
 charge. This implies minimum restriction is offered to the fresh charge flowing
into the cylinder, as well as to the exhaust products being forced out.
(iv) The timing of the intake and exhaust valves: valve timing is the regulation of
the points in the cycle at which the valves are set to open and close. Since, the
valves require a finite period of time to open or close for smooth operation, a
slight ‘lead’ time is necessary for proper opening and closing. Almost all SI engine
employ an intake valve opening of a few degrees before TDC on the exhaust
stroke. This is to ensure that the valve will be fully open and the fresh charge
starts to flow into the cylinder as soon as the piston reaches TDC. As the piston
descends on the intake stroke, the fresh charge is drawn in through the intake port
and valve. When the piston reaches BDC and starts to ascend on the compression
stroke, the inertia of the incoming fresh charge tends to cause it to continue to
move into the cylinder. However, if the intake valve were to remain open much
beyond BDC, the up-moving piston on the compression stroke would tend to force
some of the charge, already in the cylinder back into the intake manifold, with
consequent reduction in volumetric efficiency. The exhaust valve usually opens
before the piston reaches BDC on the expansion stroke. This reduces the work
done by the expanding gases during the power stroke, but decreases the work
necessary to expel the burned products during the exhaust stroke, and results in an
overall gain in output. During the exhaust stroke, the piston forces the burned
gases out at high velocity. If the closing of the exhaust valve is a few degrees later
than TDC, the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder better by
carrying out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume, and results in
increased volumetric efficiency. So it is very possible for both the intake and
exhaust valves to remain open, or partially open, at the same time, this is called
valve overlap.

4.7.4 Loss due to rubbing friction

These losses are due to friction between the piston and the cylinder walls, friction
in various bearings and also the energy spent in operating the auxiliary equipment
such as cooling water pump, ignition system, fan, etc. The piston ring friction
increases rapidly with engine speed. It also increases to a small extent with increase in
mean effective pressure. The bearing friction and the auxiliary friction also increase
with engine speed. The efficiency of an engine is maximum at full load and decreases
at part loads. It is because the percentage of direct heat loss, pumping loss and
rubbing friction loss increase at part loads. The approximate losses for a gasoline
engine of high compression ratio, say 8:1 using a chemically correct mixture are given
in table 4.2, as percentage of fuel energy input.
Table 4.2 Typical losses in a gasoline engine for r=8
Load
S.No. Item Full load Half load
(a) Air-standard cycle efficiency (ηair-std) 56.5 56.5
1. Losses due to variation of specific heat and
chemical equilibrium, % 13.0 13.0
 2. Loss due to progressive combustion, % 4.0 4.0
3. Loss due to incomplete combustion, % 3.0 3.0
4. Direct heat loss, % 4.0 5.0
5. Exhaust blowdown loss, % 0.5 0.5
6. Pumping loss, % 0.5 1.5
7. Rubbing friction loss, % 3.0 6.0
(b) Fuel air cycle efficiency= ηair-std-(1) 43.5 43.5
(c) Gross indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)
=Fuel-air cycle efficiency –(2+3+4+5) 32.0 31.0
(d) Actual brake thermal efficiency
= ηith-(6+7) 28.5 23.5

4.8 Actual and fuel-air cycles for CI engine

In the diesel cycle the losses are less than in the Otto cycle. The main loss is due
to incomplete combustion and is the cause of main difference between fuel-air cycle
and actual cycle of a diesel engine. This is shown in figure 19. In a fuel-air cycle the
combustion is supposed to be completed at the end of the constant pressure burning
whereas in actual practice ‘after burning’ continues up to half of the expansion stroke.
The ratio between the actual efficiency and the fuel-air cycle efficiency is about 0.85
in the diesel engine.

Fig.19 Actual diesel cycle vs Equivalent fuel combustion limited pressure cycle for
two stroke diesel engine