84

HEAT TRANSFER
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
BASIC HEAT TRANSFER RATE EQUATIONS
Conduction
Fouriers Law of Conduction
, where Q kA
dx
dT
=-
o
Q
o
= rate of heat transfer (W)
k = the thermal conductivity [W/(mK)]
A = the surface area perpendicular to direction of heat
transfer (m
2
)
Convection
Newtons Law of Cooling
, where Q hA T T
w
= -
3
o
_ i
h = the convection heat transfer coeffcient of the fuid
[W/(m
2
K)]
A = the convection surface area (m
2
)
T
w
= the wall surface temperature (K)
T

= the bulk fuid temperature (K)

Radiation
The radiation emitted by a body is given by
, Q AT where
4
= fv
o
= the emissivity of the body
= the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 10
-8
W/(m
2
K
4
)
A = the body surface area (m
2
)
T = the absolute temperature (K)
CONDUCTION
Conduction Through a Plane Wall
T
1
Q
T
2
k
L
, where Q
L
kA T T
2 1
=
- -
o
^ h
A = wall surface area normal to heat fow (m
2
)
L = wall thickness (m)
T
1
= temperature of one surface of the wall (K)
T
2
= temperature of the other surface of the wall (K)
Conduction Through a Cylindrical Wall
T
1
Q
T
2
r
2
r
1
k
Cylinder (Length = L)
ln
Q
r
r
kL T T 2
1
2
1 2
=
- r
o
d
^
n
h
Critical Insulation Radius
r
h
k
cr
insulation
=
3
Thermal Resistance (R)
Q
R
T
total
=
D
o

Resistances in series are added: , R R where
total
= R
Plane Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): , R
kA
L
= where
L = wall thickness
Cylindrical Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): ,
ln
R
kL
r
r
2
1
2
=
r
d n

where
L = cylinder length
Convection Resistance (K/W) : R
hA
1
=
Composite Plane Wall
L
B
T
1
T
2
h
2
Q
T
2
T
3
L
A
k
B
k
A
Fluid 2

T
1
h
1
Fluid 1

L
k A k A A
L
A
B A
A B
T
2
h
1
h
2
Q
T
3
T
2
T
1
T
1
1 1
h

r
insulation
k
insulation
h

r
insulation
k
insulation
HEAT TRANSFER
85
To evaluate Surface or Intermediate Temperatures:
Q
R
T T
R
T T
A B
1 2 2 3
=
-
=
-
o

Steady Conduction with Internal Energy Generation
The equation for one-dimensional steady conduction is
,
dx
d T
k
Q
0 where
gen
2
2
+ =
o
Q
gen
o
= the heat generation rate per unit volume (W/m
3
)
For a Plane Wall
Q
"
T
s1
T
s2
T(x)
1
k
x
gen
Q
Q
"
2
L 0 L
T x
k
Q L
L
x
T T
L
x
T T
2
1
2 2
gen
s s s s
2
2
2
2 1 1 2
= - +
-
+
-
o
^
d
c b c h
n
m l m
, Q Q Q L 2 where
" "
gen 1 2
+ =
o o o
Q
"
o
= the rate of heat transfer per area (heat fux) (W/m
2
)
Q k
dx
dT
Q k
dx
dT
and
" "
L L
1 2
= =
-
o o
b b l l
For a Long Circular Cylinder
Q
'
T
s
r
0
gen
Q
r dr
d
r
dr
dT
k
Q
1
0
gen
+ =
o
b l
T r
k
Q r
r
r
T
4
1
gen
s
0
2
0
2
2
= - +
o
]
f
g
p
, Q r Q where
gen 0
2
= r l
o o
Ql
o
= the heat transfer rate from the cylinder per unit length of
the cylinder (W/m)
Transient Conduction Using the Lumped Capacitance
Method
The lumped capacitance method is valid if
,
kA
hV
1 Biot number, Bi where
s
% =
h = the convection heat transfer coeffcient of the fuid
[W/(m
2
K)]
V = the volume of the body (m
3
)
k = thermal conductivity of the body [W/(mK)]
A
s
= the surface area of the body (m
2
)
A
s
Body
, V, c , T
P
T h,
Fluid

Constant Fluid Temperature

If the temperature may be considered uniform within the body
at any time, the heat transfer rate at the body surface is given
by
, Q hA T T V c
dt
dT
where
s P
= - =- t
3
o
^ ^ b h h l
T = the body temperature (K)
T

= the fuid temperature (K)

= the density of the body (kg/m
3
)
c
P
= the heat capacity of the body [J/(kgK)]
t = time (s)
The temperature variation of the body with time is
, T T T T e where
i
t
- = -
3 3
-b
_ i
Vc
hA
P
s
= b
t

and
s
1
where
time constant
=
=
b
x
x
^ h
The total heat transferred (Q
total
) up to time t is
, Q Vc T T where
total P i
= - t _ i
T
i
= initial body temperature (K)
HEAT TRANSFER
86
Variable Fluid Temperature
If the ambient fuid temperature varies periodically according
to the equation
cos T T T T t
2
1
, , , max min mean
= + - ~
3 3 3 3
_
^
i
h
The temperature of the body, after initial transients have died
away, is
cos tan T
T T
t T
2
1
, ,
,
max min
mean
2 2
1
=
+
-
- +
~ b
b
~
b
~
3 3
3
-
_
c
i
m
;
=
E
G
Fins
For a straight fn with uniform cross section
(assuming negligible heat transfer from tip),
, tanh Q hPkA T T mL where
c b c
= -
3
o
_ _ i i
h = the convection heat transfer coeffcient of the fuid
[W/(m
2
K)]
P = perimeter of exposed fn cross section (m)
k = fn thermal conductivity [W/(mK)]
A
c
= fn cross-sectional area (m
2
)
T
b
= temperature at base of fn (K)
T

= fuid temperature (K)

m
kA
hP
c
=
L
c
= L
P
A
c
+ , corrected length of fn (m)
Rectangular Fin
L
w
w
= 2w + 2t P
= t
T
b
A
c
T , h

t
Pin Fin
L
D
2
= P D
4
D
=
T
b
A
c
T , h

CONVECTION
Terms
D = diameter (m)
h = average convection heat transfer coeffcient of the fuid
[W/(m
2
K)]
L = length (m)
Nu = average Nusselt number
Pr = Prandtl number =
k
c
P
n

u
m
= mean velocity of fuid (m/s)
u

= free stream velocity of fuid (m/s)

= dynamic viscosity of fuid [kg/(sm)]
= density of fuid (kg/m
3
)
External Flow
In all cases, evaluate fuid properties at average temperature
between that of the body and that of the fowing fuid.
Flat Plate of Length L in Parallel Flow
. <
. >
Re
Re Pr Re
Re Pr Re
u L
Nu
k
hL
Nu
k
hL
0 6640 10
0 0366 10
.
L
L L L
L L L
1 2 1 3 5
0 8 1 3 5
=
= =
= =
n
t
3
_
_
i
i
Cylinder of Diameter D in Cross Flow

,
Re
Re Pr
u D
Nu
k
hD
C where
D
D D
n 1 3
=
= =
n
t
3
Re
D
C n
1 4 0.989 0.330
4 40 0.911 0.385
40 4,000 0.683 0.466
4,000 40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000 250,000 0.0266 0.805
Flow Over a Sphere of Diameter, D
. . ,
< < , ; . < <
Re Pr
Re Pr
Nu
k
hD
2 0 0 60
1 70 000 0 6 400
D D
D
1 2 1 3
= = +
^ h
Internal Flow
Re
u D
D
m
=
n
t

Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
For laminar fow (Re
D
< 2300), fully developed conditions
Nu
D
= 4.36 (uniform heat fux)
Nu
D
= 3.66 (constant surface temperature)
HEAT TRANSFER
87
For laminar fow (Re
D
< 2300), combined entry length with
constant surface temperature
. ,
Re Pr
Nu
D
L
1 86 where
.
D
D
s
b
1 3 0 14
=
n
n
f
d
p
n
L = length of tube (m)
D = tube diameter (m)

b
= dynamic viscosity of fuid [kg/(sm)] at
bulk temperature of fuid, T
b

s
= dynamic viscosity of fuid [kg/(sm)] at
inside surface temperature of the tube, T
s


Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
For turbulent fow (Re
D
> 10
4
, Pr > 0.7) for either uniform
surface temperature or uniform heat fux condition, Sieder-
Tate equation offers good approximation:
. Re Pr Nu 0 027
.
.
D D
s
b 0 8 1 3
0 14
=
n
n
d n
Non-Circular Ducts
In place of the diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic)
diameter (D
H
) defned as
D
wetted perimeter
4 cross sectional area
H
#
=
-

Circular Annulus (D
o
> D
i
)
In place of the diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic)
diameter (D
H
) defned as
D D D
H o i
= -
Liquid Metals (0.003 < Pr < 0.05)
. . Re Pr Nu 6 3 0 0167
. .
D D
0 85 0 93
= + (uniform heat fux)
. . Re Pr Nu 7 0 0 025
. .
D D
0 8 0 8
= + (constant wall temperature)
Condensation of a Pure Vapor
On a Vertical Surface
. , Nu
k
hL
k T T
gh L
0 943 where
.
L
l l sat s
l fg
2 3
0 25
= =
- n
t
_ i
> H

l
= density of liquid phase of fuid (kg/m
3
)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s
2
)
h
fg
= latent heat of vaporization [J/kg]
L = length of surface [m]

l
= dynamic viscosity of liquid phase of fuid [kg/(sm)]
k
l
= thermal conductivity of liquid phase of fuid [W/(mK)]
T
sat
= saturation temperature of fuid [K]
T
s
= temperature of vertical surface [K]
Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature
between the saturated temperature, T
sat
, and the surface
temperature, T
s
.
Outside Horizontal Tubes
. , Nu
k
hD
k T T
gh D
0 729 where
.
D
l l sat s
l fg
2 3
0 25
= =
- n
t
_ i
> H
D = tube outside diameter (m)
Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature
between the saturated temperature, T
sat
, and the surface
temperature, T
s
.
Natural (Free) Convection
Vertical Flat Plate in Large Body of Stationary Fluid
Equation also can apply to vertical cylinder of suffciently large
diameter in large body of stationary fuid.
, h C
L
k
Ra where
L
n
=
r
b l
L = the length of the plate (cylinder) in the vertical
direction
Ra
L
= Rayleigh Number = Pr
v
g T T L
s
2
3
- b
3
_ i

T
s
= surface temperature (K)
T

= fuid temperature (K)

= coeffcient of thermal expansion (1/K)
(For an ideal gas:
T T
2
s
=
+
b
3
with T in absolute temperature)
= kinematic viscosity (m
2
/s)
Range of Ra
L
C n
10
4
10
9
0.59 1/4
10
9
10
13
0.10 1/3
Long Horizontal Cylinder in Large Body of Stationary Fluid
, h C
D
k
Ra where
D
n
= b l
Pr
v
g T T D
Ra
D
s
2
3
=
- b
3
_ i
Ra
D
C n
10
3
10
2
1.02 0.148
10
2
10
4
0.850 0.188
10
4
10
7
0.480 0.250
10
7
10
12
0.125 0.333
Heat Exchangers
The rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is
, Q UAF T where
lm
= D
o
A = any convenient reference area (m
2
)
F = heat exchanger confguration correction factor
(F = 1 if temperature change of one fuid is negligible)
U = overall heat transfer coeffcient based on area A and
the log mean temperature difference [W/(m
2
K)]
T
lm
= log mean temperature difference (K)
HEAT TRANSFER
88
Heat Exchangers (cont.)
Overall Heat Transfer Coeffcient for Concentric Tube and
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
,
ln
UA hA A
R
kL
D
D
A
R
h A
1 1
2
1
where
i i i
fi i
o
o
fo
o o
= + + + +
r
d n
A
i
= inside area of tubes (m
2
)
A
o
= outside area of tubes (m
2
)
D
i
= inside diameter of tubes (m)
D
o
= outside diameter of tubes (m)
h
i
= convection heat transfer coeffcient for inside of tubes
[W/(m
2
K)]
h
o
= convection heat transfer coeffcient for outside of tubes
[W/(m
2
K)]
k = thermal conductivity of tube material [W/(mK)]
R
f
= fouling factor for inside of tube [(m
2
K)/W]
R
fo
= fouling factor for outside of tube [(m
2
K)/W]
Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
For counterfow in tubular heat exchangers
ln
T
T T
T T
T T T T
lm
Hi Co
Ho Ci
Ho Ci Hi Co
=
-
-
- - -
D
d
_ _
n
i i

For parallel fow in tubular heat exchangers
,
ln
T
T T
T T
T T T T
where
lm
Hi Ci
Ho Co
Ho Co Hi Ci
=
-
-
- - -
D
d
_ _
n
i i
T
lm
= log mean temperature difference (K)
T
Hi
= inlet temperature of the hot fuid (K)
T
Ho
= outlet temperature of the hot fuid (K)
T
Ci
= inlet temperature of the cold fuid (K)
T
Co
= outlet temperature of the cold fuid (K)
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness,
Q
Q
maximum possible heat transfer rate
actual heat transfer rate
max
= = f
o
o
C T T
C T T
C T T
C T T
or
min min Hi Ci
H Hi Ho
Hi Ci
C Co Ci
=
-
-
=
-
-
f f
_
_
_
_
i
i
i
i
where
C = mc heat capacity rate (W/K)
P
= o
C
min
= smaller of C
C
or C
H
Number of Transfer Units (NTU)
NTU
C
UA
min
=
Effectiveness-NTU Relations
C
C
C
heat capacity ratio
max
min
r
= =
For parallel fow concentric tube heat exchanger
exp
ln
C
NTU C
NTU
C
C
1
1 1
1
1 1
r
r
r
r
=
+
- - +
=-
+
- +
f
f
^
^
h
h
8
8
B
B

For counterfow concentric tube heat exchanger
<
<
exp
exp
ln
C NTU C
NTU C
C
NTU
NTU
C
NTU
C C
C
NTU C
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
r r
r
r
r
r r
r
r
=
- - -
- - -
=
+
=
=
- -
-
=
-
=
f
f
f
f
f
f
^
^
^
^
c ^
^
h
h
h
h
m h
h
8
8
B
B
RADIATION
Types of Bodies
Any Body
For any body, + + = 1 , where
= absorptivity (ratio of energy absorbed to incident energy)
= refectivity (ratio of energy refected to incident energy)
= transmissivity (ratio of energy transmitted to incident
energy)
Opaque Body
For an opaque body: + = 1
Gray Body
A gray body is one for which
= , (0 < < 1; 0 < < 1), where
= the emissivity of the body
For a gray body: + = 1
Real bodies are frequently approximated as gray bodies.
Black body
A black body is defned as one which absorbs all energy
incident upon it. It also emits radiation at the maximum rate
for a body of a particular size at a particular temperature. For
such a body
= = 1
HEAT TRANSFER
89
Shape Factor (View Factor, Confguration Factor)
Relations
Reciprocity Relations
A
i
F
ij
= A
j
F
ji
, where
A
i
= surface area (m
2
) of surface i
F
ij
= shape factor (view factor, confguration factor); fraction
of the radiation leaving surface i that is intercepted by
surface j; 0 F
ij
1
Summation Rule for N Surfaces
F 1
ij
j
N
1
=
=
!

Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Bodies
Body Small Compared to its Surroundings
, Q A T T where
12 1
4
2
4
= - fv
o
` j
Q
12
o
= the net heat transfer rate from the body (W)
= the emissivity of the body
= the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
[ = 5.67 10
-8
W/(m
2
K
4
)]
A = the body surface area (m
2
)
T
1
= the absolute temperature [K] of the body surface
T
2
= the absolute temperature [K] of the surroundings
Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Black
Bodies
The net energy exchange by radiation between two black
bodies that see each other is given by
Q AF T T
12 1 12 1
4
2
4
= - v
o
` j
Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Diffuse-
Gray Surfaces that Form an Enclosure
Generalized Cases
A
2

2
T
2
12
, ,
A
2

2
T
2
, ,
A
1

1
T
1
, ,
A
1

1
T
1
, ,
Q
12
Q
Q
A AF A
T T
1
1
1
12
1 1
1
1 12 2 2
2
1
4
2
4
=
-
+ +
-
-
f
f
f
f
v
o
` j

One-Dimensional Geometry with Thin Low-Emissivity Shield
Inserted between Two Parallel Plates

A
2

2
T
2
, ,
A
3
T
3
,

3, 1

3, 2
A
1

1
T
1
, ,
12
Q
Radiation Shield
Q
A AF A A A F A
T T
1
1
1 1
1
1
,
,
,
,
12
1 1
1
1 13 3 1 3
3 1
3 2 3
3 2
3 32 2 2
2
1
4
2
4
=
-
+ +
-
+
-
+ +
-
-
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
v
o
` j

Reradiating Surface
Reradiating Surfaces are considered to be insulated or
adiabatic Q 0
R
=
o
_ i.
A
R

R
T
R
, ,
A
2

2
T
2
, ,
A
1

1
T
1
, ,
12
Q
Q
A
AF
AF A F
A
T T
1
1 1
1
1
R R
12
1 1
1
1 12
1 1 2 2
1
2 2
2
1
4
2
4
=
-
+
+ +
+
-
-
f
f
f
f
v
-
o
c c
`
m m
j
= G

HEAT TRANSFER