Chapter No.

INTRODUCTION

The energy extracted from solar radiation by solar cells is vital to

expanding our source of energy. Alternative sources of energy are being
sought out constantly and solar energy has already been a primary source
as solar cells have been in existence for many years. By figuring out how
to maximize the efficiency of solar cells, engineers can build better cells
and models for usage in homes and businesses. The purpose of this lab is
to gain a better understanding of the relationship between solar cell voltage
output and the angle of incidence with the Sun’s rays. Since the Sun is
never stagnant, an understanding of this relationship will help in designing
practical positioning of solar cells.

1.1 THEORY

Engineers and solar cell manufacturers have already determined that

solar cells are most efficient when placed exactly perpendicular to
the Sun’s rays. The question in mind is how much power can be
generated in other angular arrangements and what relationship exists
between angle of incidence and power. The expectation is that the
solar cell will collect power very well for a certain range after its
perpendicular position and then quickly fall eventually giving no
power at all. Although temperature does affect the solar cells’ ability
to absorb energy, the majority of energy is dependent on the
intensity of the Sun’s rays (its self a function of angle). A
logarithmic function is expected to describe the relationship between
angle and voltage output, current and power.

1.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS

 Monocrystalline
 Polycrystalline

1
Monocrystalline Solar Panel

Simply defined, the material difference between polycrystalline

and monocrystalline rests in the composition of the silicon substrate used
to makesolar cells, and in turn solar panels. As the name
implies, monocrystalline means “a single crystal,” while
polycrystalline means “many crystals.”

Fig 1.1 Monocrystalline Solar Panel

2
Polycrystalline Solar Panel

Simply defined, the material difference between polycrystalline and

monocrystalline rests in the composition of the silicon substrate used to
makesolar cells, and in turn solar panels. As the name implies,
monocrystalline means “a single crystal,” while polycrystalline
means “many crystals.

Fig 1.2 Polycrystalline Solar Panel

3
1.3 THE SUN

The Sun is the central star of our solar system. It consists mainly of
hydrogen and helium. Some basic facts are summarised and its
structure. The mass of the Sun is so large that it contributes to
99.68% of the total mass of the solar system. In the center of the Sun
the pressure-temperature conditions are such that nuclear fusion can
take place. In the major nuclear reaction, the proton-proton reaction,
via a number of steps four protons react into

• a helium core (two protons and two neutrons),

• 2 positrons (the anti-particles of electrons),
• 2 neutrinos,
• electromagnetic radiation.

Fig 1.3 The Sun with its layer structure depicted

4
1.4 Radiometric properties

Radiometry is the branch of optics concerned with the measurement

of light. Since photovoltaics deals with sunlight that is converted
into electricity it is very important to discuss how the ”amount of
energy“ of the light can be expressed physically and mathematically.
In solar science, not the total amount of the energy is important, but
the amount of energy per unit time. We thus will use the power that
is given by

P = dE/ dt

Mean distance from the Earth: 149 600 000 km

Diameter: 1 392 000 km (109 × that of the Earth)
Volume: 1 300 000 × that of the Earth
Mass: 1.993 × 1027 kg (332 000 times that of the Earth)
Density (at its center): >105 kg m−3 (over 100 times that of water)
Pressure (at its center): over 1 billion atmospheres
Temperature (at its center): about 15 000 000 K
Temperature (at the surface): 6 000 K
Energy radiation: 3.8 × 1026 W
The Earth receives: 1.7 × 1018 W

1.5 Blackbody radiation

If we take a piece of e. g. metal and start heating it up,it will start to
glow, first in reddish colour getting morewhere kB _ 1.381 _ 10􀀀23 J/K is
the Boltzmann constant.

The derivation of this equation was based on electrodynamicarguments.

While LRJel is in good agreementto measured values at long wavelengths,
it divergesto infinity for short wavelength. Further, the radiantemittance,
which is obtained via integration over allwavelength, diverges towards
infinity. This so calledultraviolet catastrophe demonstrates that Rayleigh
andJeans did not succeed in developing a model that canadequately
describe thermal radiation.

5
1.6 Solar spectra
only photons of appropriate energy can be absorbed and hence generate
m electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor material. Therefore, it is
important to know the spectral distribution ofthe solar radiation, i.e. the
number of photons of a particularenergy as a function of the wavelength l.

When solar radiation passes through the atmosphereof the Earth, it is

attenuated. The most important parameterthat determines the solar
irradiance under clearsky conditions is the distance that the sunlight has to
travel through the atmosphere. This distance is theshortest when the Sun is
at the zenith, i.e. directly overhead.The ratio of an actual path length of the
sunlightto this minimal distance is known as the opticalair mass.

Fig 1.4 Solar Radiation Spectrum

6
1.7 SYSTEM WORKING PRINCIPLE

Solar photovoltaic(PV) system is like any other electrical power

generation systems in terms of the output except for the source of the
power is Solar radiation. The conversion of Solar radiation to the electrical
power is based on the photovoltaic principles. However, the principles of
operation of the connected load and interfacing with other electrical
systems remain the same. Though solar PV array produces power when
exposed to sunlight, a number of other components are required to
properly conduct, control, convert, distribute, and transform the energy
produced by the array.

Solar power generating system supplied for this project shall be

utilized for powering various office loads like Computer, Lighting loads,
fans etc. for specified hours of sun shine operation.

Fig 1.5 Working Principle Of Solar System

7
1.8 SOLAR PV MODULE
The PV Powertech solar photovoltaic module provides superior value
and performance. They may be used in single-module and multiple module
systems to meet the current or voltage requirements of a wide range of
applications with its nominal power; it’s well-suited to utility grid systems
and traditional applications.

The high efficiency Solar PV Modules are:

Made from imported Poly-Crystalline solar cells to exacting International
Standards

 Modules comply with the International standards IEC 61215, IEC 61730
and IEC 61701 product
 certification Standard 10 year manufacturing warranty
 10 years/25 years limited power guarantee for 90%
 & 80% power respectively Cells are encapsulated with premium EVA
from USA, with good light transmission resistance to
 degradation over a long period of time Back sheet is from Japan with
extra white surface for light reflection and high strength
 Junction box has six bypass diodes for extra protection and standard
MC4 compatible
 connectors for easy installation. IP65 compliant for all weather usage
Structural integrity offered by a robust double wall screw‐less, snap‐fit
aluminum frame that is
 anodized for safety against corrosion

Fig 1.6 Solar PV Module

8
1.9 Performance of solar power plants
The performance of solar power plants is best defined by the Capacity
Utilization Factor (CUF) , which is the ratio of the actual electricity output
from the plant, to the maximum possible output during the year. The
estimated output from the solar power plant depends on the design
parameters and can be calculated , using standard softwares. But since
there are several variables which contribute to the final output from a
plant, the CUF varies over a wide range. These could be on account of
poor selection /quality of panels, derating of modules at higher
temperatures, other design parameters like ohmic loss, atmospheric factors
such as prolonged cloud cover and mist.

It is essential therefore to list the various factors that contribute to plant

output variation. The performance of the power plant however depends on
several parameters including the site location, solar insolation levels,
climatic conditions specially temperature, technical losses in cabling,
module mismatch , soiling losses, MPPT losses, transformer losses and the
inverter losses. There could also be losses due to grid unavailability and
the module degradation through aging.

Some of these are specified by the manufacturer, such as the dependence

of power output on temperature, known as temperature coefficient. The
following factors are considered key performance indicators:

1. Radiation at the site

2. Losses in PV systems
3. Temperature and climatic conditions
4. Design parameters of the plant
5. Inverter efficiency
6. Module Degradation due to aging

Use reflectors made of several slices of mirrors with small curvature

approximating a parabola. Mirrors are mounted on trackers and configured
to reflect sunlight onto elevated linear reflectors. Water flows through the
receivers and is converted into steam and the intermediate heat transfer
fluid is not required. These systems have lower investment costs and also
lower optical performance as compared to parabolic trough collectors.
This technology is still in the developmental stage.
9
1.10 Radiation

Solar radiation is a primary driver for many physical, chemical and

biological processes on the earth’s surface, and complete and accurate
solar radiation data at a specific region are of considerable significance for
such research and application fields as architecture, industry, agriculture,
environment, hydrology, agrology, meteorology, limnology, oceanography
and ecology. Besides, solar radiation data are a fundamental input for solar
energy applications such as photovoltaic systems for electricity generation,
solar collectors for heating, solar air conditioning climate control in
buildings and passive solar devices.

Several empirical formulae have been developed to calculate the solar

radiation using various parameters. Some works used the sunshine
duration others used the sunshine duration, relative humidity and
temperature, while others used the number of rainy days, sunshine hours
and a factor that depends on latitude and altitude.

The primary requirement for the design of any solar power project is
accurate solar radiation data. It is essential to know the method used for
measuring data for accurate design. Data may be instantaneously measured
(irradiance) or integrated over a period of time (irradiation) usually one
hour or day. Data maybe for beam, diffuse or total radiation, and for a
horizontal or inclined surface. It is also important to know the types of
measuring instruments used for these measurements.

For the purpose of this report, data sources such as NREL, NASA, IMD
and so on were compared. All these sources specify global irradiance,
measured over one hour periods and averaged over the entire month. The
data is available for horizontal surfaces and must be suitably converted for
inclined solar collectors. Monthly average daily solar radiation on a
horizontal surface is represented as H, and hourly total radiation on a
horizontal surface is represented by I. The solar spectrum, or the range of
wavelengths received from the Sun are depicted in the figure below. Short
wave radiation is received from the Sun, in the range of 0.3 to 3 μm, and
long wave radiation (greater than 3 μm) is emitted by the atmosphere,
collectors or any other body at ordinary temperatures.

10
1.11 Losses in PV Solar systems
The estimated system losses are all the losses in the system, which
cause the power actually delivered to the electricity grid to be lower than
the power produced by the PV modules. There are several causes for this
loss, such as losses in cables, power inverters, dirt (sometimes snow) on
the modules, ambient temperature, varying insolation levels and so on.
While designing a PV system, we have to take into consideration all
possible losses.

Reflection losses

PV module power ratings are determined at standard test conditions,

which require perpendicular incident light. Under field conditions larger
incidence angles occur, resulting in higher reflection losses than accounted
for in the nominal power rating. Calculations show that for modules faced
towards the equator, and with a tilt angle equal to the latitude, yearly
reflection losses relative to STC are about 1%.

Soiling

Soiling of solar panels can occur as a result of dust and dirt

accumulation. In most cases, the material is washed off the panel surface
by rainfall; however dirt like bird droppings may stay even after heavy
rains. The most critical part of a module is the lower edge. Especially with
rather low inclinations, soiling at the edge of the frame occurs. By often
repeated water collection in the shallow puddle between frame and glass
and consecutive evaporation dirt accumulates. Once it causes shading of
the cells, this dirt reduces the available power from a module. The losses
are generally 1%, however the power is restored if the modules are
cleaned.

Mismatch effects
Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar modules in
series and parallel . The modules which do not have identical properties or
which experience different conditions from one another. Mismatch losses
are a serious problem in PV modules and arrays because the output of the
entire PV array under worst case conditions is determined by the solar
module with the lowest output. Therefore the selection of modules
becomes quite important in overall performance of the plant.

11
 Chapter No.2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Although solar panels are a relatively new source of energy that have
recently been extensively developed, they are the most widespread form of
personal renewable energy that does not require a connection to a power
grid worldwide (“Solar Energy Basics”, n.d.). This freedom from the grid
makes solar energy an attractive solution for powering the one billion
people worldwide that do not have access to electricity. As the world
moves into the digital age, electricity is becoming an essential part of
improving the quality of life for many people in the developing world.
With global warming on the rise and with governments in some
developing countries trying to maintain basic peace and order, a solution
involving the expansion of the power grid to one billion people is not
feasible because it is expensive, dangerous, and harmful to the
environment.

Solar energy is one of the few portable sources of energy that can
provide enough power for home use (“Solar Energy Basics”). However,
the expense of solar panels makes them unaffordable to many people that
urgently need them. One solution is to fully redesign a solar panel from the
inside out, but this approach could entail the use of overly expensive
materials and lead to the development even more expensive panels while
only marginally effecting solar efficiency. Cheaply build and effective
external structures to solar panels have not been developed yet. An
external structure would increase the amount of light that makes contact
with the solar panel, thereby increasing the energy output of the solar
panel significantly. As a result, fewer solar panels would be required to
create the same energy necessary to power a household. Fewer solar
panels result in a lower cost of production and a lower purchase cost,
while helping the environment at the same time by acting as an alternative
to fossil fuels.

Solar panels have been widely used since the 1980’s, but modern
technology for solar panels has been around for much longer (“The
History of Solar”, n.d.). The photovoltaic effect, an integral part of how
12
most commercial solar panels operate today, was first discovered in 1839
by French scientist Edmond Becquerel. He discovered the effect by
placing two metal electrodes in an electricity-conducting solution, and he
found that when the electrodes were exposed to light, they produced more
electricity. The first instance of modern photovoltaic technology was in
1954, when Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson developed
the silicon.

Photovoltaic cell at Bell Labs(“The History of Solar”). Unlike previous

attempts at building a solar cell, Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson developed a
cell powerful enough to power everyday electrical devices. Their initial
design had an efficiency of four percent, meaning that four percent of all
of the energy from the sunlight was converted into electricity. Even with
the advent of a new solar cell, the first use of solar panels to power an
electrical process in a building would come a few years later, as the
Bridgers-Paxton Building would become the first building to be heated
with solar energy(“The History of Solar”). As solar panels became a more
viable source of energy, the efficiency of solar panels steadily rose from
the initial four percent to 14% in 1960. The number of applications for
solar panels increased as well. Panels were sent into space to power
satellites and were hoisted onto lighthouses. As time passed, solar cells
became lighter and thinner, as extensive research on paper-thin
photovoltaic cells was conducted. Most importantly, solar cells also saw a
decrease in cost(“The History of Solar”). In 1977, one watt from a
traditional silicon photovoltaic cell cost $76.00 (inflation adjusted), while
in 2015, the same watt cost 30 cents. The decrease in cost has resulted in
the increase of personal solar usage, with a survey in 2013 estimating the
number of solar-powered homes in the United States to be 400,000.
Projections for solar usage in 2020 range anywhere from 900,000 homes
to 3.2 million homes (“The History of Solar”).

13
 Chapter No.3

WORKING METHODOLOGY

14
3.1 COMPONENTS USED

1.The Panels

2.The Inverter

3.The Battery

4.The Distributor

3.2 OBJECTIVE

 Increase production rate

 Reduce cost of operation

15
 Chapter No.4

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES AKA SOLAR PANELS

PV modules are known as solar panels or solar electric panels. We'll be

using the terms interchangeably throughout this article although "PV
Module" is the more technically correct terminology.
Solar panels provide electricity from sunlight. They are typically made
of silicon crystal slices called cells, glass, a polymer backing, and
aluminum framing. Solar panels can vary in type, size, shape, and color. In
most cases the “size” of a PV module refers to the panel’s rated output
wattage or electricity generating potential. Solar panels also have voltage
ratings. Those with of 12 or 24 Volts are generally preferred for off-grid
systems with battery banks. Other solar panels come in less common
nominal voltages such as 18, 42, and even 60 Volts. These modules are
typically used in grid-tied applications to accommodate the working of
grid-tied inverters. Solar panels can be used alone or combined into arrays
by wiring them in or in to achieve the needed ..
Solar panel mounting systems include hardware to permanently affix
the array to either a roof, a pole, or the ground. These systems are typically
made of aluminum and are selected based on the specific model and
number of modules in the array as well as the desired physical
configuration. Solar Panels work best at cooler temperatures, and proper
mounting allows for cooling airflow around the modules. For all locations,
wind loading is an installation factor, and it is extremely important to
design and pour the cement foundation properly for any pole mount. are a
pole mount option to increase energy production by moving the array to
face it into the sunlight as the sun moves across the sky. A solar array on a
tracker will produce more energy than a fixed array.

16
 Fig 4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR PANELS

4.2 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLERS

Every solar electric system with batteries should have a solar charge
controller. A charge controller regulates the amount of current the PV
modules feed into a battery bank. Their main function is to prevent
overcharging of the batteries, but charge controllers also block battery
bank current from leaking back into the photovoltaic array at night or on
cloudy days, draining the battery bank.
The two main types are PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) and MPPT (
Tracking). PWM technology is older and more commonly used on smaller
solar arrays. Choose a PWM charge controller that is the same as your
solar array and battery bank. The controller must also have enough
capacity (in rated Amps) to handle the total current of the solar array
safely.

17
 Fig 4.2 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLERS

MPPT charge controllers can track the maximum power point of a

solar array and deliver 10-25% more power than a PWM controller could
do for the same array. They do this by converting excess voltage into
usable current. Another feature of MPPT charge controllers is their ability
to accept higher voltage from the solar array for output to a lower voltage
battery bank. Charge controllers typically cost between $50 and $750
depending on size, type and features.

18
4.3 BATTERIES FOR SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS

Batteries chemically store electrical energy in renewable energy

systems. They come in several voltages, but the most common varieties
are 6 Volt and 12 Volt. The three types of batteries that are most common
to RE systems are:
Flooded Lead-Acid Batteries (FLA)
Sealed Absorbed Glass Mat Batteries(AGM)
Sealed Gel Cell Batteries
Flooded lead-acid batteries are the most cost-effective variety. They
require maintenance that involves monitoring voltage, adding water, and
occasional . Additionally, FLA batteries vent hydrogen under heavy
charging so they must be stored in a ventilated enclosure. Because of the
maintenance issues of FLAs, some people prefer sealed batteries, which
don’t require maintenance. Since they are sealed, they do not require
watering, nor do they typically vent any gasses. AGM batteries cost more
and are more sensitive to overcharging than FLAs. Gel Cell batteries are
similar to AGMs in that they are also sealed and therefore do not require
maintenance, but tend to be the most expensive of the three types. The
useful life of all battery types is measured in rather than units of time. is
directly related to number of charge cycles possible: the deeper you drain
batteries each time you use them, the fewer charge cycles you will get
from them. Sealed batteries tend not to last as long as flooded batteries.

Fig 4.3 Batteries For Solar Electric System

19
4.4 SOLAR INVERTERS

An inverter takes (DC) from batteries and turns it into (AC) which is
used to run most common electrical loads. There are two main classes of
inverters, or grid-capable and , standalone units.
Off-grid inverters require batteries for storage. Straight grid-tied
inverters don’t use batteries and grid-capable inverters can work either
with or without batteries depending on system design. There is a wide
range of available inverter features suited to differing system needs and
situations. Some inverters have integrated AC chargers so that they can
use AC power from the grid to charge the batteries during periods of low
sun. Inverters with integrated AC chargers can also be used in conjunction
with fossil fuel-based generators for battery charging or running very large
loads. Off-grid inverters meant for whole-home usage must have
appropriate conduit boxes and accessories that enclose all live wiring.
Usually, whole-home inverters are rated to produce 2,000 Watts
continuous power or more. Off-grid inverters come in two flavors: those
producing current and those producing current. Some appliances
(compressors or other inductive loads) and many sensitive electronics
(cordless battery chargers, computers, stereos, etc.) will not function
properly on modified sine wave power. Off-grid inverters can cost
anywhere between $100 to $3,000 depending on size and type.

Fig 4.4 Solar Inveters

20
4.5 DC AND AC DISCONNECTS

No () code-compliant system can live without disconnects! The DC

and AC disconnects of a PV system are manual switches that are capable
of cutting off power to and from the inverter. Some inverters have
disconnects with switches integrated into their structure. Other systems use
an integrated power panel to support the inverter(s) and their associated
disconnects in an organized arrangement. In still other cases, you will need
to purchase the appropriate disconnects separately to work with an
inverter. The disconnects are used by service personnel or authorized
persons (fire/police/electric workers) to stop power from a renewable
energy system reaching the inverter. (Don't forget that there are capacitors
in most inverters that can hold a lethal charge for up to several minutes
after incoming current is cut off! Consult the inverter manual for safe
access times.) Disconnection prevents the current being produced from
going beyond the disconnect point to a downed utility grid or damaged
component. Homeowners or authorized personnel can use disconnects to
de-energize a system for maintenance or service. Disconnects can range .

Fig 4.5 DC And AC Disconnects

21
4.6 MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS

Cables, connectors, conduit and brackets -- oh my! This category

includes everything you need to connect all the parts together safely and
securely. As with most specialized technologies, there are many parts
and tools involved in the proper installation of a safe and effective PV
system. It is the responsibility of the installer to have a thorough
understanding of them and of all the rules and regulations pertaining to
solar electric installations (NEC Section 690 is key here). Gaining the
knowledge needed to design and install a safe, efficient system not only
ensures that your system will meet your needs effectively but also keeps
you and your home safe and helps to promote the acceptance of renewable
energy as a mainstream energy source.

Fig 4.6 Miscellaneous Components

22
4.7 Solar System Architecture

Solar modules, power controller modules, and batteries are the three
primary components of the Solar Power System. Various combinations of
the three allow the customer to choose a system that most matches site
conditions such as load level requirements and availability of daily
sunlight. With the deep cycle battery(s), recharged by solar modules,
providing load power for customers’ remote equipment, the power
controller module optimizes control of battery recharging while protecting
components during the extremes of solar energy availability as well as
protecting the battery from damage due to overcharging.

The solar controller monitors battery terminal voltage and passes the
current through from the solar modules to the battery bank to maintain
charge on the batteries. As the battery voltage rises to 14.0 VDC, the
controller limits the amount of current provided to the battery to prevent
overcharging. As the terminal voltage drops, the controller will pass more
current to the battery to maintain the terminal voltage. Since these systems
are at sites with all weather conditions, the controller will also adjust this
voltage for temperature compensation.

Fig 4.7 Solar System Architecture

23
4.8 SOLAR MODULE TILT ANGLE

The sun’s height above the horizon is called altitude, which is measured
in degrees above the horizon. When the sun appears to be just rising or just
setting, its altitude is 0 degrees. When the sun is true south in the sky at 0
degrees azimuth, it will be at its highest altitude for that day. This time is
called solar noon.

A location’s latitude determines how high the sun appears above the
horizon at solar noon throughout the year. As a result of the earth’s orbit
around the sun with a tilted axis, the sun is at different altitudes above the
horizon at solar noon throughout the year.

Photovoltaic module(s) or arrays work best when the sun’s rays shine
perpendicular (90 degrees) to the cells. When the cells are facing the sun
in both azimuth and altitude, the angle of incidence is “normal”

Fig 4.8 Solar Module Tilting Angle

24
4.9 Angle of Incidence on a Solar Module

Seasonal changes of the sun’s altitude must be considered to optimize a

system’s performance. When the array is installed, it should be tilted at an
angle that yields the highest value of insolation during the worst case
month in the year. This ensures that the system is designed to meet the
load demand and keep the battery fully charged in the worst month for the
average year. The following general guidelines outline a rule of thumb tilt
angle of a solar module for different seasonal loads.

Winter loads Northern Hemisphere: Tilt angle = site latitude + 15°

Winter loads Southern Hemisphere: Tilt angle = site latitude – 15

Assembling and Mounting the Solar Module Support Structure

The load capacity, equipment size and geographic location of the Solar
Power System purchased determines the number of solar modules needed.
Also, mounting configurations are driven by the pole size and number of
solar modules needed. The following figures show various pole mounting
configurations for the solar modules and how the module interconnect
conduit assembly is installed in a 2-solar module mount assembly.

Fig 4.9 Assembling And Mounting The Solar Panel

25
Module Junction Box Connection

Be certain to position the modules such that the junction boxes are on
the same side in the series. For easiest access, use the junction box
penetration hole toward the center of the module for attaching the 90
degree connectors. Instructions for connecting multiple modules follow.

1 Lay the modules face down on a flat, protected surface when attaching
the support rails to prevent damaging the glass and to eliminate
electrical hazard.

2 Take great care in the use of hand tools in the vicinity of modules’ back
surface. The module back surface materials are easily punctured, and
any opening in the back surface will allow the entry of moisture which
can shorten module service life. If punctures occur, seal with a non-
acidic, commercial grade RTV sealant.

3 Remove the junction box hole tab closest to the middle of the module.

4 Attach the 90 degree connectors

5 Connect wiring to the terminals in the configuration shown in Door

Wiring Diagram for the system delivered.

6 Look for specific manufacturer’s instructions in the packaging, and if

found, follow them carefully.

The physical size and weight of the batteries varies depending on

storage capacity dictated by design requirements. The batteries are
housed in the bottom of the enclosure which is attached to the pole.

26
4.10 Enclosure

The enclosure houses the battery, solar controller, wiring, termination

blocks andfusing for the system. Figure 3 shows a typical enclosure in the
configured systemhousing two batteries, wiring, and the solar controller.

The enclosures arrive on site pre-wired per the purchaser’s needs,

including thesolar controller, terminal blocks, and fuses mounted on DIN
rails. The enclosure istypically sized to accommodate batteries which are
staged in the bottom of theenclosure. Smaller system enclosures are of
polycarbonate composition, and theremaining powder coated aluminium
sized to accommodate the batteries required.Refer to TESSCO.com to
review the current solar power enclosure sizes.

Fig 4.10 Enclosure Component

27
4.11 Pole System Support

The mounting poles are not part of the solar system package, but can be
providedseparately. Sizing will depend on the solar system purchased,
including number ofmodules needed, enclosure size, etc.

With the enclosure delivered to the site pre-wired, solid lines in the
indicate factory wiring, dashed lines represent wiring provided with the
system but require on-site installation and connection after the solar
modules aremounted and battery(s) installed. Dotted lines indicate wiring
not provided in thepackage that are to be supplied on-site by the customer.

Fig 4.11 Pole System Support

28
4.12 Multiple Modules Connected in Series

The wiring configuration for multiple modules connected in series.

This configuration allows solar modules to be grouped to match voltage
levelsrequired in the system design (two 12 Volt modules wired in series
converts to a 24Volt system). Note and carefully observe polarity while
connecting the modules.

Fig 4.11 Multiple Module Connected In Series

1. Open the solar module junction boxes on all modules by loosening the
screws.
2. Connect #10 AWG black wire from terminal two (2) (negative) on the
first
solar module in the series to the Solar Controller Terminal three (3)
(negative).
3. Connect #10 AWG red wire from terminal three (3) (positive) on the
last
solar module in the series to the terminal block that connects to the Solar
Controller Terminal four (4) (positive).
4. Connect a #10 AWG black wire from terminal two (2) (negative) on the
first
module in the series to terminal three (3) (positive) of the second module
in the series.

29
4.13 Multiple Modules Wired in Parallel

Multiple modules wired in parallel as illustrated in Figure 15 enables

powerwattage to be incrementally increased while retaining the voltage
levels of eachindividual module (i.e. If the modules in the figure are 12
volts each, then 12 voltsare presented to the Solar Controller with the
power capacity of all three combined.

Fig 4.13 Multiple Module Connected In Parallel

1 Remove the strain relief locknut from the conduit end marked
"ARRAY". Insertthe end into the junction box, replace the locknut and
tighten.
2 Terminate the 30” interconnect cable as shown in Figure 12.
3 Terminate the wire ends as shown in the Door Wiring Diagram and
(Red +, Black -). Tighten the terminal screws to no more than 21 in-lbs.
Checkyour connections to make sure they are the correct polarity. Close
and securethe cover.
4 Locate the hole in the back or bottom of the battery enclosure.

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 Chapter No.5

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Photovoltaics directly convert solar energy into electricity. They work

on the principle of the photovoltaic effect. When certain materials are
exposed to light, they absorb photons and release free electrons. This
phenomenon is called as the photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic effect is a
method of producing direct current electricity based on the principle of the
photoelectric effect.
Based on the principle of photovoltaic effect, solar cells or
photovoltaic cells are made. They convert sunlight into direct current (DC)
electricity. But, a single photovoltaic cell does not produce enough amount
of electricity. Therefore, a number of photovoltaic cells are mounted on a
supporting frame and are electrically connected to each other to form a
photovoltaic module or solar panel. Commonly available solar panels
range from several hundred watts (say 100 watts) up to few kilowatts (ever
heard of a 5kW solar panel?). They are available in different sizes and
different price ranges.
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 Chapter No.6

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

6.1 ADVANTAGES

 Renewable Energy Source. Among all the benefits of solar panels, the
most important thing is that solar energy is a truly renewable energy
source. ...
 Reduces Electricity Bills. ...
 Diverse Applications. ...
 Low Maintenance Costs. ...
 Technology Development. ...
 Cost. ...
 Weather Dependent. ...
 Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive.

6.2 APPLICATIONS

(a) Solar water heating

(b) Solar heating of buildings

(c) Solar distillation

(d) Solar pumping

(e) Solar drying of agricultural and animal products

(f) Solar furnaces

(g) Solar cooking

(h) Solar electric power generation .

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 Chapter No.7

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and

experience, to use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical

knowledge regarding planning, designing, purchasing, assembling and

machining while doing this project work. We feel that the project work is a

good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries. We

are proud that we have completed work with the limited time successfully.

33
 REFERENCES

1. “Solar PV and Wind Energy Conversion Systems (Green Energy

and Technology)” by S Sumathi and L Ashok Kumar.

2. “Solar Wind: Emission, Technologies and Impacts (Energy Science,

Engineering and Technology)” by Carlos Daniel Escaropa Borrega

and Angela Fernanda Beiros Cruz.

3. “Utilisation and Development of Solar and Wind Resources (Energy

Science, Engineering and Technology)” by Abdeen Mustafa Omer.

4. “Solar and Wind Energy Utilization in the Caribbean: A Guide to

Resources (Public Administration Series: Bibliography)” by

Lutishoor Salisbury.

34