Strength of Materials Stress & Strain

CHAPTER 1
STRESS AND STRAIN
1.1 Introduction
Strength of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid
bodies subjected to various types of loading. Other names for this field of study are
Mechanics of materials and Mechanics of deformable bodies.
The principal objective of strength of materials is to determine the stresses, strains, and
displacements in structures and their components due to the loads acting on them. If we can
find these quantities for all values of the loads up to the loads that cause failure, we will have
a complete picture of the mechanical behavior of these structures, which is essential for the
safe design of all types of structures, whether airplanes, buildings and bridges etc. hence the
purpose of studying strength of materials is to ensure that the structures used will be safe
against the maximum internal effects that may be produced by any combination of loading.

1.2 Normal Stress

The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and strain. These
concepts can be illustrated in their most elementary form by considering a prismatic bar
subjected to an axial force shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Prismatic bar subjected to an axial force.

When drawing this free-body diagram, we disregard the weight of the bar itself and assume
that the only active forces are the axial forces P at the ends. Next we consider two views of
the bar, the first showing the same bar before the loads are applied (Fig. 1.1b) and the second

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showing it after the loads are applied (Fig. 1.1c). Note that the original length of the bar is
denoted by the letter L, and the increase in length due to the loads is ΔL.
We now isolate the part of the bar to the left of cross section mn as a free body (Fig. 1.1d). At
the right-hand end of this free body (section mn) we show the action of the removed part of
the bar (that is, the part to the right of section mn) upon the part that remains. This action
consists of continuously distributed stresses acting over the entire cross section, and the axial
force P acting at the cross section is the resultant of those stresses. The stress acting on cross
section mn (Fig. 1.1d) is uniformly distributed over the area and it is known as Normal stress
is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma). Hence, the normal stress is given by;
P
 (1.1)
A
When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the Normal stresses are tensile stresses (+ve); if the
forces are reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive
stresses (-ve).

1.3 Shear Stress & Bearing Stress

Stress can also act perpendicular to the main axis of the member (in the cutting plane). This
occurs if the member is subjected to a situation of transverse loads which is common in a bolt
or rivet connection as shown in Fig. 1.2a below. This connection consists of a flat bar A, a
clevis C, and a bolt B that passes through holes in the bar and clevis.

Fig. 1.2: Bolted connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear.
Under the action of the tensile loads P, the bar and clevis will press against the bolt in
bearing, and contact stresses, called bearing stresses, will be developed. In addition, the bar

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and clevis tend to shear the bolt, that is, cut through it, and this tendency is resisted by shear
stresses in the bolt.
To show more clearly the actions of the bearing and shear stresses, let us look at this type of
connection in a schematic side view (Fig. 1.2b). With this view in mind, we draw a free-body
diagram of the bolt (Fig. 1.2c). The bearing stresses exerted by the clevis against the bolt
appear on the left-hand side of the free-body diagram and are labeled 1 and 3. The stresses
from the bar appear on the right-hand side and are labeled 2. The actual distribution of the
bearing stresses is difficult to determine, so it is customary to assume that the stresses are
uniformly distributed. Based upon the assumption of uniform distribution, we can calculate
the average bearing stress σb by dividing the bearing force Fb by the bearing area Ab:
Fb
b  (1.2)
Ab

The bearing area is defined as the projected area of the curved bearing surface.

Figure 1.2c shows that there is a tendency to shear the bolt along cross sections mn and pq.
From a free-body diagram of the portion mnpq of the bolt (Fig. 1.2d), we see that shear forces
V act over the cut surfaces of the bolt. In this particular example there are two planes of shear
(mn and pq), and so the bolt is said to be in double shear. In double shear, each of the shear
forces is equal to one-half of the total load transmitted by the bolt, that is, V = P/2.

The shear forces V are the resultants of the shear stresses distributed over the cross-sectional
area of the bolt. For example, the shear stresses acting on cross section mn are shown in Fig.
1.2e. These stresses act parallel to the cut surface.
A bolted connection in single shear is shown in Figure 1.3. In single shear, each of the shear
forces is equal the total load transmitted by the bolt, that is, V = P.

Fig. 1.3: Bolted connection in which the bolt is loaded in single shear.

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The exact distribution of the stresses is not known, but they are highest near the center and
become zero at certain locations on the edges. Shear stresses are denoted by the Greek letter τ
(tau).
V

A
(1.3)
1.4 Stress Analysis and Concept of Design
In engineering applications the determination of stresses is rarely an end in itself. Rather the
knowledge of stresses is used by the engineer to assist in:
 The analysis of existing or proposed structures in order to predict their behavior under
specified loading conditions.
 The design of new structures that will safely and economically perform a specified
function.
In order to perform either of the above tasks, we must know how the material to be used
behaves under different conditions. This information is collected by conducting different tests
in a material testing laboratory. From this type of tests the stress at which the material will
rupture or break, called ultimate strength, is determined. The ultimate strengths may be
determined with respect to axial loading or shear loading. The respective ultimate loads are
called Ultimate Strength in Tension (σult) and Ultimate Strength in Shear (τult).

To avoid structural failure, the loads that a structure is capable of supporting must be greater
than the loads it will be subjected to when in service. Since strength is the ability of a
structure to resist loads, the preceding criterion can be restated as follows: The actual
strength of a structure must exceed the required strength. The ratio of the actual strength to
the required strength is called the factor of safety (FS). The actual stress to which the
member may be subjected, known as the allowable stress, is obtained by dividing the
ultimate strength by the factor of safety (FS). To avoid failure, the factor of safety must be
greater than 1. The factor of safety takes into account;

 Possibility of overloading of the structure by loads that exceed the design loads.
 The accuracy with which the external forces acting upon a structure can be calculated.
 Inaccuracies in construction.
 Variability in the quality of workmanship;
 Variations in material strengths from sample to sample.

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 Deterioration due to corrosion or other environmental effects;

The allowable load and stresses can be related with the design loads and stresses using;
Pd  ult  ult
P  all   all 
FS FS FS
(1.4)
Where: P = actual applied load.
Pd = design load.
1.5 Strain
Any object being subjected to load is deformed, changing its initial shape. Deformation is the
change in distance or relative position between different points on a body. Deformations may
involve relative linear displacement between two distinct points in the body, or angular
distortions of shapes.
In the design of structures it is important to avoid large deformations that may prevent the
structure from fulfilling the purpose for which it was intended for, due to operational and/or
psychological effects that may result from these excessive deformations. The analysis of
deformation may also help in the accurate determination of stresses. After relating the strains
and the stresses that caused them it is possible, with the use of geometric and equilibrium
conditions, to solve statically indeterminate structures.

1.5.1 Normal Strain

A bar will change in length when loaded axially, becoming longer when in tension and
shorter when in compression. Consider a prismatic bar having length L under axial load. The
elongation ΔL of this bar is the cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of the
material throughout the volume of the bar.

Fig. 1.4: Elongation of a prismatic bar subjected to an axial force

If we consider half of the bar (length L/2), it will have an elongation equal to ΔL/2, and if we
consider one-fourth of the bar, it will have an elongation equal to ΔL/4. In general, the
elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided by the total length L and multiplied by
the total elongation ΔL. Therefore, a unit length of the bar will have an elongation equal to

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1/L times ΔL. This quantity is called the elongation per unit length, or strain, and is denoted
by the Greek letter ε (epsilon). Mathematically;
L
 (1.5)
L
Considering Axial loading, the strain is said to be normal strain if it is associated with normal
stress. If a material is in tension, the strain is called tensile strain and has a positive value
representing elongation or stretching. On the other hand if the material is in compression, the
strain is called compressive strain having negative value representing physical shortening.
1.5.2 Shear Strain
Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, just as axial forces cause elongations or
shortening, but with an important difference. An element subject to shear does not change the
length of its sides, but undergoes a change in shape, e.g. from a rectangle to a rhombus as
shown in Fig. 1.5 below. Thus shear stresses produce a change in the shape of the element.
Because of this deformation, the angles between the side faces change.

Fig. 1.5: Shear deformation.

For instance, the angles at points A and C, which were 90o before deformation, are reduced to
90o - γ. At the same time, the angles at points B and D are increased to 90o+ γ. The angle γ is
a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is called shear strain.
Because shear strain is an angle, it is usually measured in degrees or radians.

1.6 Stress-Strain Diagrams and Hooke’s Law

The design of structures requires that we understand the mechanical behavior of the materials
being used. Ordinarily, the only way to determine how materials behave when they are
subjected to loads is to perform laboratory tests. The usual procedure is to place the specimen
of the material in the testing machine, apply the load, and simultaneously measure the
resulting deformations.

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A change in length between two points on the specimen is also measured. The initial distance
between the two points is called the gage length. In an experiment it is the change in this
length that is noted.

Results of the laboratory tests, such as tension or compression tests are generally expressed in
terms of stress-strain diagrams. The stress is calculated by dividing the axial load P by the
nominal cross sectional area. The average axial strain is found by dividing the measured total
elongation by the gage length. The stress-strain diagram is plotted with the ordinate scale for
stresses and the abscissa for strains. From Fig. 1.6, the following important concepts can be
developed.
Proportional limit: - The diagram begins with a straight line OA, which means that the
relationship between stress and strain in this region is not only linear but also proportional
and this region is called the linear region. Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress
and strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit.

Fig. 1.6: Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension.

In the linear region, stress is directly proportional to strain and the slope of the straight line
from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (E).

  E or E (1.6)

Equation 1.6 is known as Hooke's law, after the English scientist Robert Hooke. Hooke's law
states that within the linearly elastic region, the stress is directly proportional to the strain.
The modulus of elasticity, E, can be considered as the measure of stiffness of a material, the
larger the E value the stiffer the material. In other word, a high E value represents a hard,

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rigid material like steel, and a low E value represents a soft, deformable material like rubber.
The modulus of elasticity for steel is approximately 200GPa.

Yield Stress: - With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to
increase more rapidly for each increment in stress. Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a
smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal (see Fig. 1.6).
Beginning at this point, considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with no
noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as yielding
of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the
yield stress of the steel.

Ultimate Stress: - After undergoing the large strains in the region BC, the steel begin to
strain harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline
structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Elongation
of the test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the
stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The stress eventually reaches its
maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress.
Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture
finally occurs at a point such as E in Fig. 1.6.

1.7 Thermal Strain

Changes in temperature produce expansion or contraction of structural materials, resulting in
thermal strains and thermal stresses. For most structural materials, thermal strain εT is
proportional to the temperature change ΔT; that is,
 T    T  (1.7)
Where, α is a material property called the coefficient of thermal expansion. Hence the
thermal deformation and stress will be;
LT   T L  LT    T  L and  T  E  T  (1.8)

1.8 Deformation of Axially loaded Members

Assuming that the material is linearly elastic (it follows Hooke's law), the axial deformation
of axially loaded members can be calculated using;
P  L  PL
  E   E   L  (1.9)
A  L  AE

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If the member consists of different areas and/or length and/or loading, the above equation can
be written in a more general form as;
Pi Li
L   (1.10)
Ai Ei

1.9 Poisson’s Ratio

When a body is subjected to an axial load, there is an increase or a decrease in the length of
the body. But at the same time there is a decrease or increase in the lateral dimensions of the
body at right angles to the applied load. Thus the body is having axial deformation and also
deformation at right angles to the line of action of the applied load (i.e. lateral deformation).
The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain, εl.

Fig. 1.7: Axial and lateral deformation of bodies.

Note that, if axial strain is tensile, the lateral strains will be compressive and vice versa.
The ratio of lateral strain to the axial strain is called Poisson's ratio and it is given by;
Lateral strain  l
  (1.11)
Axial strain a
For linearly elastic materials, the lateral strain is proportional to the axial strain if the material
is linearly elastic. However, in order for the lateral strains to be the same throughout the
entire bar, additional conditions must be met. These are; The axial force must be constant
throughout the length of the bar; The material must be homogeneous; The elastic properties
must be the same in all directions perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Materials that are
either isotropic or orthotropic meet this condition.

Materials having the same properties in all directions (axial, lateral, or any direction) are
called isotropic. If the properties differ in various directions, the material is anisotropic (or

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aeolotropic). If the properties in a particular direction are the same throughout the material
and the properties in all directions perpendicular to that direction are the same (but different
from the first properties); then the material is classified as orthotropic.

1.10 Hooke’s Law In Shear

The properties of a material in shear can be determined from torsion tests. From the results of
this test, we can plot stress-strain diagrams in shear (τ vs. γ). Since there is a linear relation
between τ & γ, we have the following equation for Hooke’s law in shear.
 E
  G  G   G (1.12)
 2 1   

Where, G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of rigidity).
1.11Stress On An Oblique Plane Under Axial Loading
Normal and shearing stresses, thus stress acting perpendicular and parallel to the axis of
symmetry of the member have been analyzed in the previous parts of this chapter. The plane
of cut being used to isolate a part of the member was perpendicularly oriented in all the
situations regarded so far. How about the situation of stress on an oblique plane of cut?
Fig. 1.8 shows a member subjected to an axial load. A part of the member is isolated by a
plane of cut, inclined by the angle θ towards the axis of the member. Setting up the free body
diagram and the conditions of equilibrium the stress components acting normal to or within
the plane of cut are determined as shown below.

Fig. 1.8: Axially loaded member with oblique plane of cut.

Resolving P into the normal, N, and shear, V, components acting on the oblique plane give;

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A
N  P cos θ and V  P sin θ A  (1.13)
cos θ
Where, Aθ is the area of the oblique plane. The normal stress acting on the oblique plane is;
N P
σθ   cos 2 θ  σ  σ cos 2 θ (1.14)
Aθ A

The shear stress acting on the oblique plane is;

V P σ
τθ   sin θ  cos θ  σ sin θ  cos θ  τθ  sin 2θ (1.15)
Aθ A 2

Note that σθ will be maximum when θ = 0o (that is, at θ = 0o, σθ = σ) whereas τθ will be
maximum when θ = 45o (that is, at θ = 45o, τθ = σ/2).

1.12 Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Systems

Structures for which the external as well as the internal actions can be determined using the
static equations of equilibrium only are said to be statically determinate. On the contrary,
those structures for which the static equilibrium equations alone would not be sufficient to
determine all the unknown external or internal actions are termed statically indeterminate.
The number of independent unknown reactions and unknown internal forces determine the
degree of indeterminacy. Structures in which the number of independent unknown reaction
components is less than the number of equations of static equilibrium are usually
geometrically unstable.

To determine the external and/or internal forces in a statically indeterminate structure, it is

necessary to augment the equations of static equilibrium with additional equations, which
may be obtained from geometrical relationships of the elastic deformations that occur in the
structure. Such relations are called compatibility conditions. In this chapter only very simple
statically indeterminate systems, which are indeterminate to the first degree will be treated.

A condition exists in structures where the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a
cross section exceed the number of independent equations of equilibrium. Such cases are
called statically indeterminate and require the use of additional relations that depend upon the
elastic deformations in the members.

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EXAMPLE-1
The figure below shows a typical specimen used for uniaxial tensile test for materials like
timber or plastic. At which position, point 1 or point 2, will the specimen break if the applied
force is increased to failure?

EXAMPLE-2
An aluminum rod is rigidity fastened between a bronze rod and a steel rod shown below.
Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Determine the stress in each material.

EXAMPLE-3
A homogenous bar AB carries a 2KN force as shown below. The bar is supported by a pin at
B and a 10mm diameter cable CD. Determine the normal stress in the cable.

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EXAMPLE-4
Two plates are connected by a bolt having a diameter of 25mm as shown in the figure below.
If the value of the load P is 50KN, determine;
A) The shear stress in the bolt.
B) The largest bearing stress acting on the bolt.

EXAMPLE-5
The figure below shows a pedal supporting a load P = 500N. The pedal is connected to a
support bracket at C using a 6mm diameter pin (see the detail). Determine;
A) The shear stress in the pin. B) The bearing stress in the pedal at C.
C) The bearing stress in each support bracket at C.

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EXAMPLE-6
The truss shown below is made up of steel with ultimate normal stress of σ ult = 500MPa. If
the factor of safety for normal stress is 2.5;
A) Check whether the size of member DE is adequate.
B) Determine the cross-sectional dimension of member AE.

EXAMPLE-7

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Two bars of rectangular cross section (thickness, t=15mm) are connected by a bolt as shown
below. The allowable shear stress in the bolt is 90MPa and the allowable bearing stress
between the bolt and the bars is 150MPa. Determine the diameter of the bolt, if P is 31KN.
E
X
A
M P
L E
-8
The homogeneous bar AB shown below is supported by a 16mm diameter pin at B and a
10mm diameter cable CD. The allowable normal stress in cable CD is 125MPa, the allowable
shear stress in the pin is 45MPa and the allowable bearing stress between the pin and the bar
is 80MPa. Determine the maximum value of the load P that can be applied.

EXAMPLE-9
An aluminum wire 3.8m long having a diameter of 2mm is subjected to a tensile load P. The
aluminum has modulus of elasticity of 75GPa. If the maximum permissible elongation of the
wire is 3mm and the allowable stress in tension is 60MPa, what is the maximum value of P?

EXAMPLE-10

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A steel rod consisting of two solid circular sections is subjected to axial loads as shown
below. Determine the total deformation of the rod. The modulus of elasticity of steel is
200GPa.

EXAMPLE-11
The rigid bar ABCD is supported by two links AE and BF, as shown in the figure below. Both
links are made up of a material with modulus of elasticity of 180GPa. Link AE has a cross-
sectional area of 50mm2 and link BF has a cross-sectional area of 100mm 2. Determine the
deflection of; Point A, point B and point D.

EXAMPLE-12
Two wooden members of rectangular cross section are joined by the simple glued splice as
shown below. If P =11KN, determine the normal and shearing stresses in the glued splice.

EXAMPLE-13

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The horizontal rigid bar ABCD is supported by a pin at A and two wires as shown below. If
the load P is 50KN, determine;
(A) The force in each wire. (B) The deflection of point D.

EXAMPLE-14
A rigid beam ABCD is supported by a pin at B and two wires (CE & DF) as shown below.
Both wires have the same cross-sectional area and are made up of the same material. If the
load P is 30KN, determine;
A) The force in each wire.
B) The deflection of point A, point C and point D.

EXAMPLE-15
A plastic bar ACB having two different solid circular cross sections is held between rigid
supports as shown in the figure below. The diameter of part AC is 50mm and that of part BC
is 75mm. The modulus of elasticity of the plastic is 6GPa, and the coefficient of thermal
expansion is 100x10-6 /°C. The bar is subjected to a temperature increase of 30°C. Calculate;

A) The compressive force in the bar.

B) The maximum compressive stress.
C) The displacement of point C.

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