TRANSLATION

TYPES OF TRANSLATION

by:
Wahidin Alamnuari Rachman 06420160042
Mawalid Istiqlal 06420160038
Agung Nugraha Akbar 06420160041
Dzulfikar Ahmad Sahi 06420160057
Muh Fadli Nasir 06420160069

ENGLISH LITERATURE
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ACADEMY
MUSLIM UNIVERSITY OF INDONESIA
2017/2018
 TYPES OF TRANSLATION

Background and introduction

Translation (or the practice of translation) is a set of actions performed by the translator while
rendering the source (or original) text (ST) into another language. Translation is a means of
interlingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the
users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a
text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST). This target text
(TT, that is the translation) is not fully identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations
imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and TL.
Nevertheless the users of TT identify it, to all intents and purposes, with ST functionally,
structurally and semantically. The functional identification is revealed in the fact that the users
(or the translation receptors - TR) handle TT in such a way as if it were ST, a creation of the source
text author.
The structure of the translation should follow that of the original text: there should be no change
in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments of the text.
The aim is maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible to relate each segment
of the translation to the respective part of the original. Of major importance is the semantic
identification of the translation with ST. It is presumed that the translation has the same meaning as
the original text. No exchange of information is possible if there is discrepancy between the
transmitted and the received message. The presumption of semantic identity between ST and TT is
based on the various degrees of equivalence of their meanings.

The translator usually tries to produce in TL the closestpossible equivalent to ST. The
translating process includes two mental processes understanding and verbalization. First, the
translator understands the contents of ST, that is, reduces the information it contains to his own
mental program, and then he develops this program into TT. The translating process has to be
described in some translation models.
A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations
by which the source text or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations
are actually performed by the translator. Translation models can be oriented either toward the situation
reflected in the ST contents or toward the meaningful components of the ST contents.
The existing models of the translating process are based on the situational (or referential)
model, which is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the
translation, and the semantic-transformational model postulates the similarity of basic notions and
nuclear structures in different languages. These postulates are supposed to explain the dynamic aspects
of translation. In other words, it is presumed that the translator actually makes a mental travel from
the original to some interlingual level of equivalence and then further on to the text of translation.
In the situational model this intermediate level is extralinguistic. It is the described reality, the
facts of life that are represented by the verbal description. The process of translating presumably
consists in the translator getting beyond the original text to the actual situation described in it. This is
the first step of the process, i.e. the break-through to the situation. The second step is for the translator
to describe this situation in the target language. Thus the process goes from the text in one language
through the extralinguistic situation to the text in another language. The translator first understands
what the original is about and then says the same things in TL.
 The translating process may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational
model postulates that in any two languages there is a number of nuclear structures which are fully
equivalent to each other. Each language has an area of equivalence in respect to the other language.
It is presumed that the translator does the translating in three transformational strokes. First the
stage of analysis he transforms the original structures into the nuclear structures, i.e. he performs
transformation within SL. Second the stage of translation proper he replaces the SL nuclear
structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in TL. And third the stage of synthesis he
develops the latter into the terminal structures in the text of translation. Thus if the English sentence
It is very strange this domination of our intellect by our digestive organs is translated into Ukrainian
as , we presume that the
structures domination of our intellect and domination by our digestive organs were first
reduced to the nuclear structures organs dominate and they dominate intellect, respectively.
Then they were replaced by the equivalent Ukrainian structures and
, after which the nuclear structures were transformed into the final Ukrainian
variant.
The theory of translation provides the translator with the appropriate tools of analysis and
synthesis, makes him aware of what he is to look for in the original text, what type of information
he must convey in TT and how he should act to achieve his goal. In the final analysis, however, his
trade remains an art.
Contemporary translation activities of a translator are characterized by a great variety of types,
forms and levels of his responsibility. The translator
has to deal with works of the great authors of the past and of the leading authors of today, with
intricacies of science fiction and the accepted stereotypes of detective stories;
must be able to cope with the elegancy of expression of the best masters of literary style and
with the tricks and formalistic experiments of modern avant-gardists;
has to preserve and fit into a different linguistic and social context a gamut of shades of
meaning and stylistic nuances expressed in the original text by a great variety of language
devices: neutral and emotional words, archaic words and new coinages, metaphors and similes,
foreign borrowings, dialectal, jargon and slang expressions, stilted phrases and obscenities,
proverbs and quotations, illiterate or inaccurate speech, and so on and so forth;
has to tackle complicated specialized descriptions and reports on new discoveries in science or
technology for which appropriate terms have not yet been invented. His duty is to translate
diplomatic representations and policy statements, scientific dissertations and brilliant satires,
maintenance instructions and after-dinner speeches, etc.
The original text may deal with any subject from general philosophical principles or postulates
to minute technicalities in some obscure field of human endeavour. Translating a play the
translator must bear in mind the requirements of theatrical presentation, and dubbing a film he
must see to it that his translation fits the movement of the speakers lips.
The translator may be called upon to make his translation in the shortest possible time, while
taking a meal or against the background noise of loud voices or rattling type-writers. In
simultaneous interpretation the translator is expected to keep pace with the fastest speakers, to
understand all kinds of foreign accents and defective pronunciation, to guess what the speaker meant to
say but failed to express due to his inadequate proficiency in the language he speaks.
In consecutive interpretation he is expected to listen to long speeches, taking the necessary
notes, and then to produce his translation in full or compressed form, giving all the details or only
the main ideas.
Each type of translation has its own combination of factors influencing the translating process.
The general theory of translation should be supplemented by a number of special translation theories
identifying major types of translation activities and describing the predominant features of each
type.
Different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative
function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can
distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written
and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.
Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is
to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value
depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translators primary task is to
reproduce this quality in translation.
Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose
of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is
of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. A
literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative character. Contrariwise,
informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect.
Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may be
subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of
specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own
problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the
translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The
particular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genre are more literary than
linguistic. The great challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the
high literary merit.
The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literary trend the
text belongs to, the other works of the same author, the peculiarities of his individual style and
manner and so on. This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good
literary translator must be a versatile scholar and a talented writer or poet.
A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the
principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of
scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts
such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to
speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential
functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.
In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original. The
predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to the translator who must have a good
command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to
give an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in the original. The
technical translator is also expected to observe the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical
materials to make text acceptable to the specialist. Some types of texts can be identified not so
much by their positive distinctive features as by the difference in their functional characteristics in the
two languages. English newspaper reports differ greatly from their Ukrainian counterparts due to
the frequent use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eye-catching
headlines, etc.
Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be expedient to single out translation of
official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation. These texts make a
category of their own because of the specific requirements to the quality of their translations. Such
translations are often accepted as authentic official texts on a par with the originals. They are
important documents every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That
makes the translator very particular about every little meaningful element of the original which he
scrupulously reproduces in his translation. This scrupulous imitation of the original results
sometimes in the translator more readily erring in literality than risking to leave out even an
insignificant element of the original contents.
Journalistic (or publicistic) texts dealing with social or political matters are sometimes singled
out among other informative materials because they may feature elements more commonly used in
literary text (metaphors, similes and other stylistic devices) which cannot but influence the translators
strategy. More often, however, they are regarded as a kind of newspaper materials (periodicals).
There are also some minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of the
specific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are film scripts, comic strips,
commercial advertisements and the like. In dubbing a film the translator is limited in his choice of
variants by the necessity to fit the pronunciation of the translated words to the movement of the
actors lips. Translating the captions in a comic strip, the translator will have to consider the
numerous allusions to the facts well- known to the regular readers of comics but less familiar to the
Ukrainian readers. And in dealing with commercial advertisements he must bear in
mind that their sole purpose is to win over the prospective customers. Since the text of translation
will deal with quite a different kind of people than the original advertisement was meant for, there
is the problem of achieving the same pragmatic effect by introducing the necessary changes in the
message.
In written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or
interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an
oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in
the second case he hears it.
There are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of
mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it at sight. A written
translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many
times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his
at sight translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer with TR getting the
translation in written form.
These are all modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation
between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of
the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other
momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator
may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation,
compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can
come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent
messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the
highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from
written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.
The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translators
performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short
period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original
or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be
content with a lower level of equivalence.
There are two main kinds of oral translation consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive
translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here
the interpreters strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the
segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the
original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech
which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great
number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible
the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been
suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the
interpreters training as are special exercises to develop his memory.
Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have
to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the
original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative
value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter
must obviously be a good and quickwitted thinker.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while
the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-
type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously
talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation
involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.
The essence of translation is stressed by various other theorists too. Van der Merwe states:

Vertaling is die een groot middel wat die volke van die aarde aan mekaar verbind en die een
groot draer van kultuurwaardes, kruis en dwars oor die aardbol heen. Dit is die een skakel wat
nie kan ontbreek in die betrekkinge, die wisselwerking en wedersydse benvloeding onder die
volke nie (1958:237).

Newmark (1988:7) reiterates many of these issues by also pointing out how translation has
been instrumental in the transmitting of culture (for example, the Romans who incorporated Greek
culture). It has also been the transmitter of truth in specifically the area of the Bible translation and it
has been and still is a means of communication worldwide. The importance of translation as
communication in a historical context was highlighted in rather dramatic fashion by the
mistranslation of the Japanese telegram received in Washington before the atom bomb was dropped
on Hiroshima. The U.S.A. put Japan before the choice to either surrender or to prepare for an attack
with an atom bomb. Japan's reply telegram contained the word mokasutu which meant that they
considered the ultimatum. The word mokasutu was allegedly translated as "ignored" Instead of
"considered" (Newmark, 1988:7). The ghastly possibility then involuntarily arises that the fatal
consequences of Hiroshima and Nagasaki could possibly have been avoided had it not been for the
error in translation. Finally, the essence of translating the Scriptures is obvious. The Word Of God is
meant for God's children from all walks of life and in every nation on earth. Most of them are not
familiar with the Koin Greek Of the New Testament or the Hebrew and Aramaic of the Old
Testament and (responsible, carefully considered) translation is the only way to give them access to
the Scriptures.
And yet in spite of this apparent importance, Bassnett-McGuire refers to the unfortunate fact that
translation is (still) perceived as a "secondary activity" (1980:2). Toury supports this by noting that
"translation lies very much in the periphery Of scholarly work [and the dominant attitude among
students of literature is that] the discussion of translation practices and procedures . not to mention
'mere' translated texts, requires no qualification, no expertise" (1984:73). Venuti (1992:1) too, argues
that translation continues to be "an invisible practice". Perhaps this shocking paradox can be
attributed to the fact that Venuti, Toury and Bassnett-McGuire all write from the perspective of
literary texts and not texts solely intended for informative communication, such as notices and
reports. Another fact to bear in mind is that the low status afforded to translation has been
particularly prominent during the periods prior to Steiner's third and fourth periods in the history of
translation, But since the 60's the need to study translation scientifically has evolved pertinently, and
with it has come a higher status.
To sum up: Today translation can be regarded an old pursuit turned into a new discipline and a very
important and vital one at that.

The nature of translation

Translation is a subject that is both "difficult and ill-defined" (Steiner, 1975:48). Richards agrees
when he makes this remark on translation: "We have here indeed what may very probably be the
most complex type of event yet produced in the evolution of the cosmos" (1962:250).

Controversy has always surrounded the established practice of translating and continues to do so in
the relatively new discipline of Translation Studies. Consequently it is not strange that both Bassnett-
McGuire (1980:134) and Nida (1976:62-63) agree on the need for a discussion of the nature of
translation. Translation is not only fraught with complexities and confusions but is also subject to an
interminable number of influences, tensions and variables, all of which influence both the principles
and the practices of translation. Newmark (1988:4) uses the diagram below to give an idea of how
many opposing forces influence the translation activity and pull the text -in different directions and
the figure is by no means complete:

Suggested Topics for Discussion

1. What is esthetic poetic translation?

2. What is ethonographic translation?
3. What is linguistic translation?
4. What is Communicative translation?
5. What is semantic translation ?
AESTHETIC-POETIC TRANSLATION

Aesthetic-poetic translation: it refers to translation in which the translator takes into

account the affect, emotion, and feeling of an original version, the aesthetic form used
by the original author, as well as any information in the message. Example: the
translation of sonnet, rhyme, heroic couplet, dramatic doalogue, and novel.

Example

One True Love

How can I ever tell you that

you mean the world to me
All the little things you do
sweet words and golden smiles
Makes me love you even more
Being with you is all I need
to know my life is complete
You are my true love

Sebuah Cinta Sejati

Bagaimana aku bisa memberitahumu bahwa

Engkau berarti dunia bagiku
Semua hal-hal kecil yang kau lakukan
kata-kata manis dan senyum emas
Membuatku mencintaimu bahkan lebih
Bersamamu adalah semua yang aku butuhkan
untuk melengkapi hidupku
Kamu adalah cinta sejatiku
 Shall I Compare Thee?
Shall I compare thee to a summers day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate.
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summers lease hath all too short a date.
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimmed;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance or natures changing course untrimmed;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest;
Nor shall Death brag thou wanderest in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou growest:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
William Shakespeare

Haruskah aku Bandingkan Engkau?

Haruskah aku membandingkan engkau sebagai sehari musim panas?
Engkau lebih indah dan lebih bernuansa seni.
Angin kasar yang mengguncang benih Sayang pada bulan Mei,
Dan kesempatan musim panas yang terlalu pendek.
Kadang terlalu panas mata yang tersinari surga,
Dan seringnya kulit emas yang meredup:
Dan setiap keadialan demi keadilan kadang-kadang merosot,
Kebetulan atau alam berubah tidak seimbang;
Tapi musim panas kekal-Mu tidak akan memudar
Tidak juga kehilangan kepemilikan yang adil;
Tidak juga Kematian akan membual engkau di tempat teduh nya,
Ketika di garis kekal mendekati waktumu:
Selama manusia dapat bernapas atau mata dapat melihat,
Selama hidup ini, dan ini memberi hidup kepadamu.
William Shakespeare

Ethnographic translation: its purpose is to explicate the cultural context of the SL and TL versions.
Translators have to be sensitive to the way words are used and must know how the word fits into cultures.
Example: the use of the word yes versus yeah in America..
Handphone Brochure this brochure was written well, nut some words still strange.
Like Al-Quran (Arabic) which written just Quran.

LINGUISTIC TRANSLATION

This is concerned with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of the source language and
grammatical form, an example is language in a computer program and machine translation.
Example of linguistic translation (language in a computer program). This is a list of words in a
computer program with their translation.

adheres ~ berpegang, menganut, mematuhi

assigned ~ ditetapkan, ditugaskan
asynchronous ~ asinkron
attached ~ melekat
attribute ~ atribut
background, running in background ~ balik layar, beroperasi di balik layar

Different languages give different ways to look at the world but translation provides us the
opportunity to explore and interact with these different views of the world. Translation refers to
carrying the meaning of a text from one language to another. This process involves interpretation of
meaning of the text and producing the same meaning in another language. Translation as an activity is
actually as old as written language or text itself. However as a discipline of study it is comparatively
new.

Since all word of one language may or may not have a corresponding word in the other language,
Linguistic study becomes crucial for the purpose of translation. Linguistics pertains to scientific study
of language. Linguistic approach to translation focuses primarily on the issues of meaning and
equivalence (same meaning conveyed by a different expression). Linguistics thus tries to discover
what the language actually means. It is then the work of the philosophy of linguistics to understand
how the language means.

Language has certain features like meaning, reference, truth, verification, speech acts, logical
necessity etc. it is through these feature that the linguists try to understand the what and the how of
the text. Any language uses a particular set of signs and symbols to convey a particular meaning or
idea. These signs and symbols are signifiers. The meaning or idea that is being conveyed by these
signifiers is called signified. All languages are used in a particular social and cultural context. So
the signified for a particular signifier may change from culture to culture and society to society.
For example, for signifier yellow in America, the signified is cowardice (yellow bellied- a popular
saying) for Japan yellow signifies courage whereas for Indians it signifies joy. Thus the translator has
to understand what the author of the original text actually wants to convey.

Beyond doubts language is the most vital component in translation. Translation can actually be
understood as transferring the meaning or the idea from one language to another. It thus becomes
imperative for a translator to understand the meaning of the source text (text to be translated) in the
context in which they are said or written.

Language is formed of grammar, words, syntax etc. this form the structure of the language and
pertains to structural linguistics. However beyond the structural approach the context also becomes
important as said before. This aspect of linguistics approach is termed as functional linguistics.

There has been a historical debate in the field of translation between word to word (literal) and
sense to sense (free) translation. Linguistic approach can enter both these aspects of
translation. However the sense to sense translation is understood to actually carry to the same
meaning as of the source text. So the translator is expected to maintain a linguistic equivalence
between the source and the target text. Doing so involves an understanding of grammar, convention,
idioms, etc in the social, political, economic and cultural context in which the text is written.

Thus it can be concluded that a Linguistic approach to translation covers all forms of translation. It is
the right way to move forward towards better language translation.

COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION

Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way
that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership

Example :

Beware of the dog = Awas anjing galak

When the actual translation is beware of the vicious dog but in communicative translation we know
that the dog is vicous even without using the viciouss words .
SEMANTIC TRANSLATION

Semantic translation is the process of using semantic information to aid in the translation of data in
one representation or data model to another representation or data model. Semantic translation takes
advantage of semantics that associate meaning with individual data elements in one dictionary to
create an equivalent meaning in a second system.

An example of semantic translation is the conversion of XML data from one data model to a second
data model using formal ontologies for each system such as the Web Ontology Language (OWL).
This is frequently required by intelligent agents that wish to perform searches on remote computer
systems that use different data models to store their data elements. The process of allowing a single
user to search multiple systems with a single search request is also known as federated search.

Semantic translation should be differentiated from data mapping tools that do simple one-to-one
translation of data from one system to another without actually associating meaning with each data
element.

Semantic translation requires that data elements in the source and destination systems have "semantic
mappings" to a central registry or registries of data elements. The simplest mapping is of course where
there is equivalence. There are three types of Semantic equivalence:

Class Equivalence - indicating that class or "concepts" are equivalent. For example: "Person"
is the same as "Individual"
Property Equivalence - indicating that two properties are equivalent. For example:
"PersonGivenName" is the same as "FirstName"
Instance Equivalence - indicating that two individual instances of objects are equivalent. For
example: "Dan Smith" is the same person as "Daniel Smith"

Semantic translation is very difficult if the terms in a particular data model do not have direct one-to-
one mappings to data elements in a foreign data model. In that situation an alternative approach must
be used to find mappings from the original data to the foreign data elements. This problem can be
alleviated by centralized metadata registries that use the ISO-11179 standards such as the National
Information Exchange Model (NIEM).

Tsu : He is a book-worm.
Tsa : *Dia (laki-laki) Seorang kutu buku
 CONCLUSION

To find a suitable translation framework implies that the translator has to find the appropriate
translation type (method) for the type of text he is working with. And this has always been the central
problem of translation: whether to translate freely or literally. The argument has been going on since
the inception of translation theory. Newmark (1988:45) sums up the situation with these words:
Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, many writers favoured some kind of 'free '
translation: the spirit, not the letter; the sense not

the words; the message rather than the form; the matter not the manner. This was the often
revolutionary slogan of writers who wanted the truth to be read and understood - Tyndale and Dolet
were burned at the stake. 9cliff's works were banned. Then at the turn of the nineteenth century,
when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the linguistic barriers were insuperable and
that language was entirely the product of culture, the view that translation was impossible gained
some currency, and with it that, if attempted at all, it must be as literal as possible. This view
culminated in the statements of the extreme "literalists ", Walter Benjamin and Vladimir Nabokov.

This historical overview is a reflection of the fact that the argument has usually been
theoretical. The type of text and its purpose or the purpose of the translation together with the
intended audience are issues that were not discussed. Yet, these issues play a vital role in determining
the translation type (method) to be employed. A detailed analysis of different translation types (methods) as
they are expounded by different theorists will be furnished, but it is felt that Newmark's (1988:45-47)
exposition of different types (methods) are the most complete and will consequently be used as the basis for
the discussion of, and reference to, other classifications of translation types (methods).
 GLOSSARY

UNO, BTT (q.v,), Komsomol).

ACTUAL: The sense used in the particular context, as opposed to 'potential'.
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE (or RELATIVE CLAUSE); Subordinate riause qualifying or describing a noun or
pronoun (e.g. 'the man who came in'; 'the house (that) I saw1; 'the man (who/whom) I saw').
"ADJECTIVAL NOUN: Noun formed from an adjective, (e.g. 'kindness', 'redness'),
'ANONYMOUS' TEXT: (Delisle's (1981) term). A text where the name and status of the author is not
important. Usually a run-of-the-mill 'informative' text,
'AUTHORITATIVE TEXT (or STATEMENT); An official text, or a text where the status of the author carries
authority,
BACK-TRANSLATION TEST (BTT): Translating a stretch or lexical unit of TL text back into the SL, for
purposes of comparison and correction. A useful test for assessing the semantic range of the SL
passage. If the retranslation doesn't correspond with the SL text, a Translator can justify his version:
(a) if it shows up a SL lexical gap; (b) the wider context supports a non-corresponding version.
However, if the SL lexical unit has a clear one-to-one TL equivalent, a different version is usually
hard to justify.
BLEND (or'PORTMANTEAU'WORD): The fusion oftwo words intoone(e.g. 'motel', 'brunch' and common
technical Language).
CASE-GAP: Where a 'CASE-PARTNER' (q.v.) is missing.
CASE-PARTNER: A noun GROUP (q.v.) or pronoun dependent on a verb, adjective or noun; it may be the
subject, object, indirect object, etc,, of a verb; in the possessive or genitive case (e.g. 'a row of books',
'a student group1) or dependent on a VERB ADJECTIVE (q.v.) (e.g, 'responsible to me'). In
translation,