10.

1 The atrmm of Powergen Operational Headquarters

Architect: Bennetts Associates
TEN sustainability

'Our practice has delivered energy-efficient buildings in concrete for over

twenty five years so we are in a good position to know that the theory
works in practice, especially in a temperate climate such as the UK. By
combining thermal mass and surface profile with good insulation and
control over solar gain, building-types that are normally air-conditioned can
achieve good working conditions through natural ventilation.'
Rab and Denise Bennetts'

Concrete has a very significant role to play

in creating a sustainable and ecologically
responsible built environment for humankind.
It is a technology that dates back over two
thousand years, and examples of concrete
constructed by the Romans remain highly
visited buildings in public use. The Pantheon
in Rome is an excellent example of this (see
Figure 8.4).

Although we should consider how to demolish

new buildings at the end of their life as part
of the initial design process, it is important
that the construction industry is not drawn
into a discussion about recycling as if
buildings are just packaging. One of the 10.2 Shibboleth crossing the concrete floor of the
keys to a sustainable built environment is Turbine Hall at Tate Modern
the quality of the design embedded in the Artist: Doris Salcedo
architecture or infrastructure. Frequently,
well-designed buildings are reused rather
than demolished after their first use is no When considering buildings and infrastructure
longer required, thus saving the original that has reached the end of its first life, the
embodied energy and the cultural value of order of decision-making should be: reuse of
the building. It is pertinent to note that Tate the building; reuse of the component; and
Modern, formerly a power station designed by finally recycling, if the other two options
Giles Gilbert Scott, is one of the most visited are not appropriate. The Gemini Residence,
buildings in the south east of England. In designed by MVRDV with JJW Architects, which
2005, Tate Modern was used by over was first occupied in 2005, is an excellent
4.1 million people. Sir Nicolas Serota, the
example of reuse and reinvention - two 25 m
director of Tate Modern, noted that 'on the
diameter concrete grain silos have been reused
last day of the Olafur Eliasson exhibition in
to form the courtyards of dockside apartments
2003 the gallery was busier than Bluewater',^
in Copenhagen. Christian Hanak and Eva 0rum,
which is Europe's largest shopping mall.
in New Architecture in Copenhagen, delight

213
214 SUSTAINABILITY

10.3 The Gemini Residence inventively reuses two existing reinforced concrete grain silos
Designed by MVRDV with JJW Architects

pillows. They provide a generous semi-public

space, giving access to the apartments.

When designing a new build project, architects

need to consider two key environmental
issues: how to reduce the carbon emissions
associated with the running of a building;
and how to reduce the carbon embodied in
the construction of the project. This may
10.4 Head of a new entrance doorways to the include using alternatives to Portland cement,
Gemini Residence, which has been precisely secondary or recycled aggregates, and offsite
diamond cut out of the existing concrete manufacturing. All of which will reduce the
cylinders, revealing the steel reinforcing bars carbon footprint of the construction process
and, as we make more energy efficient
buildings, the embodied COj, of the building's
fabric becomes a more significant factor. It is
in this architectural act of reinvention: 'It was vital the quality of the spaces and the comfort
a stroke of genius to place the apartments of the occupants remain at the top of the
outside the two concrete cylinders.'^ The agenda; in an office building, for example, the
interiors of the former silos are now caped by most expensive and the most valuable resource
diaphanous ethyl tetra fluoro ethylene (ETFE) are the people using the building.
 SUSTAINABILITY 215

10.5 The concrete silos are now capped by pillows of ETFE

Lifecycle A key part of the WLC assessment also

Concrete that is well detailed and carefully addresses environmental and sustainability
constructed readily achieves a life expectancy aspects.
of over 100 years. The normative first life of a
road bridge in the UK is over 120 years. The The application of WLC:
concrete should require little maintenance,
how/ever, it is important that it is inspected encourages communication and project
annually and any problems that may occur definition;
should be repaired immediately. clarifies the cost of ownership and
occupation;
Whole Life Costing (WLC) is a powerful tool optimises the total cost of ownership/
designed to assist in assessing the cost occupation;
and performance of construction - aimed ensures an early assessment of risks;
at decision mal<ing, assisting in the choice promotes realistic budgeting;
between options that differ both in construction encourages discussion and decisions about
and operational costs over a defined time material choices;
span. Capital costs, site adaptation and ensures the best value is attained; and
refurbishment, design fees and cost in use provides actual figures for future
(including maintenance, cleaning, security, benchmarking.
energy and insurances), rent/rates and other
specific business facilities management It is important to not just consider the first
, services are also considered. Associated finance cost of a proposed project, however the
and income, taxation and residual value/ pressures to reduce the capital cost of project
disposal costs can also be included. cannot just be ignored. A more responsible
216 SUSTAINABILITY

approach is to consider tlie WLC of a project,

thinking beyond the capital cost by including
energy running costs and embodied energy
costs, over a time period or lifecycle agreed
with the client. In 'Whole-Life Costs Concrete
vs Steel', David Wright undertook a comparison
of two identically dimensioned office buildings,
one with a steel frame and, the second, an
in situ concrete frame.* Although the steel-
framed option has the lower capital cost by
3.6% over a 30-year period, the concrete-
framed office building represents a saving of
over 4%, this is predominately the result of
the passive cooling achieved by the thermal
mass of the concrete frame. As energy costs
increase, this improvement and overall saving
will grow to be even more significant, which
should be considered alongside the 57 tonnes
of COj saved each year by using a concrete
frame. 10.6 A plattenbauen that is about to be demolished

Life expectancy of a range of materials

When specifying a material for a particular Recycled precast concrete panels
task within a project, do architects consider Although concrete is capable of achieving a life
the life expectancy of the material sufficiently? expectancy of over one hundred years, it is not
This can be influenced by the way a building is unusual for some buildings, if badly detailed,
used and maintained. It is a good principle to to age poorly or to outlive their original social
inspect buildings and infrastructure annually, era. This has been an issue with Government-
and to carry out any necessary preventative commissioned tower blocks, originally designed
maintenance that may be required. This is to provide affordable housing. The demolition
much more cost-effective than neglecting the of an in situ cast tower block can provide a
architecture and waiting for things to go wrong. significant quantity of recycled aggregate,
Table 10.1 shows the typical life expectancy but, unlike timber and steel, it is not possible
for a range of construction materials and is to carefully remove and preserve complete
sourced from the Guideline for Sustainable building components for reuse. However, if a
Building.^ tower block constructed of precast panels is
demolished carefully, panels can be reclaimed
Another robust source on life expectancy and used again to build new forms of housing,
figures is the Life Expectancy of Building saving the original embodied energy of the
Components: A Practical Guide to Surveyors' manufacture. Herve Biele of architectural
Experiences of Buildings in Use.'' practice Conclus has deigned new housing
in Mehrow, near Berlin, that reuses precast
concrete panels from an unwanted 11-storey
slab block or plattenbauen. The new houses
cost 30% less because of the reuse of the
precast concrete panels.
 SUSTAINABILITY 217

Table 10.1: Typical life expectancy for a range of construction materials

Element Material Life expectancy Average life expectancy

(years) (years)

Foundations Concrete 80-150 100

Interior walls Concrete 100-150 120

Steel 80-100 90

Softwood 50-80 70

Hardwood 80-150 100

Stairs and balconies Concrete 100-150 100

Steel (internal) 80-100 90

Steel (external) 50-90 60

Softwood (internal) 50-80 60

Hardwood (internal) 80-150 90

Softwood (external) 30-50 45

Hardwood (external) 50-80 70

Roof structures Concrete 80-150 100

Steel 60-100 70

Timber 80-150 70

Glued truss 40-80 50

Nailed truss 30-50 30

Exterior facings Concrete 100-150 120

Softwood 40-50 45

Hardwood 60-80 70

Boundary protection Treated softwood 15-25 20

Hardwood 25-35 30

Galvanised/plastic 30-40 35
coated metal

Precast concrete 60-80 70

218 SUSTAINABILITY

The architects reused intact precast concrete

wall panels and floor plates from a demolished
communist-era tower block (or plattenbauen).
By doing this, the energy consumption that is
usually associated with both concrete design
and demolition was significantly reduced.
Reusing concrete panels reduces the fuel costs
that are usually associated with tower block
demolition and the production of new concrete
from the recycled aggregates. It can also be
advantageous due to the fact that concrete
hardens and increases in strength with age.

10.7 The recycled precast concrete panels

10.8 Mehrow Residence - interior during construction lo.io Mehrow Residence

Designed by Herv6 Biele of Concius

The only significant energy costs arise from the

transportation of the 5 tonne panels and the
use of a portable crane to lift them into place
on site. However, the usual fuel emissions
associated with aggregate extraction, cement
manufacture and mixing are eliminated,
B|iHM 1 making this a very environmentally friendly
option. It is also very cost-effective. For
the Mehrow Residence, the demolition firm
provided the panels free of charge, which
saved them the disposal cost and saved the
architects the material cost. It can, however,
10.9 Mehrow Residence - under construction be problematic to use recycled concrete panels
on a small-scale scheme such as Concius'
IVlehrow Residence. Although the panels are
quick and simple to erect, their weight makes
 SUSTAI NABILITY 219

transportation and storage difficult, and they

may need to be cut down to size. Timing is also
an important issue for a scheme using recycled
concrete panels, as there must be a demolition
site close by and for transport to remain cost-
effective, say within 100 miles. LEED in North
America would apply a distance of 500 miles
for the supply of components, reflecting the
large-scale geography of that continent.' With
the addition of 300 mm of insulation, double
glazing and an appropriate heating system, a
recycled concrete panel house can be up to 10.11 Inside a cement kiln
three times more energy efficient than a normal
house and, at approximately 521 per m^,
30-40% cheaper than building a structural
frame from scratch. Alternatives to Portland cement
Embodied 00^ can be reduced further by
the use of an industrial by-product with
Reducing the embodied energy of concrete cementitious properties, such as ground
The production of Portland cement requires granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) and
a significant amount of energy. It is currently pulverised fuel ash (PFA), see Chapter 3.
the most common form of cement, typically According to the Cementitious Slag Makers
accounting for 10-15% of concrete by weight. Association (founded in 1985), and based
In addition to the energy requirements of the on research by the Building Research
1,450C furnace, CO^ is produced from the Establishment (BRE), each year in the UK
chemical reaction when heating the calcium more than two million tonnes of ggbs is used
carbonate. However, over the past 40 years as cement.' By replacing the use of Portland
the energy consumption of cement has fallen cement, this annually:
by over 40%, from 7.5 GJ per tonne in 1962
to 4.5 GJ per tonne in 1997. Correspondingly, reduces COj, emissions by some two million
the embodied 00^ (ECOj) has also dropped. tonnes;
Direct COj emissions related to the production reduces primary energy use by 2,000
of cement have been reduced by 29% between million kWh;
1990 and 2006. The quantity of fossil fuels saves three million tonnes of quarrying; and
used to produce cement has been reduced by saves a potential landfill of two million
29% since 1998 by the burning of waste- tonnes.'"
derived alternative fuels.^
For more information on the specification of
Cement production in the UK accounts ggbs see BS EN 15167-1:2006 ggbs. The
for 2% of the CO2 emissions, compared degree to which Portland cement can be
with approximately 50% from the heating substituted is dependent on factors such as
and lighting of buildings and 30% from the structural function of the concrete and
transportation. its desired curing time. Table 10.3 compares
the embodied 00^ of various specifications of
concrete, using mixes of Portland cement, PFA
and ggbs.
220 SUSTAINABILITY

Table 10.2: The embodied carbon dioxide (ECO,) of concrete elements

Concrete Concrete type ECO^ in kgCOj ECO2 in kgCO^

per m ' per tonne

Blinding, mass fill, strip footings, mass GENl 70 mm 173 75

foundations' (CEM 1 only)

Trencfi foundations' GENl 120 mm* 184 80

{CEM 1 only)

Reinforced RC30 70 mmt 318 132

foundations' (CEM 1 only)

Ground floors' RC35 70 mmt 315 133

(CEM 1 only)

Structural: in situ floors, superstructure, walls, RC40 70 mmt 372 153

basements' (CEM 1 only)

High-strength concrete' RC50 70mmt 436 176

(CEM 1 only)

Dense concrete aggregate block' Precast block 147 75

Aerated concrete block' Precast block 121 240

Generic lightweight aggregate block' Precast block 168 120

Timber

Timber, UK sawn hardwood" 369 470

Timber, UK sawn softwood" 185 440

Plywood" 398 750

Steel

UK produced structural steel sections' 15,313 1,932

* includes 25 kg/m^ steel reinforcement

t includes 30 kg/m^ steel reinforcement
t includes 100 kg/m-^steel reinforcement

References:
a. The ECOj figures for GEN 1, RC32/40 and RC40/50 were derived using industry agreed
representative figures for cementitious materials, aggregates, reinforcement, admixtures and an
appropriate figure for water.
b. BRE Environmental Profiles database, Building Research Establishment (BRE), 2006.
c. Communication from the Environment Division, BREEAM Centre, Building Research
Establishment (BRE), 2005.
d. Hammond, G. and Jones, C. (2006) Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) version 1.5 Beta,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath.
e. Amato, A. and Eaton, K., J. (1998) A Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of
Modern Office Buildings, Steel Construction Institute.
 SUSTAINABILITY 221

Table 10.3: The embodied carbon dioxide (ECO,) of concrete mixes

Concrete Concrete ECO2 in kgCOj ECOj in kgCO^

type per tonne per m^

CEM 1 30% 50% ggbs CEM 1 30% 50% ggbs

concrete fly ash concrete concrete fly ash concrete
concrete concrete

Blinding, GENl 173 124 98 75 54 43

mass 70 mm
fill, strip
footings,
mass
foundations'

Trench GENl 184 142 109 80 62 47

foundations' 120 mm*

Reinforced RC30 318 266 201 132 110 84

foundations' 70 mmt

Ground RC35 315 261 187 133 110 79

floors' 70 mmt

Structural: RC40 372 317 236 153 131 97

in situ floors, 70 mmf
superstruc-
ture, walls,
basements'

High- RC50 436 356 275 176 145 112

strength 70 mmt
concrete'

Dense Precast 147 75

concrete block
aggregate
block'

Aerated Precast 121 240

concrete block
block"

Lightweight Precast 168 120

aggregate block
block'

* includes 25 kg/m^steel reinforcement

t includes 30 kg/m^steel reinforcement
t includes 100 kg/m^ steel reinforcement

References:
a. The ECO^ figures for GEN 1, RC32/40 and RC40/50 were derived using industry agreed
representative figures for cementitious materials, aggregates, reinforcement, admixtures and an
appropriate figure for vi/ater.
b. BRE Environmental Profiles database, Building Research Establishment (BRE), 2006.
c. Communication from the Environment Division, BREEAM Centre, Building Research
Establishment (BRE), 2005.
222 SUSTAINABILITY

Recycled steel reinforcement It is also possible to use recycled aggregate

All steel reinforcement produced in the UK is to reduce the environmental impact of the
made from 100% recycled steel, which at the concrete. The sources of recycled aggregate
end of its life can be recovered and recycled predominantly rely on the reuse of construction
again." Recycled steel reinforcement also material and the use of waste material from
has a lower embodied energy compared with industrial processes, which is known as
structural steel. When producing reinforcing secondary aggregate. Recycled aggregate
steel, the energy consumption is fundamentally is obtained from reprocessed, redundant
based on the energy used to melt and reform construction materials such as tiles, bricks
it. In contrast, structural steel manufacture and concrete, or asphalt plannings from road
in the UK is typically produced from iron maintenance works. It can be bought from
ore, through an energy intensive process. As demolition sites or specialist processing centres.
a result, the energy input per tonne of steel It is more energy efficient if the aggregate is
reinforcement is reduced by about half that for processed in situ at the demolition site, as this
structural steel. The typical embodied energy of can significantly reduce transport costs and
a steel rod is 24.6 MJ/kg and for recycled steel the environmental impact of excessive lorry
it is 11 MJ/kg.i^ movements. When construction works replace
existing structures, the demolished structure
Two common forms of steel production are the can often be reused as the aggregate of
basic oxygen and electric arc processes. In the sections of the new construction.
electric arc process, 'cold' ferrous material,
which is typically 100% scrap steel, is the
major component, and is melted with alloys Technical requirements for the
in an electric furnace. In the basic oxygen use of recycled aggregates in concrete
process, molten Iron is removed from the blast In comparison with gravel, recycled aggregates
furnace, combined with alloys, and up to 30% have divergent properties that require careful
steel scrap is used as an additive to lower the consideration when composing a proposed
temperature of the molten composition. In concrete mix. The limit values for contaminates
both processes, high-pressure oxygen is blown within recycled aggregates are based on various
into the furnace, causing a chemical reaction strength and durability aspects, such as:
that separates the molten steel and impurities,
which can be removed as slag (see above for the retarding influence on cement
the production of ggbs). hardening;
the corrosion of reinforcement (chlorides);
Aggregate swelling under the influence of moisture
The UK is fortunate in having an abundant absorption (e.g. wood);
supply of aggregates that can be extracted the formation of ettringite (swelling caused
from numerous sites throughout the country, by, e.g., gypsum);
meaning that aggregate can often be sourced alkali-silica reactivity (e.g. Pyrex glass);
locally, minimising the impact of transportation. and
Typically, about 10% of the embodied energy a decrease of compressive strength
of concrete is a result of transportation. For (e.g. asphalt).
remote sites, transportation by water or rail will
minimize 00^ production. Central London still Special attention needs to be paid to the drying
has quays where aggregates are brought in by shrinkage of concrete with recycled aggregates.
ship up the River Thames and transported away For the determination of the chloride contents,
by train. the soluble value is recommended. Leaching
limits are also proposed for the following
 SUSTAINABILITY 223

Table 10.4: Classification of recycled aggregates

Requirements Type 1 Type II Type III Test method

Minimum dry particle density (l<g/m^) 1,500 2,000 2,400 BS EN 1097-6

Maximum weight % with SSD < 2,200 [(g/m^ - 10 10

BS EN 1744-1 section
Maximum weight % with SSD < 1,800 kg/m^ 10 1 1 13.2 modified as ASTM
C123
Maximum weight % with SSD < 1,000 kg/m^ 1 0.5 0.5

Maximum weight % of foreign materials (metals, 1 Test by visual separation

glass, soft material, tar, crushed asphalt, etc.) as in BS EN 933-7

Note 1: BS EN 1744-1 section 12.2 separates material only at a density of 2,000 kg/m';
BS EN 933-7 is a sorting method, but only for the determination of shell content.
Note 2: The water absorption test is not used to classify recycled aggregates. However, for the
purpose of guidance only, the following values would be indicative of the various types of materials.

Table 10.5: Maximum water absorption value

For the purpose of guidance Type I Type II Type III Test method

Maximum water absorption value (weight %) 20 10 3 BS EN 1097-6

components: sugars, phosphate, nitrate, zinc, Quality control

lead, sodium and potassium, determined with Density, impurities and water absorption are
the tank-leaching test in accordance vifith measured during production at least once a
BS EN 1744-1:2009. Table 10.4 presents a week. Impact control and general description
summary of the most important requirements. (type) are determined for every delivery. The
density grading is controlled at least two times
Specifications are the same as natural per year.
aggregates with reference to size distribution,
shape, a I kali-aggregate reactions and the Secondary aggregates
content of material, which can alter the range These are usually by-products of other industrial
of the setting and hardening of the concrete. processes, which are not necessarily associated
The content of fines is allowed to be up to with the construction industry. Depending
5%, while this fraction will normally not be on their origin, these by-products can be
composed of clay particles. The content of further defined as manufactured or natural.
sulphur containing compounds is allowed to Manufactured secondary aggregates include
be 1 % . Leaching and contamination is limited slag from iron and steel manufacture and ash
in accordance with national specifications. from the bottom of coal-fired power station
incinerators, while typical naturally occurring
secondary aggregates include slate waste and
stent from china clay production. Separated
from the china clay by high-pressure hoses,
224 SUSTAINABILITY

For the concrete main frame of Number 1

Coleman Street, an office development in
the City of London for Stanhope, built during
2006 and designed by Swanke Hayden Connell
Architects with David Walker Architects, the
engineers Arup specified 1,005 tonnes of
secondary aggregate in the form of stent.
This project represents the first major use
of stent outside the South West of England.
Bryan Marsh of Arup noted that: 'By virtue
of the secondary aggregate and alternative
cementitious material [PFA], the overall
10.12 Stent at Bardon Aggregates' Littlejohn Quarry recycled/secondary content of the concrete
near St Austell increased tenfold from the 5% level typical of
current construction to 50% by mass and from
15% to approximately 45% by value. When
Stent is granite rock that is usually treated as the reinforcement was included this rose to
waste. Typically, 4.5 tonnes of stent is produced approximately 77% by value.'"
for every tonne of china clay. Stocl<piles of
material make secondary aggregates readily
available to the construction industry. Thinness
The cost of materials and the energy required
Using secondary materials may result in the to produce them places a key constraint on
concrete having a strong regional characteristic. all designers and architects to use as little
For instance, in the UK, secondary aggregate of a material as possible to deliver a durable
might predominantly consist of china clay sand and effective component. The minimal use of
in the South West of England and metallurgical materials, including concrete, is directly linked
slag in South Wales, Yorkshire and Humberside. to sustainability. The use of high-performance
concrete for structural components is reviewed
in Chapter 2, and Chapter 6 sets out strategies
for achieving economical long spans. One
technique for reducing the quantity of concrete
required for a slab, and thus its self-weight,
is by forming voids. Proprietary systems, such
as Bubble Deck and Cobiax, offer complete
floor slab systems to minimise concrete usage.
In this technique, recycled plastic spheres
are trapped between two layers of reinforcing
mesh, forming a two-way spanning hollow slab.
It should be noted that the use of void formers
limits the potential for integrating services into
the slab and that this should be considered
at the design stage; incorporating waterborne
heating and cooling pipe work is not a
problem, however, recessed light fittings can be
problematic or require careful coordination to
10.13 Number 1 Coleman Street
avoid the void formers.
Designed by Swanke Hayden Connell Architects
witti David Wall<er Arctiitects
 SUSTAINABILITY 225

Environmental responsibility
The cement and concrete industries have
demonstrated a strong commitment to
environmental responsibility and seek to
continuously improve its performance.
All cement works in the UK are certified to
ISO 140001: 2004, Environmental
Management Systems as a minimum. The
Concrete Industry Alliance Environmental
Report,^'' produced in 2000, notes the
commitment of the cement and concrete
industry to continuous environmental
improvement. From 1994-98 the following
improvements were made (per unit weight of
concrete):

2% less carbon dioxide;

48% less sulphur dioxide;
14% less nitrogen dioxide; and
24% less particulate emissions.

Between 1998 and 2006 the following further

improvements were made:

29% less carbon dioxide (combined value

1990 to 2006);
46% less sulphur dioxide;
17% less nitrogen dioxide; and
60% less particulate emissions.

The Concrete Industry continues to seek further

improvements to improve its economic viability
and reduce its overall environmental impact.
In 2008, the Concrete Industry in the UK
published a strategy aimed at becoming leaders
in sustainable construction and, in 2009,
they published its first annual sustainable
performance review, as part of its commitment
to continuous improvement.'^
10.14 Bubble deck - recycled plastic spheres minimise
the concrete required to form the structural slab

The importance of thermal mass

10.15 Levelling the concrete on a bubble deck slab
Materials with a high thermal mass are capable
10.16 New Laboratories of Expertex Textile Centrum -
of slowly accumulating, and slowly releasing,
note the surface-mounted light fittings thermal energy. High thermal mass is a
Architect: Brookes Stacey Randall with lAA Architecten consequence of a high density, high specific
heat capacity and a relatively low thermal
conductivity - materials such as earth, stone.
226 SUSTAINABILITY

Peak temperature
;' delayed by up to six
hours
Net reduction ot
IM
30 C
\ X innternai Temperature
/ 1
\ \ / / \ \
1
1
\ \ / / \ \
~\\^ // '' \ V\
\ v /
1
/A \^ / ' y\ ^
\ ^^//^-^ \ ^

vJ^
/ /
15 C

Day Night Day

10.17 Fabric energy storage created by exposed tliermal mass

water and concrete. Utilising the thermal mass Fabric energy storage can be controlled by
of building materials is l<nown as fabric energy either passive or active cooling methods.
storage. Natural ventilation is the most basic method,
but is dependent on lower night-time external
Fabric energy storage can be employed to temperatures. Passive systems are suitable
regulate temperatures within a building, for gains of up to 30 W/m^, where natural
minimising the need for energy-consuming ventilation can be used. Single-sided natural
systems such as air-conditioning. Heat is ventilation will operate at a plan depth of up
absorbed from the sun, as well as incidental to twice the floor to ceiling height, while cross-
gains from people, artificial lighting and ventilation operates at depths of five times the
electrical equipment. Internally exposed floor to ceiling height. Active systems allow for
concrete will absorb these gains, until it higher performance, and improved control, as
is balanced with the internal temperature, well as the potential for heat recovery from the
and will then release the energy when the ventilation. Passing water through the concrete,
internal temperature drops - creating a lag in connection with a ground storage tank, or
and a reduction in peak temperature. The heat exchanger, increases the effective thermal
amount of energy it can store, and the period mass, and can potentially be combined with a
of this lag time, is proportional to its mass heating system. Thermal mass and insulation
and its exposure. For fabric energy storage to perform different, often complementary,
operate effectively, a strategy for absorbing functions and should not be confused. Due to
and releasing the accumulated energy must their density, a material of high thermal mass
be employed, or the structure will simply will usually have a poor insulating ability, while
stay averagely warm during the summer, and a highly insulating material will have a low
averagely cold during the winter. Ideally, a thermal mass. Insulation blocks the passage of
lag time of 12 hours will offset and reduce thermal energy; thermal mass absorbs it.
the peak temperature by the maximum value.
Another possibility is to utilise a seasonal, Embodied energy, although significant in the
six-month lag-time, though this requires a selection of a building material, represents a
very high mass and will usually rely upon relatively small investment when compared with
ground temperatures, as in earth shelter the energy used by a typical late twentieth-
construction. century building. For example, in a four to six
storey building, with a life expectancy of
 SUSTAI N A B I L i T Y 227

50 years, the production of the building fabric

only accounts for 10% of the environmental
impact. The other 90% of environmental
impact is from the heating, cooling and lighting
of the building. This can be transformed by the
use of a high standard of insulation, combined
with the aid of thermal mass and a building
design that allows for efficient daylighting and
controlled solar gain. For buildings designed
to use a low amount of energy at low running
costs, the embodied energy of construction
becomes a more significant factor and should
influence the architect's design decisions. In
a comparison of concrete and steel structures,
the embodied energy of a concrete frame will
be, on average, 1.5 to 2.5 GJ/m^ compared
with 2.6 to 2.9 GJ/m2 for structural steel.^"^ 10.18 Inland Revenue Building, Nottingham
Architect: Michael Hopkins Architects
For concrete to absorb thermal energy
efficiently, the internal surface of the concrete
floor slab, wall or column must be exposed
to the interior of the building, rather than be
concealed by a ceiling or cladding material. The Powergen Operational Headquarters
This provides architects with aesthetic building, designed by Bennetts Associates
opportunities that relate directly to the holistic and completed in 1994, was one of the first
performance of the architecture. The shape and office buildings in the UK to use an internally
finish of a concrete slab can be manipulated exposed concrete structure to provide thermal
to create maximum thermal absorption by mass (see Figure 10.1). Night-time cooling
increasing its surface area, while facilitating is provided by the windows, electronically
natural light and incorporating artificial operated by a building management system.
lighting. It is essential that the soffit remains One of the advantages of this approach is
exposed - there always should be a line of that the concrete must remain exposed - it is
sight of the soffit for all occupants. the interior architecture of the project, thus
minimising the risks of a secondary layer of
An exposed soffit can be painted, typically in interior design being added by the client or
a light colour, to allow light to be reflected incoming tenant. During his 2003 Lubetkin
into the building. This will reduce the need for lecture, Rab Bennetts noted that working
artificial lighting by making the daylight more with concrete to build low-energy buildings
effective. An inherently light colour can be that had high-quality interiors 'offered the
achieved by the use of white cement or ggbs. chance to re-establish some architectural
In some cases, such as the Inland Revenue authenticity in the office as a building-type'''
Building in Nottingham by Michael Hopkins (see Chapter 3 for details of the onsite
Architects, the decision was made to paint precasting of the floor slabs of the Powergen
the concrete with a mineral paint to achieve building). The concrete soffit has a curved
consistent light reflectance for the daylight and boat-like profile, which integrates services and
up lighting. The finish of an exposed concrete lighting. Bennetts observed: 'The concrete
surface is determined by the mix, formwork used coffers became the symbol of the project - a
and mode of production (see Chapters 2 and 3). synthesis of engineering, economy, construction
228 S U S T A I N A B I LITY

is an exemplar of this approach, providing

a timely and vital contrast to the form-
derived buildings that seem to dominate the
architectural publications today.

The Potterrow Development, completed in 2008,

has a simple in situ concrete frame with flat
slabs, which typically span 6.5 m or 7.5 m,
except over the ground-floor meeting rooms
where down stands and post-tensioning were
^ a introduced to achieve a 13 m clear span. The
shear walls and concrete soffits are exposed
throughout to provide thermal mass; a vital
component in the low-energy strategy for this
intensively used building, providing a thermal
flywheel that facilitates night cooling. Some
academics can have up to eight computers in
their rooms. Therefore, mechanical ventilation
with heat reclaim is provided, with air being
drawn into the atrium and exhausted at a
high level, thus benefiting from the stack
10.19 The Informatics Forum of the Potterrow effect. The staff and students have the option
Development for the University of Edinburgh of opening windows for natural ventilation
uses the exposed thermal mass of the concrete in their offices. The exposed concrete soffits
frame, walls and soffit (2008) have been painted with vibrant colours based
Architect: Bennetts Associates on Eduardo Paolozzi's Turing Prints. These
are particularly striking in the two-storey
mini-forums that form key day-to-day meeting
and, above all, architectural space.''" Wessex spaces for the staff. The soffit generates soft
Water, also by Bennetts Associates, uses a glowing coloured daylight that spills out into
similar environmental strategy and achieved the adjacent spaces. For the cladding details of
an Excellent Environmental Assessment the Potterrow Development, see Chapter 9.
Award under BREEAM 98 for Offices from
the Building Research Establishment (BRE), The Informatics Forum is an excellent higher
and has been extensively evaluated after education building that benefits from Bennetts
occupation. The use of internally exposed Associates' experience of designing cost-
concrete allows the architect a way of unifying effective low-energy and high-quality office
performance and aesthetics. headquarters over the past 20 years. This is
flexible, durable and humane architecture. Only
The most valuable assets in any building the spaces of Herzberg's Centraal Beheer in
are the people. A knowledge-based economy Apledoorn rival the relaxed social spaces that
only serves to emphasise this point. In the surround this Forum.
twenty-first century, collectively, we should
be designing architecture that is comfortable
and enjoyable to work in by creating humane
architecture that facilitates interaction. The
Potterrow Development, designed by Bennetts
Associates for the University of Edinburgh,
 SUSTAI NABILITY 229

10.20 Section through the Informatics Forum of the University of Edinburgh

- summer ventilation strategy

10.21 Section through the Informatics Forum of the University of Edinburgh

- winter ventilation strategy
Cool running in California 10.22 Northwest elevation of the United States Federal
The United States Federal Building in San Building, San Francisco, California
Francisco, California, is one of the first major Architect: Morphosis witti engineers Ove Arup and
office buildings in the US to be naturally Partners
ventilated for over 70 years. Above the
fifth floor, this office building, designed
by Morphosis for the General Services
Administration (GSA), is naturally ventilated,
providing high-quality worl<spaces that require
only modest quantities of primary energy to

10.23 Key sections of the United States Federal Building, San Francisco, California
 SUSTAINABILITY 231

this project represents the epitome

of an optimistic architecture; an
architecture that synthesizes its
complex forces and realities into a
coherent whole.'"

The Federal Building uses only 45% energy

consumption of a typical GSA office and is
being monitored by the GSA Energy Centre.
This reduction in energy demand is primarily
the result of three environmental strategies
that are fully integrated into the architecture
of this office building: the maximisation
of daylight and the control of solar gain
combined with natural ventilation that is
computer controlled. The naturally ventilated
floors only use 86.9 kWh of electricity per
m^ per year. Lighting is typically the largest
energy requirement of an office building. The
10.24 The Skycourt of the United States Federal United States Federal Building incorporates
Building, San Francisco, California a slender tower that is 18 storeys high, but

10.25 Key plans of the United States Federal Building

San Francisco, California

create comfortable conditions. The exposed only 19.8 m wide to facilitate daylighting and
internal concrete structure is a vital component cross-ventilation. This in conjunction with a
in achieving comfort because it provides generous floor to ceiling height of over 3.25 m,
accessible thermal mass that can store energy which enables 85% of the workplace to be
on a diurnal basis. Thom Mayne, the founder day lit. The offices also afford its occupants
of Morphosis, writing about the design of this excellent views across San Francisco. It is
project, observes: highly appropriate for GSA to pioneer a low-
energy office building as it administers all
'When architecture engages social, of the federal government buildings in the
cultural, political, and ethic currents, USA. High-performance fagades are vital in
it has the potential to transform the achieving this energy saving, while creating
world and our place in it. For me. Dieasant worksoaces.
232 SUSTAINABILITY

10.26 A typical office in the United States Federal Building,

San Francisco, California - possibly showing that there is
too much solar gain entering via the double fagade

^ A ^ ^N -i ^k -dJ I 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 i l X i

A ^s A A A vv Al
ffl.
I A /s A /s A ^ /\ /.s y\ A

10.27 Typical office floor section of the United States Federal Building,
San Francisco, California
 SUSTAI NABILITY 233

10.28 The exposed waveform concrete soffit of the

United States Federal Building

The south-eastern elevation of the tower by Hopkins Architects. Thus, it is no surprise

is protected from excessive solar gains by to find that the structural engineers were
perforated stainless steel sunscreens. A double Ove Arup & Partners. The creamy coloured
fagade of fixed translucent glass louvers, with concrete of the soffit is a result of using ggbs
an inner layer of openable double glazed in the mix; it replaced 50% of the Portland
windows, forms the north-eastern elevation. The cement. The saving in embodied CO^ normally
public architecture of the tower is generated by associated with the use of ggbs, an industrial
these climate-specific fagades. by-product of iron production, was limited in
this case as the ggbs was sourced from Korea.
The offices have waveform exposed concrete
soffits providing thermal mass. The concrete In the twenty-first century, humankind has the
is cooled at night by automated opening vents benefit of a millennia of construction technology
that are controlled by a building management that can be combined with digital design
system. In its use of exposed concrete to and the digital modelling of performance.
define the interior and to provide thermal mass, Collectively, we have the means to make
this building has clear antecedence with the altogether better architecture that serves our
Powergen Operational Headquarters building diverse cultures and helps to sustain planet
in Warwickshire, by Bennetts Associates, and earth. Concrete, an ancient yet radical material,
the Inland Revenue building in Nottingham, has a vital role in sustaining human ecology.