3/21/2016

EE4003 Power Systems II

Dr. Lidula N. Widanagama Arachchige

Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

Course Syllabus
Fault analysis [12 hrs]

Grounding [04 hrs]

Load flow analysis [9 hrs]

Power System Protection [16 hrs]

Power system Economics [4 hrs]

Power system Stability [10 hrs]

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Fault Analysis

Fault Analysis Learning Objectives

The student will be able to:

Perform short circuit calculations in electrical power systems

Calculate current and voltage at different locations of the

power system under three-phase short circuit condition

Use symmetrical components to represent unbalanced system

of voltage and current in three balanced systems of voltage and
current

Sketch sequence networks elements of power system

Calculate voltage and current in electrical system under

asymmetrical short circuit conditions

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Purpose of Fault Analysis

To determine the short-circuit rating s of new switchgear and other
substation infrastructure equipment
Power system equipment such as circuit-breakers can fail catastrophically if they are
subjected to fault duties that exceed their rating.
Other equipment such as busbars, transformers and cables can fail thermally or
mechanically if subjected to fault currents in excess of ratings.

To ensure the safety of workers and the general public

Design of power system equipment

Switchgear manufacturers design their circuit-breakers to ensure that they are
capable of making, breaking and carrying, for the specified short circuit current for a
short time.
Manufacturers of substation infrastructure equipment (e.g. transformers and cables),
use the short-circuit current ratings specified by their customers to ensure that the
equipment is designed to safely withstand the passage of these currents for the
duration specified.

Faults

A fault on a power system is an abnormal condition that involves

an electrical failure of power system equipment operating at one of
the primary voltages within the system.
Faults usually occur in a power system due to either
insulation failure, flashover, physical damage or human
error

Short-circuit Open-circuit Simultaneous

Due to:
overstressing and
Results in a cessation of
degradation of the
current flow due to More than one type of
insulation over time
broken (open-circuited) fault
sudden overvoltage
conductors
condition
accidental contacts

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Fault Analysis
Faults

Symmetrical Asymmetrical

Only one or two phases

All three phases involved
involved in the fault
in the fault
Use symmetrical
Can be analyzed using
components to reduce the
single phase equivalent
complexity of the
circuit
calculations

Fault analysis is usually carried out in per-unit quantities:

give solutions which are somewhat consistent over different
voltage and power ratings
operate on values of the order of unity

Revision: Equivalent Circuits

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Relationship between Phase and Line Voltages

VC -VB VAB C
VCA
VCA
0 VC
VL = 3VP
30 VBC n VA
-VA A
- 240
0
-120
0 VA VL = VP+30o
VB
VAB
VB
-Vc
B

VBC

Phasor diagram Voltage triangle

Balanced and Unblanced Systems

Balanced three-phase system
Three voltages have equal magnitudes, AND
Three voltages are 120o out of phase with one another

Unbalanced three-phase system

If any one of the above conditions is not satisfied, the system is unbalanced.

Balanced Three-Phase Star (Y) Connected Loads

Ia Line current a
A
Ia Phase current
Phase
+
Voltage
Line
VAN Voltage
Za Van
-
In
N n
VCN - Vcn Zb
-
+
VBN + B Ic Zc Vbn
C c Ib b
Ib
Ic

IL = IP

Balanced Load:

Z a Z b Z c Z

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Phase currents:
V V p 0 o Vp
Ia an I p
Z a
Z Z

V V p 120o
Ib bn I p 120o
Z b
Z

V V p 240o
Ic cn I p 240o
Z c
Z

Neutral current : In Ia Ib Ic
For a balanced system
In I p I p 120 I p 240

In I p (1 j0 0.5 j0.866 0.5 j0.866 )

In 0
Therefore,
VNn 0
a balanced three-phase system can be operated without a neutral wire.

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Equivalent Circuits for Balanced 3-ph Circuits

Ip Line current
A
Phase
Ia Phase current ZA = ZB = ZC = Z
+ Line
Voltage Voltage
VAN Z Vp
- In = 0
In = 0
N n
VCN - Vp Z
+
- VNn= 0
VBN + B Ic Z Vp
C Ib
Ip IL = IP
Ip
VL = 3VP
In a balanced three phase circuit
the information relating to one phase gives the information relating to
the other two phases as well
it is sufficient to do calculations in a single phase circuit

Two common forms

take any one phase of the three phase circuit
create an equivalent single phase circuit to represent the full three
phase circuit

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Single Phase Circuit
Ip = IL = IAn
A

Zs

Z Vp = VAn
EA ST/3

N n

I = IP = IL
V = VP = VL/3
S = SP = ST/3

Solutions would be single phase quantities, which can then be

converted to three phase quantities using the above conversions

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Equivalent Single Phase Circuit

I = 3IL = 3IAn
A

Zs

Z VL = 3VAn
EL = 3EA ST

N n

Line voltage is used at the source

Line Current is artificially amplified by a factor of 3
The Impedance remains as the per-phase impedance
Yields the required three phase quantities directly, other than the current
which would be 3 IL

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Example:
A three-phase power system consists of a Y-
connected ideal generator and a -connected load
which are connected through a three-phase feeder.
The load has an impedance of 6030o /phase, and
the feeder has an impedance of 1.575o /phase.
The terminal voltage of the load is 4.16 kV.

Determine:
The terminal voltage of the generator, and
The line current supplied by the generator

Answer:
Ia
A
zLa Iab
+
EAN
- Vca Vab
N
ECN - Zca Zab
-
+
EBN + B
C Ic Ica Zbc

zLb Ibc
Ib Vbc

zLc

Z ab Zbc Zca 6030o

Vab Vbc Vca 4.16kV
Z La Z Lb Z Lc 1.575o

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Delta Connected Loads: Equivalent Y-Connected Load

IA

IAB IA

ZA
ZCA ZAB

ICA ZC ZB
ZBC
IC
IC
IBC IB
IB

Delta-Star Transformation:
ZCAZAB
ZA
ZAB ZBC ZCA Z
ZABZBC For Balanced Loads : ZY
ZB 3
ZAB ZBC ZCA
ZBCZCA
ZC
ZAB ZBC ZCA

Step 1: Convert Load to Y

Ia
zL
+
Va Za
-
N n
Vc - Zb
+ - zL
Vb + Ic Zc
Ib
zL

Balanced Load Z
ZY
3

1
Z Y 6030o 2030o / phase
3

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Step 2: Calculate Phase Voltage of Y-Load

Given: Terminal Voltage Vab 4.16kV

Calculate Phase Voltage using the relationship:

VL 3 Vp

Taking the phase-a load voltage as reference:

4160 o
Van 0 24000o V
3

Step 3: Construct the per-phase circuit

Ia

+ 1.575o
~ E 2030o 24000o V
aN
-

N In n

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Step 4: Calculate the line current

Ia

+ 1.575o
~ E 2030o 24000o V
aN
-

N In n

Using Ohms Law at the Load:

24000o
Ia 120 30o A
2030 o

Step 4: Calculate the Source Voltage

Ia=120-30oA

+ 1.575o
~ E 2030o 24000o V
aN
-

N In n

Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law:

EaN 24000 o (1.575o ) (120 30 o )

EaN 2527 j127
EaN 25303o V

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Step 5: Calculate the 3-ph Voltages

We have:
Van 24000o V EaN 25303o V

Balanced Load and Balanced Source:

Vbn 2400 120o V EbN 2530 117 o V

Vcn 2400 240o V EcN 2530 237 o V

Step 5: Calculate the 3-ph Currents

We have: Ia 120 30o A
Balanced Load and Balanced Source:

I b 120 150o A
I c 12090o A

Ic
VC

90o

-30o VA
Ib -150o
VB Ia

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Revision: Per Unit Quantities

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Per Unit Quantities

Fractional quantities of a reference quantity

Per unit (pu) value of any quantity is defined as:

Actual Quantity
Quantity in per unit
Base value of the quantity

S V I Z
Spu Vpu I pu Zpu
SB VB IB ZB

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Per Unit (pu)

Expressions such as Ohms Law can be applied

Since Voltage, Current, Impedance and Power are related,

only two Base or reference quantities can be independently
defined

Permits multiplication and division other than addition

and subtraction without the requirement of a correction
factor

The different voltage levels disappear, and a power

network involving generators, transformers and lines of
different voltage levels, reduces to a system of simple
impedances

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Base value calculation - single phase systems

If VAbase and Vbase are the selected base quantities of power and voltage
respectively, then
Vbase .I base VA base
Base Current I base
Vbase Vbase

Vbase Vbase .Vbase V 2 base

Base Impedance Z base
I base I base .Vbase VA base

In a power system usually, voltages are expressed in kV and power in

MVA, thus it is usual to select an MVAbase and a kVbase
Therefore, base values for current and impedance become
MVA base
Base Current I base in kA
kVbase

kV 2 base
Base Impedance Z base in
MVA base

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Base Value Calculation - Three Phase Systems

Line voltages and total aperent power are usually used.
If VAbase,3 and Vbase,LL are the base three phase power and base line-
to-line voltage respectively, then

VAbase 3.VAbase 3VAbase VAbase,3

Base Current I base
Vbase 3.Vbase 3 3Vbase 3Vbase,LL

V 2 base ( 3 )2 .V 2 base V 2 base,LL

Base Impedance Z base
VAbase 3.VAbase VAbase,3

Considering MVAbase,3 and a kVbase,LL

MVA base,3
Base Current I base in kA
3kVbase, LL

kV 2 base, LL
Base Impedance Z base in
MVA base,3

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pu calculation - three phase systems

Sactual (MVA) Pactual (MW) Q actual (MVar)
S pu Ppu Qpu
MVA base,3 MVA base,3 MVA base,3

Vactual ( kV )
Vpu
kVbase, LL

I actual ( kA) I actual 3kVbase, LL

I pu I actual (kA)
I base MVA base,3 MVA base,3

3kVbase, LL

Z actual () Z actual MVA base,3

Z pu Z actual ()
Z base kV 2 base, LL kV 2 base, LL
MVA
base,3

MVA base,3 MVA base,3

R pu R actual () X pu X actual ()
kV 2 base, LL kV 2 base, LL

The power factor remains unchanged in per unit

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Change of base
It is usual to give data in per unit to its own rating
As different components can have different ratings, for power
system analyses, it is necessary to convert all quantities to a
common base, for example 100MVA and a selected voltage base.

Sactual (MVA) S pu , given .MVA base,3 , given

S pu, new
MVA base,3 ,new MVA base,3 ,new

Vactual (kV ) Vpu,given .kVbase, LL,given

Vpu,new
kVbase, LL,new kVbase, LL,new

2

Z pu . kV base, LL,given
Z () Z pu .Z base, given MVA base,3 , given
Z pu,new actual
Z base, new Z base, new kV 2 base, LL,new
MVA base,3 ,new

MVA base,3 ,new kV 2 base, LL,given
Z pu
MVA kV 2 base, LL,new
base,3 , given

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Per Unit Quantities Across Transformers

Power rating on either side of a transformer remains the

same
But, the voltage rating changes
so does the base voltage across a transformer
Since the power rating remains unchanged, the impedance
and current ratings also change according to the voltage
ratings
A common MVAbase, 3 must be selected for a power system
to do analysis
Common Vbase, LL must be chosen and the nominal voltage ratio should be
used to find voltage bases whenever a transformer is encountered.
Thus the current base changes inversely as the ratio.
Hence the impedance base changes as the square of the ratio.

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For a transformer with turns ratio NP:NS,

the base quantities

Quantity Primary Base Secondary Base

Power Sbase Sbase

(S, P and Q)

Voltage (V) VP,base VS,base = VP,base . NS/NP

Current (I) IP,base = Sbase/3VP,base IS,base = Sbase/3VS,base

= (Sbase/3VP,base ). (NP/NS)

Impedance ZP,base =V2P,base/Sbase ZS,base =V2S,base/Sbase

(Z, R and X) = (V2P,base/Sbase) .(NS/NP)2

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Example:

The single line diagram of a three phase power system is

shown in the following figure. Select a common base of
100 MVA and 22 kV on the generator side. Draw the
impedance diagram with all impedances marked in per
unit. The manufacturer`s data for each device is given.
Line 1 and Line 2 have reactances of 48.4 and 65.43
respectively. Item MVA kV X(pu)
G 90 22 0.18
T1 2 3 T2 4
T1 50 22/220 0.1
Line 1
G
220 kV T2 40 220/11 0.06
M
T3 40 22/110 0.064
Line 2
1 110 kV T4 40 110/11 0.08
5 6
T3 T4 M 66.5 10.45 0.185

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Faults

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Faults

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Occurrence of Faults
(3% - 2%)
(10% - 8%)

(17% - 10%) Single phase-to-ground

Phase-to-phase-to ground
(70% - 80%)
Phase-to-phase
Three-phase
Reference: J. L. Blackburn and T. J. Domin, Protective
Relaying Principles and Applications, Third Edition, Taylor &
Francis Group, LLC, 2006.

On overhead lines :
most faults are one-phase-to-ground faults resulting primarily from
lightning-induced transient high voltage
falling trees and tree limbs
momentary tree contact caused by wind
Ice, freezing snow, and wind during severe storms can cause many faults and
much damage
Open circuit faults, such as a broken conductor or a blown fuse, are not too
common, except perhaps in the lower-voltage system in which fuses are used
for protection

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Effects of Faults on the System

System faults usually, but not always, provide significant

changes in the system
Over-current
Over- or under-voltage
Power factor or phase angle
Power or current direction
Impedance
Frequency
Temperature
Physical movements
Pressure

The most common fault indicator is a sudden and

generally significant increase in the current

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Symmetrical Three Phase Fault Analysis

Balance 3 fault Balance 3 to earth fault
a a
Supply b Supply b
Side Side
c c

all three phases of the system are short- all three phase of the system are earthed
circuited to each other

These are balanced conditions

Infrequent, but most severe

Only positive-sequence network is required for fault analysis

The single line diagram can be used, as all three phases carry
equal fault currents displaced by 120o

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Fault Level
A fault represents a structural network change
Equivalent with that caused by the addition of an impedance at the
place of fault
If the fault impedance is zero, the fault is referred to as the bolted
fault or solid fault

In a power system, the maximum the fault current (or fault

MVA) that can flow into a zero impedance fault is necessary to
be known
for switch gear solution
The system short-circuit fault level gives a measure of the strength or
weakness of the system at the point of fault (High system strength is
characterised by a high short-circuit fault level or low system
impedance)

The fault level is usually expressed in MVA (or corresponding

per-unit value), with the maximum fault current value being
converted using the nominal voltage rating

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Fault Level Calculation

MVA Fault 3 . Vnominal (kV) . Isc (kA)

MVAFault Fault Level at a given point in MVA

Isc Short circuit line current flowing in to a fault
Vnominal Nominal voltage (rated line-line voltage)

MVA base 3 . Vnominal (kV) . I base (kA)

MVAbase Base MVA

Ibase Rated or base line current
Vnominal Nominal voltage (rated line-line voltage)

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per unit value of the Fault Level

3 . Vnominal. I sc Vnominal,pu
Fault Level pu I sc, pu
3 . Vnominal. I base Z pu

The per unit voltage for nominal value is unity (1), so that

1
Fault Level pu
Z pu

1
Fault Level MVA Fault Level pu .MVAbase .MVAbase
Zpu

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Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)

The Short circuit capacity (SCC) of a busbar is the fault level of the
busbar

The strength of a busbar (or the ability to maintain its voltage) is

directly proportional to its SCC
An infinitely strong bus (or Infinite bus bar) has an infinite SCC, with a zero
equivalent impedance and will maintain its voltage under all conditions

The currents flowing during a fault is determined by the

internal emfs of machines in the network
impedances of the machines
impedances between the machines and the fault

The SCC is a better indicator of the stress on circuit breakers than the
short circuit current
Because a circuit breaker has to withstand the recovery voltage across the
breaker following an arc interruption

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Procedure for Balanced Fault Analysis

Steps:
Prefault bus voltages are obtained from the results of power flow
Loads are represented using constant admitances
The faulted network is reduced into a Thevenins equivalent circuit as
viewed from the faulted bus
Calculate the fault current
Calculate the changes in bus voltages
Bus voltages during the fault can be obtained by superposition of
voltage changes and prefault voltages
Obtain the fault currents in all branches of the network

Simplifying Assumptions:
Pre-fault voltages are at 1pu (All generators are running at their rated
voltage and rated frequency with their emfs in-phase)
Negligible line resistances
Negligible load currents compared to fault currents
Effect of shunt capacitances is negligible

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Thvenins Equivalent Circuit

Any combination of power sources and impedances with
two terminals can be replaced by a single voltage
source Vth and a single series impedance, Zth. The value
of Vth is the open circuit voltage at the terminals, and
the value of Zth is Vth divided by the current with the
terminals short circuited.

R3
Vth .V1
R1 R3

R1R3
Zth R2
R1 R3

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Example 1
The single-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system is shown in the
following figure. Each generator is represented by an emf behind the
transient reactance. All impedances are expressed in per unit on a common
100 MVA base. Determine the fault level at
a) Bus 3.
b) Bus 2.
c) Bus 1.
d) Determine the fault currents of the two generators during the fault
when a balanced three-phase fault with a fault impedance Zf = 0.16 pu
occurs on Bus 3.

j0.1 j0.2

j0.1 j0.8 j0.2

1 2

j0.4 j0.4

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Delta Connected Loads: Equivalent Y-Connected Load

IA
IA
IAB
ZA
ZCA ZAB

ZC ZB
ICA
ZBC IC
IC IB
IBC
IB

Delta-Star Transformation: Star-Delta Transformation:

ZCAZAB 1 1 1
ZA ZAB ZAZB( )
ZAB ZBC ZCA ZA ZB ZC
ZABZBC 1 1 1
ZB ZBC ZBZC( )
ZAB ZBC ZCA ZA ZB ZC
ZBCZCA 1 1 1
ZC ZCA ZCZA( )
ZAB ZBC ZCA ZA ZB ZC
Z
For Balanced Loads : ZY
3

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