Archives of American Art Journal

Archives of American Art
Journal
From the Director
The genesis of the Archives of American Art Journal can be traced to
1960, when the six-year-old, Detroit-based organization issued its first
Bulletin, a four-page newsletter that published brief articles on
Archives collections, while emphasizing the various social activities of
its members. However, as the collections grew in importance and
research use increased, the Bulletin quickly evolved from a members
newsletter to a more substantial publication with an increasingly
scholarly focus. In 1964, the Bulletin became the Journal, a title con
sidered more apropos of its serious intentions.
For over forty years, then, the Journal has been an important and
distinguished forum to share information about the Archives of Amer
ican Art and to publish the work of scholars who have drawn upon
our collections for their work. In addition to scholarly articles, the
Journal routinely publishes book reviews, excerpts from oral histories,
and transcriptions of original letters and other documents from our
collection. The Journal has also served as the principal means to keep
the scholarly community and Archives supporters informed about our
recent acquisitions and other pertinent news.
While the editorial content has continued to reflect the diverse and
lively research made possible by our collections, the presentation of
this material has grown stale and predictable. One of my first priorities
as the new director of the Archives has been to initiate an assessment
of the Journal with the goal of transforming it into a more informative
and visually compelling publication. The current issue includes just a
few of what we hope will be an ongoing series of design improvements
over the next several issues.
As we move toward a redesign of the Journal, we remain commit
ted to maintaining our traditionally high level of editorial discrimina
tion in the articles and reviews that we publish. That standard is cer
tainly achieved in Danielle Schwartzs admirable overview of the
career of the influential, but little-known, industrial designer John
Vassos, some of whose papers are owned by the Archives of American
Art, as well as in Mark Mitchells fascinating article on the evolution
of art historian John Baurs study of the luminist movement in Amer
ican art. These essays, along with reviews of recent books on Walt
Whitman, art dealer Edith Halpert, and the Empire State Building,
make for a wonderfully rich and wide-ranging issue.
John W. Smith Helen Savier, sketch, 1893. Frank Vincent DuMond Papers,
Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
2 A R C H I V E S O F A M E R I C A N A R T J O U R N A L 46 12
ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART
Journal
VOLUME 46 NUMBERS 12 2006
From the Director page 2
ARTICLES Modernism for the Masses: The Industrial Design

of John Vassos
Danielle Schwartz page 4
First Light: John I. H. Baur, James Suydam,

and Luminism
Mark D. Mitchell page 24
Art and Space: Park Place and the Beginning of the

Paula Cooper Gallery
Liza Kirwin page 36
REVIEWS David C. Ward on Ruth L. Bohans Looking

into Walt Whitman: American Art, 18501920 page 41
Jennifer N. Thompson on Mark Kingwells

Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and
American Dreams page 45
Graham Shearing on Lindsay Pollocks The Girl with

the Gallery: Edith Gregor Halpert and the Making of the
Modern Art Market page 48
RECENT ACQUISITIONS Laura Orgon MacCarthy page 52
PAPER TRAIL Technique over Trend: The Papers of

Honor Sharrer
Laura Orgon MacCarthy page 63
Modernism for the Masses:
THE INDUSTRIAL DESIGN OF JOHN VASSOS
D A N I E L L E S C H WA R T Z
This article examines a moment when There are several reasons why Vassos is
modern design met mass manufacturing, a a reatively unknown figure in American
story told through the early career of John design history. As a Greek American, Vas-
Vassos (18981985), a prolific but now lit- sos faced the typical struggles of a new
tle-known Greek-born American indus- immigrant, and, with a heavy accent,
trial designer, interior decorator, and illus- stereotyping may have worked against
trator, some of whose papers are held in him professionally. Unlike the contempo
the Archives of American Art. I first dis- rary designers Norman Bel Geddes, Ray-
covered the designers drawings years ago mond Loewy, and Walter Dorwin Teague,
at the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Vassos never had a large independent
Museum and was immediately intrigued. design consultancy, and over his career he
Later, I learned that Vassos designed the produced relatively few designs under his
first mass-produced television set and own name. As a result, he was not as well
found that there has never been a full- publicized as these other designershe
length biography of, or major exhibition never published his memoirs, for exam-
about, this important American designer. plethough he was always recognized by
Vassos entered the field of industrial his colleagues. This relative obscurity was
design in the early 1920s, when the mod- compounded after 1933, when Vassos got
ern American consumer economy was a job at the Radio Corporation of America
beginning to emerge. Design as a profes- (RCA). Even though for forty-three years
sion was also being defined at the time, Vassos was given wide responsibility
and designers were frequently called on there, because of the companys secretive
to repackage or redesign large numbers of policies about its radio and television
products and inventions destined for the operations, he was never promoted as a
rapidly growing market. Many American name designer.
industrial designers, Vassos among them, Vassos versatility was another factor.
were advocates of modern style, which Because he excelled in disparate areas of
they hoped would instill art into the design, his work is somewhat difficult to
inexpensive products they designed. peg. Before going to RCA, Vassos created
Designers debated the question of how a varied body of work that ranged from
radical their designs could be, however, print advertisements to book illustrations
and in this period the push and pull to industrial and interior designs. His cre
between pure modernism and the needs ative facility in so many areas set him off,
of the mass market produced a distinctly but also prevented him from receiving as
American vernacular modernism. Some much publicity as he might have had if his
of Vassos mass-produced designs present career had followed a more predictable
vivid case studies of the place of ordinary course.
objects in this process. Without a solo practice, high-profile
John Vassos working on an RCA New Yorker radio, ca. 1940. John Vassos Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 5

autobiography, or popular book putting forward a coherent viewpoint,
Vassos ideas about design have survived in a scattered form. Through

out the articles, lectures, letters, profiles, and professional publications
that survive in his papers, however, Vassos articulated a philosophy
shaped by a strong commitment to modernist aesthetic ideas and the
promotion of industrial design in America.1 Though Vassos supported
modernist principles throughout his career, his work also expressed an
American preference for comfort, functionality, and commercial via

bility.2
Unlike some mass-market designers, Vassos always took into
account the specific characteristics and functional requirements of the
commercial products he was commissioned to package.3 In the case of
his designs for radios and televisions, Vassos recognized the impor
tance of creating visual and tactile templates that allowed people to
adapt easily to the new machines, which after their introduction so
radically transformed time, space, and culture by bringing voices and
images created elsewhere into the private space of peoples homes.
John Vassocopoulos, a name he shortened to Vassos around 1920,
was born in Romania to an affluent Greek family that moved to Con

stantinople (present-day Istanbul), where his father ran a newspaper.
As a young artist, Vassos published brash political cartoons that even

tually made him a target of the Turkish police. Facing imprisonment, John Vassos, advertisement for Packard
he fled to the United States in 1919. Motor Car Company, ca. 1932. John
Vassos Papers, Archives of American Art,
Arriving first in Boston, Vassos worked as a window washer before Smithsonian Institution.
finding work as sign painter, stage designer, and then as an artist for a
gramophone company in Boston.4 Around 1921 he moved to New
York, where he opened the New York Display Company, which made
graphics for film premieres. Vassos continued to design for the theater
and pursued his art education at the Art Students League, where he
took classes with John Sloan.5 At the league he met other artists,
including P. K. Thomajan and Margaret Bourke-White, and at the
same time he became part of the Greenwich Village arts scene.6 In New
York he also met Ruth Carriere, a fashion writer, whom he married in
1923.
Vassos started to make money with his art by the early 1920s, at first
doing print advertisements for small companies and then picking up
work from department stores.7 As his reputation grew, he got longer-
term advertising contracts with the makers of Cammeyer shoes and
Packard cars.8 Vassos liked his images to drip off the page, and he used
graphic techniques like the full-page bleed and pulsating lines to give
the impression of energy.9 To create dramatic effects in his advertising,
he often juxtaposed strange objects or emphasized a singular but ordi
nary elementan arm, a shoewhich he elongated to make it look
extraordinary. In an advertisement for Paragon distributors, for
instance, a womans head springs from a plant, and in advertisements
for Packard, long cars emerge out of dreamy urban streets. These kinds
of striking images were typical of many print promotions at this time,
6 A R C H I V E S O F A M E R I C A N A R T J O U R N A L 46 1-2
when advertising men were beginning to develop techniques calcu
lated to sell goods by appealing to customers emotions.10
Vassos got a big break in 1926, when an editor for the publisher
E. P. Dutton saw his cover illustration for a Columbia University stage
production of Oscar Wildes Salome. The publisher quickly hired him to
illustrate a trilogy of works by WildeSalome, The Ballad of Reading
Gaol, and The Harlots House.11 Salome, published first, contained black
and-white illustrations that combined the eroticism of art nouveau, the
tilted and distorted perspectives of German Expressionism, and a dis
tinctly American sensationalism. Hailed after their publication as the
work of a modern Aubrey Beardsley (who had illustrated the contro
versial 1894 version), Vassos career was launched.
The Wilde books were followed by eleven others with Dutton,
including Contempo (1929), Ultimo (1930), and Humanities (1935). The
designers illustrationswhich he called projections, suggesting a
connection between emotions and graphic designwere meant to
shock and entertain viewers rather than be observed dispassionately,
and critics applauded Vassos condensed narratives and innovative
style.12
The images revealed Vassos intense ambivalence about the
machine age. The criticisms of power, the mass media, and capitalism
that Vassos made so dramatically in his illustrations were also com
ments on contemporary debates about the alienating effects of mech
anization on human life and the obligation of artists to comment on
John Vassos, advertisement for Paragon them. Several of Vassos images were republished with articles on the
Distributing Corporation, ca. 1920. John
Vassos Papers, Archives of American Art, dangers of the machine age.13
Smithsonian Institution. Vassos most influential book in these years was Phobia (1931), a
study of phobias triggered by urban life that he produced with the help
of Freudian psychoanalyst Harry Stack Sullivan.14 Intended to be edu
cational, it presented twenty-three full-page drawings accompanied by
text written by Vassos. Depicting phobias ordered in increasing inten
sity from nichtophobia, or fear of the dark, to pantophobia, or fear of
everything, Vassos showed his victims in the grip of unbearable fear
and anxiety. Using themes he had already explored in Contempo,
Vassos created stark, modern, and specifically urban settings for his
depictions of extreme psychological torment.
In Phobia, as in Salome, Vassos treated individual suffering and pain,
erotic longing, and death in a series of mesmerizing, terrifying images
that also indicted the scale, pace, mechanization, and monotony of
modern urban society. With a framework drawn from Freudian psy
chology, which had been introduced in the United States only in the
1920s, Vassos depicted the victims of phobias fleeing a modern city set
ting so hostile that it heightened their terror to overwhelming levels.
Of Vassos books, Phobia had the greatest mass appeal, and it was
featured in the June 1936 and February 1937 issues of Esquire, where
his ideas about fear and urban life were discussed.15 Throughout his
career Vassos often referred to the book, using it to support the claim
ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 1-2 7

that he had insight into the human psyche and expertise in determin John Vassos, Dromophobia, or the Fear of
Crossing the Street, 1931. John Vassos Papers,
ing the psychological state of consumersknowledge that he drew on Special Collections Research Center, Syracuse
in his work. University Library.
As Vassos fame grew, he became a fixture in the New York arts
scene.16 Dubbed the quintessential modernist, Vassos was active,
well known, and warmly written about by his colleagues.17 Our pent
house on 82nd Street became a salon of drinking conversationalists,
he noted. Ruth likes newspaper men and women, and I like artists.
They mix compatibly.18 Guests included Harry Hopkins, radio per
sonality Rudy Vallee, and others.19
In the late 1920s, Vassos pursued a wider range of professional
activities. He took part in exhibitions in galleries and private homes
around the city. With the help of Dutton, he gave a series of lectures
on modern art and design that went beyond simple book promotion.
Inspired by the work of Le Corbusier, whose important book Vers Une
Architecture was published in English in 1927, Vassos talked about the
John Vassos, design for bottles manufactured
by the Armand Company. Photograph by
Margaret Bourke-White, 1930. John Vassos
Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian
Institution.
new modernist ideas and gave slide shows arguing on behalf of an

American vernacular in industrial design and architecture.20 In his
lectures, Vassos wrestled to reconcile the kind of mass-market product
design he was starting to do at this time with Le Corbusiers grander
ideas.21 By the late twenties and early thirties, mass-market design was
becoming an increasingly important part of Vassos professional life,
and the tug of war between utopian modernism and mass-market
practice came to preoccupy him considerably from this time on.
Vassos entered industrial design work by way of product restyling
and packaging, working with the growing market of manufacturers
who realized the value of styling and beauty, as the advertising man
Earnest Elmo Calkins called this new marketing tool.22 For his first
important design, Vassos transformed a glass lotion bottle by the
Armand Company into a portable container with a unique screw-off
top that enabled the bottle to be reused as a flask when the lotion was
emptied. The clever container, whose curved shape allowed it to be
carried easily in a back or shirt pocket, was extremely popular during
Prohibition, and sales of Armand lotion increased dramatically after
the bottle was introduced.23

Typically for the time, Vassos considered a wider context as he John Vassos, early sketches of the Perey turnstile,
ca. 19301933. John Vassos Papers, Archives of
worked on his design. He held the opinion, for instance, that a American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
designer should always consider how a new product package was to be
displayed. The styling and designing of a product, he later elabo
rated, is not where the work of the industrial designer stops. Promo
tion and presentation after the styling and designing have been done
are equally important and are a very definite part of the industrial
designers job.24
Vassos acted on his idea by asking his friend Bourke-White to pho
tograph his new bottle, trading interior design work for stylish presen
tation photos, which both he and Bourke-White used in their portfo
lios.25 Bourke-White installed and shot the new product as if it were
an art object by setting up her shots with characteristically dramatic
lighting and heightened attention to form and texture. Using soft cur
tains and a shiny, sensuous surface that reflected the product label in
a pool of light, Bourke-White created an appealingly emotional por-
trait of the bottle. The photographer was in many ways the ideal per
son to photograph Vassos design because she was able to capture,
even in a single object, the heroic quality that people associate with
the machine age aesthetic.26
Following this first success with product design and enormous pub
licity efforts on his own behalf, Vassos found work with a number of
manufacturers for whom he reworked existing products using the
increasingly popular streamline style. His work was varied during the
1930s, when some of his most notable designs included a Lucite pen
for the Waterman Company, a never-manufactured streamlined bicy
cle called the aerobike (for which he also received a design patent),
kitchen appliances, and an innovative but never-produced beverage
John Vassos, design for RCA logo. John dispenser for the Coca-Cola Company, to be used at soda fountains all
Vassos Papers, Archives of American Art, over the country.27 Perhaps his most groundbreaking design in these
Smithsonian Institution.
years was a turnstile for the Perey Turnstile Company.
The turnstile, which was first used in the Chicago exposition of
1933, became a standard in the fieldyou have probably passed
through a Perey turnstile designed by Vassos if you have ever taken
the New York Subway.28 The company asked Vassos to include new
features that would eliminate unnecessary staff, increase entrance
capacity, and control the flow of people as they went in and out of the
turnstiles. Vassos placed the turnstile (whose main mechanism, after
the redesign, looked like a milking stool turned on its side) in a sleek
silver case decorated with three vertical speed whiskers. The design
was a great success and created just the sense of speed, movement, and
efficiency that the manufacturer sought. Vassos later turned to his
work in Phobia to explain the psychology behind his design, noting
that he had tried to imagine experiences of customers who would pass
through the machines. In particular, Vassos wanted phobic people to
feel more comfortable as they passed into the subway. As he
explained, Here my knowledge of the aichmophobics reactionfear
of pointed objectsguided me, and I produced a simple contrivance
with gently curving surfaces, with any disturbing design around the
feet of the user eliminated.29 Vassos thought the turnstile was one of
his best pieces of industrial design, and it remained in use all over the
country long after streamlining went out of style.30
By the late 1920s, Vassos had also started to design interiors. At first
he installed modernistic window and counter displays for stores like
Namms in Brooklyn, Kaufmanns Department Store in Pittsburgh,
and Macys in Manhattan, all of which were experimenting with mod
ern design as a sales tool.31 The modern style was at this time becom
ing strongly associated with principles laid out in the developing field
of consumer psychology, which sought to systematize the manipula
tion of consumers to increase profits. When many restaurants and
stores were renovated, for instance, their designers busily revamped
interiors with Taylorist principles in mind. The assembly line and other
markers of mass production influenced many of these renovations,

giving the new designs a strong modern signature. Designers often Nedicks hot dog stand at Broadway and
Forty-seventh Street, New York City, 1930.
sought to treat the new restaurant interiors almost as if they were real John Vassos Papers, Archives of American
assembly lines in a factory, shaping them to guide workers to be more Art, Smithsonian Institution.
efficient and customers to be more free spending.

In his restaurant work, Vassos planned each detailincluding fur
niture and interior arrangements, color schemes, lighting, and uni
formsusing the new ideas. To help him tailor his designs in such a
way that customers actions were guided and made more predictable,
Vassos closely examined such things as density, traffic, and sales fig
ures. His goal was greater precision in measuring how, when, and why
consumers did what they did when they ate out.
Vassos innovative 1930 design for Nedicks hot dog stand at Broad
way and Forty-seventh Street was a case in point. The designer
attempted to create a standardized but highly entertaining experience
during each customers trip to the new shining modern interior.
Unlike many fast food stands at the time, customers had to walk
inside to make their purchases. Vassos designed an integrated interior
in which a free-standing curvilinear counterone of the first in the
countrypowerfully suggested speed and movement. Lighting was
carefully controlled to encourage spending, and the curving counter
was shaped to ensure that the servers would move as efficiently as
possible.
Vassos developed similar ideas at the 1931 Rismont Tea Room,
which he transformed into a similarly streamlined hub. The restaurant
looked machine-like, with opulent metal trim, shining surfaces, and
clever interior lighting, and functioned as efficiently as possible. To
guarantee high turnover in the busy restaurant, Vassos deliberately
designed the chairs so that customers moved on quickly after they had
finished their meal. The chairs are comfortable, he explained, if one
doesnt sit too long on them.32
Vassos also did private interiors, including his own upper West Side
penthouse, which was published in Pencil Points, and Bourke-Whites
new office-studio in the Chrysler Building.33 For both, Vassos modified
Le Corbusiers idea of the home as a machine for living and Bauhaus
strategies of modern design, developing forms that avoided excess
ornamentation and installing modular furnishings suited to the small
spaces of skyscraper apartments. Declaring that the true modernist
eliminate[s] all unnecessary detail in attaining a practicaland by rea
son of its intense practicality, a beautifulresult, Vassos softened the
aesthetics of his European sources for the American sensibility.34
Anticipating an important design he developed for the 1939 Worlds
Fair, Vassos installed Bourke-Whites photographs and books in cozy
corners. Vassos also took pains to surround the photographer with the
modern factory-made materials of her clients at Pittsburgh Plate Glass,
Armstrong Cork, Alcoa Aluminum, and DuPont. For instance, in the
semi-indirect lighting system he designed, he used frosted glass held by
aluminum strips to furnish cakes of light. This carefully designed
office received critical acclaim.35
As Vassos career blossomed, he received some public praise for his
industrial design practice. In 1934, he was listed in a Fortune magazine
article as one of the top ten most important designers in the country;
others listed were Teague, Loewy, and Henry Dreyfuss. Proclaiming
that his subject is psychoanalysis, the unnamed author took pains to
establish that Vassos understanding of the psychology of buyers set
him apart; the success of Phobia was no doubt behind the authors
assertion.36
Throughout the 1930s, as he worked on a large variety of commis
sions, Vassos continued to explore new technologies and materials. His
designs for lighting in exhibition displays, including the innovative use
of artificial lighting for the Packard company booth at the Roosevelt
Hotel, garnered him attention in magazines such as Signs of the Times,
Edison Magazine, Lighting, and the Nela Park Magazine of the General

Electric Company.37 He became a spokesperson for the makers of John Vassos, design for the electron
microscope, ca. 1941. John Vassos Papers,
Bakelite, who were pleased to associate themselves with the rising Archives of American Art, Smithsonian
designer. In his displays of commercial products, Vassos was able to Institution.
experiment with and show materials that he continued to use, partic
ularly Formica, fabricoid, and brushed aluminum.
In 1933, Vassos was working for WCAU, a flagship CBS radio sta
tion in Philadelphia, when he met a visiting RCA executive. The man
immediately hired Vassos to work on the companys radio lines. With
radio manufacturing on the rise, it was a dream-come-true for the
designer. RCA gave Vassos even broader responsibility almost imme
diately, and during his many years at the company, he worked on
many projects. Vassos designed consumer products and developed
marketing concepts (including the company logo, the magic brain, in
1935), and worked as a graphic designer, brand analyst, and represen
tative to the sales team.38 He educated RCAs top management about
design, modernized the design of many manufactured products and
new radio lines, and created visual coherence across company plat
forms, including in-house equipment, transmitter architecture, logo
design, and sales displays. Vassos also worked on top-secret projects,
such as Vladimir Zworykins seminal electron microscope, for which
he designed a streamlined case that reduced the size and bulk of the
machine.
Design for radio at this time was not a settled matter, and leading
manufacturers looked to their designers to create the ultimate radio
form. Radios presented industrial designers with an opportunity to use
new materials and production techniques to develop a product that
did not fit easily into any existing traditions. From the round radios of
Teague to the colorful Catalin box type, there was little consensus on
the form that radios should take. Confronted with a tangled mess of
wires and tubes, designers were torn between thinking of radios as
pieces of furniture or as entertainment devices akin to phonographs.
They were more sure about the large role radios could have in pro
moting modern design on a wider scale, simply because they knew it
was a product that millions of people were likely to buy.
Vassos viewed radio design in this broad context and considered
much more than RCAs bottom line by linking the problem to the
larger debate over modernism and how the new modern style was to
be introduced to American consumers. In a letter to Richard Bach, a
curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and an advocate of indus
trial design, Vassos expanded on his design philosophy for the radio.39
He compared his style with that favored by Philip Johnson, the cura
tor of the Museum of Modern Arts April 1934 Machine Art show,
in which Johnson rejected streamlining in favor of a uncompromising
engineering-influenced design style that Vassos thought was too harsh
for American consumers. In his radios, Vassos consciously bridged the
gap between the harsh Bauhaus functionalism that was advocated by
the pure design advocates and the gentle modifications of stream
lined styling, which infused easy-to-use designs with novelty while
also reflecting some basic tenets of modernism. Vassos thought that
most customerspeople who may not have even been aware that a
modern radio was designed by an artistwould be persuaded of the
benefits of good modern design by exposure to attractive, accessible,
and functional products designed in a modified modern style. Only
then would consumers prefer modern radios to older, more tradition
ally designed models, and only then would modernist style be
accepted more broadly in American homes.
At RCA, Vassos used a range of methods to both improve and sim
plify his radios, terms he viewed as synonymous. He stuck to his rejec
tion of Johnsons hard-line precepts, making his designs appealing to
a wide audience. He mixed well-defined circles and squares, intro
duced simple protruding knobs, and softened the edges of the radios
with curved plastic. Sweeping grills over the speakers created long
horizontal lines, tracing the top of the radio to create an elegant and

asymmetrical receiver that was not harsh or too radical.40 Vassos
gentle forms would go a long way to support modernist ideas because,
he explained, A program of gradual change must be laid out and fol
lowed because any radical change, even if it be for the better, is dan
gerous for any standard product on the market. The public will not
accept it.41 This philosophy was perhaps best expressed in the plastic
New Yorker radios he designed, a line that was selected by the Archi
tectural Forum as the 1940 plastic expression of contemporary radio.42
Vassos approach was confirmed when more than 120,000 sets were
sold.
Vassos made many other improvements to the radio, notably to
user interfaces. He introduced push-button tuning and also worked on
an innovative car radio with a chromium-plated spring that lifted the
radio out into the users hand.43 The best-known of his innovations
was a novel template for the radio dial that replaced the large circular
knob called the airplane or Zenith dial: We . . . put in the horizontal
dial, which is the normal way of reading from left to right.44 Vassos
common-sense appeal and modified modernist forms carried over into
his other work at RCA.
As the visual coordinator for the companys corporate image, Vas
sos redesigned in-house equipment, including the transmitters. For
these large, bulky machines, Vassos created streamlined exteriors
devoid of excess ornamentation to express the tempo and spirit of the
most modern invention of the agethe radio.45 In addition to creat
ing a shell for the equipment, he sought to integrate the design plans
with the RCA brand overall by creating continuity and visual harmony
across the companys various product divisions. His transmitter build
ings were gently curved; without any harsh geometric volumes, they
reflected clearly his ideas about streamlined modernism. Vassos
planned the buildings every detail with careful attention to shape and
materials, which included steel, cement, glass, and aluminum. Resem
bling radio tubes and showing the smooth, rounded curves that char John Vassos, RCA radios. John Vassos Papers,
Archives of American Art, Smithsonian
acterized most RCA equipment at the time, the transmitter structures Institution.
were built across the country as the company expanded its broadcast
ing division.
In 1935, Vassos was asked to come up with an appropriate form for
RCAs newest media technology, the television, a machine that had
been anticipated for decades and, like radio, was one that could not be
based on an earlier form. RCA was not sure how to promote the new
medium, and Vassos was intimately involved as the company prepared
for the commercial launch of the new product.
RCA debuted the new machine at the 1939 Worlds Fair in New
York, where one of the first American public broadcasts over the RCA
equipment took place as Franklin Delano Roosevelt opened the fair on
30 April. In a splashy PR effort designed to show users that television
was real and not magic, Vassos installed a phantom television in a
transparent Lucite case that he placed inside the entrance to the RCA
pavilion. But he also faced a number of real-world design challenges,
most importantly the need to create a saleable design to exhibit at the
RCA pavilion and elsewhere at the fair. Vassos solution for the design
of the TRK-12as they called the first television model named for its
twelve-inch screenmerged the new with the old, fusing the then-
futuristic lines of the airplane with the rich patinas and substantial
forms of classic case furniture.46
The most difficult problem was how to put the bulky television
mechanism and screen in a case that was both attractive and func
tional. Working with the technological givens, Vassos main invention,
based on British television precedent, was in the exterior cabinet. He
mounted the enormous picture tube inside the cabinet so that the
image had to be projected upwards and then reflected off a mirror
placed higher up inside the partially raised lid of the standing case.
When the set was not in use, the screen could be stowed inside the
cabinet, and the expensive wood case looked like a piece of furniture
rather than a mechanical receiving set. Like his RCA radios, Vassos had
put forward a gentle modernist style that merged functionality,
streamlining, and a familiar form to make a new piece of furniture that

might help win over the public to television.47 Plugging his design for John Vassos, TRK-12, ca. 1939. John Vassos
a juried competition for excellence in design, Vassos emphasized Institution.
proudly that it had a modern design. There was, he said, no extrane
ous decoration whatsoever, even the louvers at the very top of the
cabinet functionally are for a purposeto let the extreme heat [of the
mechanism] escape so as to cool the set.48 He designed three other
models for the 1939 debut, the TRK-9, TRK-5, and the TT-5, which
had variations in size and sound capacities.49
In 1940, the company showed another version of the television at
the fairs America at Home pavilion, which displayed sixteen model
rooms by major designers like Donald Deskey and Russel Wright to
dramatize the development of design in manufactured articles and
[the] consequent improvement of taste in everyday living.50 Vassos
included the television screen in an multiunit functional display cabi
net installed in an innovative model media room, which producers of
the pavilion titled the Musicorner. The Musicorner was a small media
hive of only 16 feet by 15 feet that contained the television, a 16mm
sound film projector, a radio, and a phonograph.51 Vassos design was
John Vassos, Musicorner, one of the first rooms ever designed to house the new electronic enter
19391940. John Vassos Papers,
Archives of American Art,
tainment machines in an interior scheme that also allowed for more
Smithsonian Institution. ordinary amusements like books and games.52 In the new design, Vas
sos modified the idea of the home as a machine for living, creating a
room complete with a functional entertainment system where ease of
operation, acoustic qualities, and visibility [were] the prime objec
tives and without any meaningless decoration.53 In this room (and in
the one he did for RCA at the 1964 Worlds Fair) Vassos Musicorner
led to many requests for him to lecture or consult on design. Despite
the striking display and publicity that television received at the fair,
the press was not impressed by the new technology. When the World
War II began, RCA halted the manufacturing program and went into
war production.
Vassos enlisted in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and specialized
in espionage, camouflage, and the decipherment of enemy codes with
the Intelligence Corps in North Africa and the Middle East. After 1945
he resumed work at RCA, where he designed many products over the
years, including another integrated design for a television living room

for the 1964 Worlds Fair and designs for the companys new color John Vassos, rendering of a transmitter building,
ca. 1935. John Vassos Papers, Archives of
televisions. Vassos also undertook a number of varied projects American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
redesigning lobbies for Skouras and United Artists theaters, for
instanceand deepening his commitment to the progressive Silver-
mine Guild of artists in New Canaan, Connecticut, where a hall named
in his honor is still in use.54
After the war, Vassos played an important role in the evolution of
industrial design as a profession, particularly in the area of design edu
cation. In 1945, he and Alexander Kostellow, director of design at
Pratt Institute, developed and copyrighted a pioneering curriculum for
design students. The two men conferred with other industrial design
educators on three continents and created a guide that established uni
versal standards for industrial design education. Vassos was a founding
member of the American Designers Institute, which later became the
Industrial Designers Society of America, and was its first president; he
also served as the president of the American Design Institute from
1938 to 1941.55
Though he was widely known among professional designers, later
in his life Vassos was eager to become better known by the general
public because he thought his career in some way told the story of
industrial design in his lifetime. Encouraged by the numerous awards
he received, he began an autobiography, but after writing about his
John Vassos, preliminary sketch and notes for a design symposium announcement,
1957. John Vassos Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
early years in the United States, he stopped; apparently he pitched the

book to several publishers, but the manuscript was never finished.
After his death his papers were deposited at the Archives of American
Art and Syracuse University. These records vividly tell the story of Vas-
sosan under-recognized artist who devoted his talents to making the
myriad of new forms demanded by modern society and so helped inte
grate modernism into design for mass production.
Danielle Schwartz is an assistant professor of communication at American

University, Washington, D.C. She was a fellow at the Archives of American
Art and at the Wolfsonian Museum, and has contributed to Design Issues.

NOTES
This manuscript is based in part on my disserta panys recording artists (see a speech honoring Against Our Perils in the Machine Age, New
tion, From Turnstile to Transmitter: John Vas Vassos, Rismont Restaurant, 1931, box 8, p. 8, York Times, 3 January 1932, p. BR3, in which
sos, Industrial Designer, 19271941 (McGill John Vassos Papers, Archives of American Art, Vassos Mechanophobia: The Fear of Machin
University, 2005). Acknowledgements are Smithsonian Institution [hereafter Vassos ery is illustrated.
gratefully extended to Professors Will Straw and papers, AAA]; and A. C. Erisman, American 14. Vassos got the idea for Phobia (New York:
Jonathan Sterne at McGill University, Liza Kir Catalin Corporation, to Vassos, 17 July 1933). Covici, Friede, 1931) from Harry Stack Sullivan,
win at the Archives of American Art, Amelia
5. He studied at ASL between 1921 and 1922, whom he met while visiting a friend who had
Goerlitz of the Smithsonian American Art
and also studied at the American School of suffered a mental breakdown. Stack Sullivan
Museum; Sergio Cortesini, James Wechsler,
Design (see biographical information, box 23, suggested a plan for Vassos to start his illustra
Eugene Resnick; Alex Magoun at the David
Vassos papers, AAA). tions, and although he did not take authorial
Sarnoff Library, and Elliot Sivowitch of the
6. In the early thirties, Vassos co-founded the credit, he associated himself openly with the
National Museum of American History, for their
modern experimental Dance Center in collabo book and lectured with Vassos to promote it.
suggestions and help as I prepared this article.
ration with choreographer Senya Gluck-Sandor, The collaboration began a lifelong friendship
The Social Sciences and Humanities Research
who created a dance based on one of Vassos between the two men (Unpublished autobiogra
Council of Canada and the Douglass Foundation
books (Gluck-Sandor to Vassos, 22 December phy, box 12, p. 37, Vassos papers, AAA). Pascal
Postdoctoral Fellowship in American Art gener
1936, box 7, Vassos papers, AAA. See also three Covici moved to New York to establish a part
ously provided support for work on this article.
pieces by John Martin, New York Times, 20 nership with Donald Friede to become Covici,
November 1932, p. x2; New York Times, 31 Friede, a firm that specialized in limited editions
1. American industrial design was born of the that was taken over by Viking Press in 1938. I
unification of design and industry and fostered March 1933, p. 22; and New York Times, 20 Sep
tember, 1936, p. x2). Vassos published some am not sure why Vassos switched publishers,
through an alliance of museums and depart because there seems to have been no tension
ment stores. The European modern design avant-garde set designs in The Dance between
October 1930 and January 1931 (box 3, Vassos between Dutton and Covici over Vassos (see
styles that American designers drew from often Vassos to Mr. Ricca at Dutton, 29 June 1935,
had utopian underpinningsfor instance those papers, AAA).
box 8, Vassos papers, AAA, in which Vassos asks
found at the Bauhaus, where modernism had a 7. In the middle twenties Vassos did advertising him to list Phobia along with Vassos other
socialist foundationand strict functionalist work for Brokaw Brothers, a clothes company books, acknowledging that it would be a grace
aesthetics. In contrast, industrial design in the (box 1, Vassos papers, AAA); and other busi ful gesture and a courtesy on the part of E. P.
United States was highly commercial in its ori nesses (see tear sheets in box 21, Vassos papers, Dutton towards Covici).
entation. Designers here pushed manufacturers AAA). His first print job for a department store
to embrace the modern style, but were required was with Best & Company (see Vassos unpub 15. Vassos wrote and illustrated the February
to soften the harsh geometry associated with lished autobiography, box 12, Vassos papers, 1937 article entitled A Case of Acrophobia,
European modernism. American modern design AAA), and his successful work for them was fol Esquire, p. 85ff. Vassos received permission to
for mass production used modified geometric lowed by commissions from other big New York use the illustrations and articles for Esquire from
shapes and clean surfaces required of the anti stores like Lord & Taylor, Bonwit Teller, and his publisher (see Vassos to Pascal Covici, 19
ornament movement coupled with softer lines, Wanamakers (see box 8, Vassos papers, AAA, October 1935, box 8, Vassos papers, AAA).
curves, and colors. The result was the so-called for Vassos account of his success with a cam 16. This involvement is clearly laid out in the
streamlined style, which was based on the paign for Wanamakers). Box 1 of the Vassos blurb on Vassos in Willis Birchman, Faces and
stripped-down aerodynamic design associated papers at AAA contains tear sheets for adver Facts By and About 26 Contemporary Artists, pri
with airplanes and became fashionable after the tisements published in Vogue, 15 November vately printed, 1937, copy in autobiographical
Depression. See Walter Storey, Beauty Linked 1926; Vogue, 15 August 1927; and the New materials, box 12, Vassos papers, AAA.
Firmly to Design: An Exposition Reveals How Yorker, 8 February 1930. 17. Ibid.
Art Is Applied to the Latest Products of the 8. The full series of Vassos Packard ads and
Machine, New York Times, 1 April 1934, p. 16; 18. Ibid., p. 31.
many other tear sheets can be found in box 1 of
and Sheldon Cheney and Martha Candler, Art the Vassos papers, AAA. These include over 19. Hopkins, who at this time was in the Roo
and the Machine: An Account of Industrial Design in thirteen different ads that he did for the com sevelt Cabinet at Albany, was involved with
Twentieth-Century America (New York, London: pany that were published in magazines like the Barbara Duncan, a friend of Ruths (see Vassos
Whittlesey House, McGraw-Hill Book Com New Yorker as well as advertisements for Cam unpublished autobiography, box 12, Vassos
pany, 1936). For a more recent discussion, see meyer and Paragon Distributing Company. papers, AAA). Hopkins and Vassos remained
Jeffrey Meikle, Twentieth Century Limited, friends for years (see correspondence with
19251939 (Philadelphia: Temple University 9. An advertisement that Vassos did for Lord & Harry Hopkins, 1943, box 12, Vassos papers,
Press, 1979). Some designers working in the Taylors furniture is a rare example of his skill at AAA). For more on the arts culture of New York
United States did have a utopian vision of indus drawing conventional illustrations. See box 1, in the 1920s, see Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin
trial design, see Paul T. Frankl, Machine Made Vassos papers, AAA. Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of
Leisure (New York and London: Harper & Broth 10. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American American Culture (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
ers, 1932). Dream: Make Way for Modernity, 19201940 Press, 1981); and W. Parker Chase, New York:
2. My dissertation, From Turnstile to Transmit (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). The Wonder City (1932; New York: New York
ter: John Vassos, Industrial Designer, 11. Dutton published Salome, a Tragedy in One Bound, 1983), New-York Historical Society,
19271941 (McGill University, 2005), treats all Act, by Oscar Wilde; Inventions by John Vassos in General Collection.
aspects of Vassos career in depth, including his 1927. The Ballad of Reading Gaol, by Oscar Wilde; 20. For more on the influence of Le Corbusier
political engagement and how it meshed with Conceptions by John Vassos followed in 1928; and on American industrial design, see Meikles
his work all through his life. The Harlots House, and Other Poems, by Oscar chapter Machine Aesthetics in Twentieth Cen
3. Once streamlining became the dominant style Wilde; Interpretations by John Vassos in 1929. tury Limited, pp. 1938.
in American industrial design, it was widely 12. Probably no artist today uses gray and black 21. Lectures were held at social clubs, including
applied to buildings and inanimate objects, for as effectively as he does. The gradations of black the Junior Federation of the Jewish Philan
example vacuum cleaners, pens, screwdrivers, in his drawings give them depth and luminosity. thropic Societies (Joseph Franken to Vassos, 16
and cameras. As a result, in the case of many Invariably, he is best when he most nearly January 1933, box 7, Vassos papers, AAA), the
products, streamliningoriginally symbolic of approaches photography (Harry Hansen, The Mens Club at Cranford (Vassos to Orasamus
the frictionless speed of airplanesno longer First Reader, News, Chicago, 15 November Turner Harris, 12 April 1933, box 7, Vassos
reflected their actual function. 1929, box 5, Vassos papers, AAA). papers, AAA), and the College Art Association
4. Vassos was hired to do portraits of the com 13. See for instance Rose C. Feld, Taking Heart (Frances Pollack to Vassos, 14 March 1930, box
8, Vassos papers, AAA). The lectures were 33. Vassos also designed the interiors of private 51. Iain Baird, Television in the World of
described and offered in a brochure entitled homes for psychoanalyst Harry Stack Sullivan Tomorrow, ECHOES, Winter 1997. See also
The Odyssey of John Vassos, in RCA Murals, and Isaac Levy, a co-founder of CBS. Vassos to Shepard Vogelgsesang, 25 April 1940,
box 2, Vassos papers, AAA; included are Is 34. A Small Modern Apartment Designed for box 363, Worlds Fair Collection, NYPL.
Modern Design Permanent Expression? or the Artist for His Own Use, Pencil Points, Octo 52. Postwar leisure-time recreation rooms have,
The Art of Illustrations, Modern Art Design ber 1930, pp. 789792. His own apartment was of course, been well documented, see Lynn
and Interiors, and the Art of Graphically Por featured in the New York Times as one that suc Spigel, Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media
traying Emotions and Ideas. cessfully blended modern design with comfort and Postwar Suburbs (Durham, N.C.: Duke Uni
22. Earnest Elmo Calkins, Advertising Art in so that there [was] not an air of stiffness in the versity Press, 2001). Vassos multipurpose Musi
the United States, Modern Publicity 7, 1930, pp. room (Walter Storey, Modernizing the Walls corner room was an idea other designers were
150171. of Our Homes, New York Times, 16 February thinking about, as is made clear in an article on
23. P. K. Thomajan, Foreword to Vassos Con- 1930, box 2, p. 16ff., Vassos papers, AAA). multipurpose rooms from Architectural Record,
tempo, Phobia and Other Graphic Interpretations 35. Office and Studio of Margaret Bourke- September 1940, p. 64, which features a room
(New York: Dover Publications, 1976), p. x. White, New York, NY, Architectural Forum, Jan by Harry Maslow with a multipurpose cabinet
uary 1932, p. 29. . . . areas on the living room side are cupboards,
24. Vassos to Mr. Brown, Gray and Dudley shelves, radio and phonograph case and a plant
Stoves, 11 July 1936, box 8, pp. 12, Vassos 36. Both Fish and Fowl, Fortune, February box. The unit was specifically designed to pro
papers, AAA. 1934, pp. 4043. I think that Norman Bel Ged vide ample space for entertaining in a small
25. They also shared job leads and props. Letters des wrote this unsigned piece because its con home. A more detailed analysis of the recre
between Bourke-White and Vassos are held in tent is quite close to a letter Bel Geddes wrote to ation room is included in From Turnstile to
the Margaret Bourke-White Papers, Syracuse Vassos in 1932 seeking information about Vas Transmitter, pp. 187205.
University, box 53, under Vassos. sos work, salary, and design philosophy (Bel
Geddes to Vassos, 25 October 1932, box 7, p. 2, 53. John Vassos, A Case for Radio Design, Fur
26. This quality is exemplified in the work that Vassos papers, AAA). niture Index, May 1938, box 2, pp. 1618, Vassos
she did for Fortune, in which she rendered papers, AAA.
industrial forms into aesthetic objects through 37. Vassos to A. L. Powell, General Electric, July
1932, box 8, Vassos papers, AAA. 54. He worked for Skouras Theater Corporation
her use of dramatic perspectives and other in New York and Los Angeles, where he
means. See Stephen Bennett Phillips, Margaret 38. A Series of Lectures Given by John Vassos, designed postwar renovations at the famous
BourkeWhite: The Photography of Design, W. B. Stevenson, and L. Brodton for the Train Graumans Chinese Theatre in an attempt to
19271936 (New York: Phillips Collection in ing Course, Fall 1936, in RCA Records, box make the theater more attractive as television
association with Rizzoli, 2003). 10, Vassos papers, AAA. got more and more popular. He was heavily
27. The Coca-Cola Company hired Vassos to 39. Vassos to Richard Bach, box 8, 3 September involved in fundraising and development at Sil
design the dispenser after he made an innova 1934, Vassos papers, AAA. vermine Arts Center, helping to shape its pur
tive counter design for a New York restaurant 40. Vassos to Isaac Levy, 18 May 1933, in Mis pose and philosophy, particularly its belief in the
(see the text on Vassos interiors). In the end, cellaneous, box 8, Vassos papers, AAA. unification of the arts in a single cultural center.
Vassos did not get the job because of problems He served ten terms as president from 1936 to
with color application on the Bakelite container, 41. John Vassos, Design for Selling, Sales Exec 1955, designed their logo, and led a successful
but he included his prototype in his portfolio utives Club Weekly News Bulletin, 1935, in Design drive to build a new hall, the Gifford Complex.
because he considered it one of his most innov for Selling, box 5, p. 1, Vassos papers, SU.
55. Vassos received many awards during his
ative designs, for which he received a patent 42. Letter from Vassos to Bernice Maguire, Lord long career. He was twice selected by Electrical
(Des. 87654). See Ross Treseder, Vice President, & Taylor, 29 March 1941, box 8, p. 1, Vassos Manufacturing to produce their Design of the
Coca-Cola, to Vassos, 13 June 1932, box 8, papers, AAA. Month for the television transmitter and televi
Vassos papers, AAA; and Allen Brown, Bakelite 43. Vassos to Throckmorton, 9 February 1935, sion receiver (Vassos letter, 29 March 1941, box
Company, to Vassos, 20 May 1933, box 8, Vas box 11, Vassos papers, AAA. 8, p. 5, Vassos papers, AAA). He was honored
sos papers, AAA. many times by the Greek community for his
44. Speech, Syracuse University, box 12, p. 12,
28. Twentieth Century Limited, p. 352. Vassos papers, AAA. accomplishments and was awarded the Ameri
29. As the Walls Come Tumbling Down, can Society for Neo Hellenic Studies award.
45. Broadcast News, December 1935, p. 23, David
unpublished article, in Writings, Essays, 21 Sarnoff Library, Princeton, New Jersey.
April 1932, box 112, p. 2, John Vassos papers,
Syracuse University (hereafter Vassos papers, 46. TRK-12: First Deluxe Television Receiver,
SU). brochure, folder 79, Television TRK-12 in Acc.
2069, box 7, Records of the Company Histo
30. Obituary for John Vassos, New York Times, 10 rian, TV Model Files, Hagley Museum and
December 1985, p. B10. Library, Delaware.
31. For Vassos ideas about window design, see 47. Vassos to Louise Bonney Leicester, 1 May
Vassos to R. C. Kash, Display magazine, 18 1940, New York Worlds Fair (19391940) Col
November 1935, box 8, Vassos papers, AAA. See lection, Manuscripts and Archives Section, box
box 25, Vassos papers, AAA, for photographs of 363, Humanities and Social Sciences Library,
Kaufmanns Department Store; and IDSA New York Public Library, (hereafter Worlds Fair
Mourns the Passing of a Design Leader, John Collection, NYPL). Vassos TRK-12 design won
Vassos, IDSA Newsletter, January 1986, box 1, the Jury prize in 1940.
Vassos papers, AAA. Vassos also worked with B.
Altmans, see letter, 24 October, box 8, Vassos 48. Vassos to Maguire, Lord & Taylor, 29 March
papers, AAA. 1941, box 8, pp. 34, Vassos papers, AAA.
32. The tables were made smaller than usual, 49. For examples of how these were advertised
too (see Robert A. M. Stern et al., New York 1930: see, for instance, the tear sheet A New Industry
Architecture and Urbanism Between the World Wars is Born as RCA and NBC Present Television,
[New York: Rizzoli, 1987, p. 279]). The quote is box 1, Vassos papers, AAA.
from an article Vassos wrote for Pencil Points, 50. Walter Dorwin Teague to an unnamed per
December 1931, p. 896; another article in Archi son, 23 February 1940, box 363, America at
tectural Forum, October 1931, p. 460, discusses Home, Designers Room Files, Worlds Fair
the kitchen of the restaurant. Collection, NYPL.

F I R S T L I G H T:
John I. H. Baur, James Suydam, and Luminism
MARK D. MITCHELL
John I. H. Baur (19091987) was a leading force in American art his

tory as the field emerged during the mid-twentieth century. As a cura
tor at the Brooklyn Museum and later associate director and director
of the Whitney Museum of American Art, Baur approached his sub
jects in terms of their larger human and social relationships, a pro
gressive view that he hoped would establish American arts relevancy
for a broader public.1 Over the course of his career, Baur prepared
numerous influential exhibitions and publications that introduced
new interpretations of American art dating from its beginnings to his
own time. Especially underrecognized today are his pioneering mono
graphic studies of lesser-known artists, publications that attracted crit
ical attention to figures who have in many cases become central to the
canon. The extensive John I. H. Baur papers housed at the Archives
of American Art offer a unique resource for students and scholars
interested in Baurs methods and in the artists he rediscovered. James A. Suydam, Paradise Rocks, Newport, 1860.
The exhibition Luminist Horizons: The Art and Collection of Oil on canvas, 251/2 x 45 1/8 in. National
Academy Museum, Bequest of James A. Suydam.
James A. Suydam, organized by the National Academy Museum in Photograph by Glenn Castellano.
New York, has provided the opportunity to revisit Baurs contribu
tions to American art history, including his early work on the nine
teenth-century landscape aesthetic that he eventually dubbed lumin
ism. Baurs initial research on the subject coincided with his study of
painter James A. Suydam (18191865, pronounced soo-DAM), who
played a central role in Baurs recognition during the late 1940s of a
broader luminist style. In Baurs six-year exploration of luminism
from 1948 to 1954, we can distinguish two phases in his research
historical and spiritualthe first of which coincided with study of
Suydams career. During the second phase, however, Baur largely set
aside Suydams contributions to luminism in favor of the works of
other artists. Even though he ultimately abandoned it, Baurs first line
of inquiry into luminisms antebellum and Civil War context in fact
provided the term with a more substantive foundation than subse
quent definitions have enjoyed.
Baur first discerned the distinctive traits of what he called lumin
isma strain of mid-nineteenth-century American landscape aesthet
ics that he considered separate from the prevailing Hudson River
School formulawhile researching the exhibition The Coast and the
Sea: A Survey of American Marine Painting for the Brooklyn
Museum in 1948.2 Baur noticed that several of the painters he
included in the exhibitionFitz Henry Lane, Martin Johnson Heade,
and Suydampainted in a style that emphasized atmospheric effects
and poetic, emotive evocation rather than the moralizing narratives
characteristic of the Hudson River School painters.3 He soon set about
studying the literary, philosophical, historical, and religious signifi
cance of their work. Over the ensuing years, Baurs thinking shifted
gradually, but steadily. He finally codified this contemplative aesthetic
in 1954 in his watershed 1954 essay American Luminism, A
Neglected Aspect of the Realist Movement in Nineteenth-Century
American Painting. In his article, Baur firmly aligned the new move
ment with Transcendentalism and a pantheistic spiritualitycontem
plating Gods universal presence in naturethat he discerned in the
pervasive light of luminist landscapes, and he downplayed the impor
tance of other historical and literary contexts that he had initially
favored.4 Baurs papers and research notes at the Archives of Ameri
can Art document the evolution in his thinking. They record the lines
of study that Baur decided not to pursue as well as those that he did
and thereby provide perspective on the circuitous path that he
explored as he formulated a definition of luminism.
After the publication of American Luminism, Baurs term was
widely embraced almost immediately. By the 1960s, luminism was a
cornerstone of American art history, reaching the height of its influ
ence in the writings of scholars John Wilmerding and Barbara Novak,
who ranked it among the nations most important and unique artistic
accomplishments. The blockbuster exhibition American Light: The
Luminist Movement, 18501875, which Wilmerding organized at

the National Gallery of Art in 1980, however, proved to be both an
apotheosis and a turning point in luminisms study. Rather than rein
forcing Baurs definition of luminism as a distinctively American
movement, catalogue essayist Theodore Stebbins drew attention to
the international currents in which luminist aesthetics participated,
challenging its status as a uniquely American style. In her essay for the
catalogue, Novak herself transformed luminism from a movement
by a specific group of painters to a mode practiced intermittently by
many artists. Later scholarship further eroded Baurs term to the point
that no single definition now prevails, although the term has persisted
in the popular discourse, in which it is applied almost indiscriminately
to works of American artists from the colonial era to the present who
express even a passing interest in qualities of light and atmosphere.
A critical consensus on luminism that has gradually emerged in
recent years refocuses attention on the group of artists who worked
closely with Suydam during the antebellum and Civil Wareras.5 In
1950, while he was still grappling with the basic idea of luminism,
Baur published his article A Tonal Realist: James Suydam in Art
Quarterly, the first and only monographic study of the work of Suydam
to be published before the present day.6 Reexamination of Baurs ini
tial research on luminism and Suydam demonstrates the care that
Baur committed to the topic as he endeavored to synthesize wide-
ranging and often contradictory documentary and visual sources.
Although Baur ultimately settled on a fundamentally visual approach,
his earlier published writings, research notes, and correspondence
make a strong case for the revived emphasis of recent scholarship on
the literary and historical bases of luminism.7
One of Baurs first interpretive accounts of the style he ultimately
called luminism came in an article he wrote for ArtNews in November
1948 to accompany the Brooklyn exhibition.8 There, he identified the
more sober poetry of some less pretentious works by Albert Bier
stadt, Frederic Edwin Church, and John F. Kensett as sympathetic
with works by a group of lesser-known artists who worked outside
the ranks of the Hudson River School.9 Ten years ago it would have
been difficult to see a clearly defined movement of this kind, for most
of its leading figures had since been forgotten, while the dominance of
the Hudson River Schools official productions had prevented others
from achieving such recognition, even in their own lifetime.10 Baurs
list included Lane and Heade, and to these, the Brooklyn exhibition
adds another name, that of James Augustus Suydam.11 The essays
lead image was Paradise Rocks, Newport (1860), for which the caption
read the first of his pictures ever to be reproduced.12 Baurs recogni
tion of the artists sober poetry remains perhaps the most resonant
of his early observations regarding luminism.
In some ways, Suydams art was an unlikely basis for Baurs recog
nition of a new aesthetic vein in American landscape painting. Suy
dams career as an artist was short, lasting only about ten years from
the mid-1850s until his death in 1865, the first half of which time he
spent as an amateur. Suydam was a student of Kensett, and although
he later became a valued colleague during the 1860s, Suydams active
involvement with and support of the National Academy of Design
during the Civil War years limited his own artistic production.13
Despite his professional commitments, Suydam garnered distinction
as a painter during his brief career and produced an exceptional body
of work, including the masterful Paradise Rocks, Newport, which helped
inspire Baurs thesis. Although Suydams work had fallen into obscu
rity by the 1940s, his bequest to the National Academy of his excep
tional collection of ninety-two paintings, including several of his own
compositions, quietly preserved his legacy until Baurs rediscovery of
it in 1948.14
Baurs letters describe his first introduction to Suydams work dur
ing the preparation for the Brooklyn show, and he signaled his inter
John I. H. Baur, n.d. Photograph courtesy est in such lesser-known artists in the catalogues introduction:
of the Whitney Museum of American Art,
Library, Archives, New York. The length of the biographical sketches in the following catalogue is generally
in inverse ratio to the fame of the artist. With limited space, it has seemed
advisable to summarize only briefly the careers of such well known painters as
[Winslow] Homer and [Thomas] Eakins, whereas the results of recent research
on such obscure men as [James] Hamilton and Suydam have been presented
as fully as possible.15
As noted above, Baur took special interest in artistic rediscovery, and,
in the days before image databases and the Smithsonians Bicenten
nial Inventory of American Painting and Sculpture, his particular
focus was on bringing new artists and new art to light. Unlike many
of his peers, however, Baur brought his subjects directly to the center
of his search for a broader synthesis of American art. Suydams redis
covery is a prime example of this approach, as his art played a starring
role in Baurs first conceptualization of luminism.
Baur almost certainly knew Suydams work from textual sources
before he saw the real thing. His correspondence with the National
Academy of Designs president Hobart Nichols in April 1948 indicates
no previous experience with Suydams works in the Academys col
lection and lists Paradise Rocks among the paintings he hoped to see on
a future visit.16 Moreover, all of Baurs early writing on Suydam relied
heavily on the appraisal by Henry T. Tuckerman in his well-known
1867 Book of the Artists and the biographical entry in Clara Erskine
Clements and Laurence Huttons Artists of the Nineteenth Century of
1879.17
In particular, Tuckermans chapter on landscape painters provided
a rich source of new and underexamined artists for Baurs exhibition,
including both Suydam and his contemporary James Hamilton. Book
of the Artists was published just two years after Suydams death, and
Tuckermans lengthy treatment of the painters life and work may be
explained by Suydams recent bequest of his collection along with an
endowment of fifty thousand dollars to the National Academy in

support of its school. Tuckerman and Suydam were also both tenants Daniel Huntington, James Augustus Suydam, NA,
1862. Oil on canvas, 30 x 25 in. National
of the Tenth Street Studio Building and likely knew each another per Academy Museum, Bequest of James A.
sonally. Most interestingly, an anonymous eulogist cited in Tucker Suydam. Photograph by Glenn Castellano.
mans book describes Suydam as a landscape poet, the same charac
terization that Baur consistently applied and embellished in his early
studies of the luminist painters.
In his research, Baur sought literary parallels to explain the poetic
terminology often invoked by nineteenth-century critics to character
ize Suydams work.18 As the contemporary sources cited in Baurs
notebooks also make clear, his survey of mid-nineteenth-century lit
erature and criticism was in fact a search for an explanation of the
poetic sentiment he saw in Suydams art. For example, he took exten
sive notes on a series of essays that appeared in the Crayon in 1855 on
the theme of The Landscape Element in American Poetry, and he
canvassed contemporary literature including the writings of Charlotte
Bront, Frances Trollope, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry James in
search of insight into Suydams life and art. Among the articles in the
James A. Suydam, Beach at Newport, Rhode Island, Landscape Element series, for example, Baur focused on one that
1864. Oil on canvas, 13 x 23 in. Collection
of Henry and Sharon Martin. Photograph by
was devoted to the work of Alfred Billings Street, a nature poet of
Professional Graphics, Rockford, Illinois. Suydams generation. He remarked that unlike many of his peers,
Streets approach was not moralizing, a key aspect in Baurs eyes that
also characterized luminist painting.19 Street remains a relatively
obscure poet in American literary history, yet to Baur his work offered
a poetic correlate to Suydams contemplative art.
Baur sought evidence to explain the distinction he drew between
luminism and the Hudson River School as well. Baurs interpretation
of one article is telling. In notes on an 1865 essay by J. M. Hoppin in
The New Englander, Baur focused on Hoppins comparison of Pla
tonic and Ruskinian theories of art.20 Hoppins terms offered Baur
a much-needed alternative to the prevailing romantic-versus-realist
duality, which aligned British critic John Ruskin with realism. Ruskin,
of course, was the champion of Joseph Mallord William Turner,
whose devotion to the dynamic, unconventional experience of nature
Ruskin admired. In America, however, Ruskins name came to be

associated not with the vital forms and colors of Turner, but rather
with the minutely rendered precision of the American Pre-Raphaelites
active during the same period in which Suydam was painting.21 Suy
dams own collecting was notable for the absence of artists whose
works exemplified that contemporary trend, and Baurs research con
veys that he sought to define an alternative realist mode with which
to align Suydams work and that of the other artists he was studying.
In Hoppins Platonic model, Baur found one such alternative that,
like Streets poetry, emphasized cool-headed appreciation of nature,
not moral themes.
Baur also examined Suydams biography in his search for a fuller
contextual appreciation of the artists work. After Suydam completed
his studies at New York University (then known as the University of
the City of New York) in 1842, he traveled through Europe and the
Middle East for three years. On his return to the United States, he
entered a business partnership with his brother John that lasted
nearly a decade. Only after that, during the mid-1850s, did Suydam
turn to painting in earnest. In Charlotte Bronts first novel, The Pro
fessor, of 1857, Baur noted down a passage that he may have thought
aptly described Suydam, the artist-businessman, in his emotional
engagement with art:
Men in business are usually thought to prefer the real; on trial the idea will be
often found fallacious; a passionate fondness for the wild, wonderful and
thrillingthe strange, startling and harrowingagitates diverse souls that
show a calm and sheer surface.22
For Baur, Bronts passage elucidated the array of wildly dramatic
compositions that Suydam acquired for his collection, including works
by Andreas Achenbach and Jasper Cropsey. A calm and sheer sur
face equally well described Suydams demeanor and his art, though
the presence of a deeper range of feeling is suggested by the tumul
tuous backdrop of his portrait by Daniel Huntington. Baur of course
knew from a memorial by Sanford Gifford that Suydam suffered from
depression, and Baurs papers reflect his interest in the psychological
aspect of Suydams work in the shadow of the Civil War. He also
noted an observation Huntington made that along the cultivated
shores of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, Suydam and his colleagues
found a landscape of peace, order, and reassurance during perhaps the
most violent and chaotic period in American history.23
Another text that Baur transcribed included a critique of the popu
lar operatic compositions of Church and Bierstadt. In 1874, an anony
mous writer for Appletons Journal observed that the tropical brilliance,
looming glaciers, and yawning chasms of Churchs most ambitious
works tire the imagination, drain off our shallow sympathies, and
leave us distressed and incapable of expression.24 Baur apparently
used the Appletons critique to make a clear distinction between
Suydams contemplative art and the sublimity of many of Churchs
and Bierstadts compositions in the same period.25
A page from John I. H. Baurs notebook.
John I. H. Baur Papers, Archives of
American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
In his first writings about luminism, Baur conceptualized the

aesthetic as a romantic form that embraced emotional expression, and
the prominent influence of Suydams art on his thinking was clear. In
this early view, luminisms defining characteristic was emotive inten
sification, and Baur observed that the artists all were traveling away
from strict naturalism, all were tinged with degrees of Romanticism,
all were proto-impressionists of a sort.26 Baurs first published studies
emphasized all these qualities in Suydams work, especially as exem
plified in his Beach at Newport, Rhode Island, with its brilliant blue
water, stark off-white sand, and abstracted geometries. Over time,
romanticism inexplicably fell away from Baurs interpretations, and
realism, even strict realism, came to be for him luminisms domi
nant paradigm.

As Baur refined his understanding of the luminists relationships Jasper Cropsey, Coast Scene, 1855. Oil on canvas,
17 x 26 1/4 in. National Academy Museum.
with other prevailing styles of the period, he also sought an adequate Bequest of James A. Suydam. Photograph by
term to describe the new aesthetic vein. After reading the draft of Glenn Castellano.
Baurs 1950 article on Suydam, E. P. Richardson, who was then direc
tor of the Detroit Institute of Arts and editor of Art Quarterly, replied,
I like your article on James Suydam very much and would like to
publish it, but he urged Baur to give more thought to an umbrella
term to encapsulate Suydams aesthetic.
It seems worth while, indeed important, to find if possible a name for that
group of Heade, Fitzhugh Lane, and Suydam. They do form a group and would
take their place more clearly in the story of American painting if you could find
a name for the phase of style they represent. Would tonal realists be a good
name for them? 27
He added, if I were writing the article I would have called the[m]
tonal naturalists. In Richardsons mind, naturalism reflected
Suydams type of absolute fidelity to nature, whereas realism
meant the larger and more imaginative grasp upon nature of a man
like Winslow Homer. . . . But I gather that you use the two words in a
somewhat reverse sense, he concluded. Richardsons opinion doubt
less carried considerable weight with Baur, and the question of a name
remained unresolved for several more years, gradually evolving as his
research progressed.
In his first studies of Suydam and others, Baurs attempts at a name
revolved around what he saw as the artists signature qualities: tonal-
ism and poetry. Indeed, both terms found their way into the typescript
draft of his 1950 article, A Tonal Poet: James Augustus Suydam.
Richardson successfully dissuaded him from using this title, however,
and he settled on the alternative Tonal Realist, as Richardson pro
posed. Baurs reply to Richardson is revealing about his future direc
tion:
I have struggled for several years with the problem of an adequate tag for the
group and think that probably [your term] tonal realists is as good as possi
ble although it only describes one part of their technique (though a major one)
and does not at all suggest the spirit in which they worked, which I take to have
been a kind of poetic pantheism. But I can think of nothing which would
embrace all this without being either unwieldy or obscure, so I accept tonal
realists with gratitude.28
As he had written two years earlier, it has become increasingly plain
. . . that the standard by which the early realists must be judged is nei
ther the degree of their fidelity to nature nor their exploitation of for
mal values of composition and design (which was generally negligi
ble).29 In Baurs early studies, his conclusion was that the luminists
success was appropriately measured by their evocation of mood, a
tempered form of romanticism that remained in constant tension with
the strict realism that Richardson characterized as absolute fidelity
to nature and that both scholars observed in the art. The relationship
between emotive evocation and descriptive realism was one of Baurs
central concerns.
As his work continued, Baurs references to mood, abstraction from
nature, and poetic evocation did not distance Suydams work from his
conception of luminism as a realist aesthetic. On the contrary, in his
typescript of the Art Quarterly article on Suydam in 1950, Baur at first
characterized Suydam as a strict realist and changed it only after
Richardson remarked that it lacked clarity for the reader.30 Baurs rea
soning for his use of strict realism is, indeed, difficult to interpret, and
the term does not appear elsewhere. He may have intended it to imply
a spare order and simplicity, rather than close, detailed observation.31
Baurs only change to the draft essay was to replace the word strict
for tonal throughout the text, without explanation or modified rea
soning. In the final version, though, we are left with the identical
explanation for the luminists poetic interpretation of nature as some
thing achieved through their [the painters] intensity of observation
and feeling . . . rooted in the genuine pantheism of the time.32
Throughout his work on luminism, Baurs rationale remained more
consistent with his earlier expressive-romantic interpretation of lumin
ism, rather than a realist one.

During the early 1950s, Baur moved futher toward the notion of
pantheism as the primary basis for luminism and bound it more closely
to the tenets of Transcendentalism.33 In 1952, Baur gave a lecture at
New York University (Suydams alma mater) on The Portrayal of
Light in American Art, which laid out the future direction of his work
on luminism. In the lecture, for which notes are preserved among the
Baur papers, he equated the type of light in Lanes and Heades works
(Suydam was not mentioned) with pantheism on purely formal
grounds. Even though Baur consistently understood luminism to be a
modified or mannered variety of realism, the title of his lecture itself
underscored his increased commitment to what he saw as the arts
devotional aspect and the weakening of its affinity with contemporary
nature poetry and the psychological burdens of the Civil War.
Baur abandoned the study of Suydam and Kensett almost entirely
after the publication of his article on Suydam in 1950, and with them
went the contextual approach to luminism. Because his article on Suy
dam has remained the definitive study of the artists work for half a
century, however, appreciation of his art remains linked to Baurs
early ideas on luminism. His later, and now more criticized, conception
of luminism as a spontaneously generated style by contrast suffered
because it was based almost entirely on visual analysis. For a curator
who was so eager to establish the social connection of art for museum
audiences, Baurs decontextualization of luminism during the early
1950s remains a mystery. His later works reliance on visual evidence
alone left luminism vulnerable to the criticism that it had no real basis
in history.34 It seems clear, however, that luminisms earliest formula-
tionthe one inspired by Suydamis more enduring than Baur con
cluded after 1950, because its literary and historical associations dur
ing the Civil War era are substantive. As the debate over luminism
continues, the Archives of American Art provides critical tools for the
investigation of this pivotal period in the nations art history.
Mark D. Mitchell is associate curator of nineteenth-century art at the

National Academy Museum in New York. He co-curated the exhibition
Luminist Horizons: The Art and Collection of James A. Suydam (on view at
the National Academy Museum through 31 December 2006) and co-authored
its accompanying catalogue, which includes an introduction by Annette Blau
grund, with Katherine E. Manthorne. His other recent publications include
The St. Johnsbury Athenaeum: Handbook of the Art Collection (2006) and Francis A.
Silva: In His Own Light (2002).
NOTES
1. Teresa A. Carbone, The Making of a Collection, in Teresa death of his father. For more on Suydams collection, see
A. Carbone, American Paintings in the Brooklyn Museum, Artists Manthorne and Mitchell, Luminist Horizons.
Born by 1876 (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Museum, 2006), 15. Baur to J. Carson Webster, 28 February 1950, box 8, Baur
1:4647. papers. John I. H. Baur, The Coast and the Sea: A Survey of Amer
2. Recent criticism of luminism and its origins has concen ican Marine Painting (Brooklyn, N.Y.: The Brooklyn Museum,
trated on the close relationship between Baur and collector 1948), p. 7.
Maxim Karolik, whose collection later went to Bostons 16, Baur to Hobart Nichols, 14 April 1948, box 6, Baur papers.
Museum of Fine Arts (see J. Gray Sweeney, Inventing
Luminism: Labels are the Dickens, Oxford Art Journal 26, no. 17. Baur, A Tonal Realist, p. 221. Both books are familiar to
2 [2003]: 9699). None of Suydams works are in the Karolik historians of American art, but the latter is a biographical dic
Collection, however, and the artists significance in Baurs tionary rather than a narrative such as Tuckermans book,
early studies of luminism points to a more independent aspect which is easily read cover to cover.
of Baurs research than has previously been observed. It also 18. Baur used the term pantheistic realism as early as 1949
reiterates the pivotal role of The Coast and the Sea. As Baur to describe the works of Heade and Lane, though not the
recalled in 1950, I first became interested in [Suydams] poetic generalizations of Durand. See John I. H. Baur,
work while assembling an exhibition of American marine Trends in American Painting, 18151865, in M. and M. Karo
painting, called The Coast and the Sea, which we held a year lik Collection of American Paintings (Boston: The Museum of
ago (John I. H. Baur to J. Carson Webster, 28 February 1950, Fine Arts; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1949),
box 8, John I. H. Baur papers, Archives of American Art, p. xli.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. [hereafter Baur 19. Baur research notes, box 6, Baur papers, in reference to G.
papers]). M. James, The Landscape Element in American Poetry
3. On the recent change of name of the-artist-formerly Street, The Crayon 1 (1855): 3940.
known-as-Fitz-Hugh-Lane, see Eleanor H. Gustafson, ed., 20. Baur research notes, box 6, Baur papers, in reference to J.
Collectors Notes: Fitz who Lane?, The Magazine Antiques M. Hoppin, The Principles of Art, The New Englander 24
167, no. 6 (June 2005): 48. (1865): 674689.
4. John I. H. Baur, American Luminism, A Neglected Aspect 21. William H. Gerdts, Through a Glass Brightly: The Ameri
of the Realist Movement in Nineteenth-Century American can Pre-Raphaelites and Their Still Lifes and Nature Studies,
Painting, Perspectives USA 9 (Autumn 1954): 9098. in Linda S. Ferber and William H. Gerdts, The New Path:
5. For discussion of luminisms historiography, see Katherine Ruskin and the American Pre-Raphaelites (Brooklyn, N.Y.: The
E. Manthorne and Mark D. Mitchell, Luminist Horizons: The Art Brooklyn Museum, 1985), p. 40.
and Collection of James A. Suydam (New York: National Acad 22. Preface to The Professor, transcribed in Baur research notes,
emy Museum and School of Fine Arts; New York: George box 6, Baur papers.
Braziller, Publishers, 2006), pp. 121124.
23. Sanford Gifford to Daniel Huntington, cited in J. A. Suy
6. John I. H. Baur, A Tonal Realist: James Suydam, Art dam [Memorial], James A. Suydam Artists Manuscript File,
Quarterly 13, no. 3 (Summer 1950): 221227. National Academy Museum Archive, p. 6.
7. See Janice Simon, The Crayon 18551861: The Voice of 24. Baur research notes, box 6, Baur papers, in reference to
Nature in Criticism, Poetry, and the Fine Arts (PhD diss., anonymous, A Sketching Trip, Appletons Journal, 11, no. 34
University of Virginia, 1990); and Angela Miller, The Empire of (1874).
the Eye: Landscape Representation and American Cultural Politics
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993). 25. The personal, therapeutic aspect of Suydams own work in
the model of Asher B. Durand has recently been explored by
8. John I. H. Baur, The U. S. Faces the Sea, ArtNews 47, no. art historian Rebecca Bedell in The Anatomy of Nature: Geology
7 (November 1948): 2123, 5455. That same year, he also & American Landscape Painting, 18251875 (Princeton, N.J.:
published his survey entitled Early Studies in Light and Air Princeton University Press, 2001), pp. 5558.
by American Landscape Painters in the Brooklyn Museum Bul
letin 9, no. 2 (Winter 1948): 19. That article was the first to 26. Baur, The U.S. Faces the Sea, pp. 23, 54.
invoke the word luminist to describe American painters 27. E. P. Richardson to John I. H. Baur, 9 June 1950, box 8,
interest in the fleeting effects of atmosphere. He did not Baur papers.
linger on the term, however, in this more general survey of 28. Baur to Richardson, 14 June 1950, box 8, Baur papers.
nineteenth-century art.
29. Baur, The U.S. Faces the Sea, p. 23.
9. Suydams collection has two compelling, though serene,
compositions by Church, including his Scene on the Magdalene 30. Baur, A Tonal Poet: James Augustus Suydam, type
and Scene among the Andes. This substantiates Baurs theory of script, box 8, Baur papers.
an aesthetic rapport between Suydams art and some of the 31. His earlier use of polished and meticulously finished
leading Hudson River School painters less bombastic compo implies the latter, however. Baur, Early Studies, p. 9.
sitions. 32. Baur, A Tonal Realist, p. 221.
10. Baur, The U.S. Faces the Sea, p. 23. 33. More specifically, Baur tied luminism to Ralph Waldo
11. Ibid. Emersons call to portray an idealized, fairer creation in art
12. Ibid., p. 21. than the one that nature presented to the eye.
13. As treasurer of the National Academys Fellowship Fund, 34. In recent years, one writer has gone so far as to insinuate
Suydam was credited with major contributions to the success that Baurs motives were market-driven and even McCarthy
ful completion of the Academys landmark new home, famil ist (Sweeney, Inventing Luminism, p. 101).
iarly known as the Doges Palace because of its Ruskinian
Gothic architecture, which opened in 1865 on Twenty-Third
Street in New York.
14. Suydams active collecting was made possible by the sub
stantial inheritance he received at age twenty-two after the

ART AND SPACE:
Park Place and the Beginning of the
Paula Cooper Gallery
L I Z A K I RW I N
The Park Place group coalesced in New York in 1963. The original The Park Place group, ca. 1966. From left to right:
David Novros, Robert Grosvenor, Peter Forakis, Ed
membersAnthony Magar, Mark di Suvero, Forrest Myers, Tamara Ruda (in white, on step), Anthony Magar, Tamara
Melcher, Robert Grosvenor, Leo Valledor, Dean Fleming, Peter Melcher, Forrest Myers, Dean Fleming, and Leo
Valledor. Park Place Gallery Art Research Records
Forakis, and Edwin Rudawere mostly from the West Coast, only and the Paula Cooper Gallery Records, Archives of
Grosvenor and Ruda were easterners.1 The name came from cheap American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
studios Dean Fleming found at 79 Park Place, in downtown Manhat

tan on the West Side. Valledor explained the arrangement, Frosty
[Forrest Myers] took the bottom floor and Dean took the floor in
between. . . . I had the lease on the top floor and we decided to turn
that into a gallery space or a place to show.2
It was informal. No schedules. No openings. As Ruda recalled,
Whenever someone had finished a piece, or a few of us had finished
a piece, we would borrow a truck from a mutual friend, help each
other very cooperatively. . . . So we had an ongoing little show there,
so you could see [how] the mutual influence just grows.3
While there was no common denominator for every member of the
group, all the work was non-figurative and geometric, with smooth
surfaces and hard edges. They also shared a passion for large-scale
sculptures and paintings, a kind of mind-blowing bigness that had
never been seen before. Grosvenors gravity-defying sculptures
painted steel and fiberglass structures suspended from the ceilings
were twenty to thirty feet long.
Fleming spoke about the dislocating, disorienting, and ultimately
transformative power of these big pieces, which made humans realize,
he said, that there was a transcendent nature and a multiplicity, and
that they themselves [were] capable of this change inside their own
psyches. For Ruda, the works were not illustrations of ideas, they
were part of the emotional content of the sixties: new technology
and materials, far-out optical play, and the science-fiction-like inves
tigation of new spatial dimensions in the cosmos.4 Clearly, the tiny
interiors of the established uptown galleries could not accommodate
this work.
When the lease at Park Place expired in the spring of 1964,
Fleming, with the help of di Suvero and Myers, spearheaded a plan to
underwrite a new space for the group. They asked five collectors, Vera
and Albert List, John D. Murchison, Allen Guiberson, Virginia Dwan
Kondratief, and the Lannan Foundation, to pay a set sum regularly to
the new Park Place Gallery in exchange for one work by each of the
artists each year. They made a two-year arrangement, and the works
were chosen through agreement between the artists and the patrons.
Because sculpture materials and fabrication were so expensive, the
collectors were also asked to pay these costs.
The new gallery at 542 West Broadway was incorporated on
10 October 1965 as Park Place, The Gallery of Art Research, Inc., a
Exhibition poster, Park Place Invitational

Show at 79 Park Place, New York City,
15 March 1964. Park Place Gallery Art
Research Records and the Paula Cooper
Gallery Records, Archives of American Art,

name that underscored a spirit of experimentation and discovery.5
John Gibson was the first director, Paula Cooper served as the presi
dent of the corporation, and Jane Umanoff was vice president. Then in
May 1966, when Gibsons services were terminated, Cooper became
the director and president.6 The gallery closed on 31 July 1967.
Though it was a good plan, the backers money never fully covered
the costs of running the gallery, and in the end, as Ruda observed, the
artists all grew reluctant to give away five pieces annually in
exchange for gallery expenses.7
Despite the financial shortfall, Park Place succeeded on other levels.
The exhibitions were groundbreaking, the artists got big commissions,
and they were invited to show as a group at MIT, the Lannan Foun
dation in Palm Beach, and elsewhere. As a nonprofit co-op, the gallery
also sponsored other activities. They held invitational shows with Carl
Andre, Robert Smithson, Sol LeWitt, and others, and they sponsored
musical performances and screened experimental films. But the artists
had bigger dreams. They wanted a four- or five-story building that was
a communal centera studio space where artists could pool materials,
share expensive equipment, organize exhibitions, and have meetings,
poetry readings, and other performances. For instance, Valledor envi
sioned a place that had a paint shop, complete with a color lab, spray
booth, and baking oven. He wanted a film shop for experimental Paula Cooper at the installation of works by
Dean Fleming and Anthony Magar, September
1966. Photograph by Peter Moore. Park Place
Gallery Art Research Records and the Paula
Cooper Gallery Records, Archives of American
Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Leo Valledor, plans for Park Place, The Gallery

of Art Research Inc., ca. 1966. Park Place Gallery
Art Research Records and the Paula Cooper
Gallery Records, Archives of American Art,
filmmaking, a sound studio for recording sessions, as well as an elec
tronics shop, a tool shop, a plastic shop, and a centrally located room
in which total environmental conditions could be controlled and pro
jected upon. Others wanted idea exchange seminars with archi
tects, engineers, builders, mathematicians, and physicists; or forums to
explore the possibilities of public art, including visual events in
parks, artist-designed billboards for cities and highways, and nonob
jective posters in the subways.
Park Place could not be all things to all artists. When it closed, Paula
Cooper took some of the best ideas from the co-op and opened the
Paula Cooper Gallery at 96 Prince Street. Coopers was the first gallery
in SoHo, then an industrial slum foreign to the art trade and known as
Hells Hundred Acres. Her spacious five-thousand-square-foot loft
space allowed for art with a public orientation to be shown in a gallery
context. Like Park Place, exhibits evolved as individual works entered
and left, not on a strict monthly basis, and Cooper also opened her
space to special events by artists in other media, such as new music,
poetry, and film.
Some of the original Park Place group came to the Paula Cooper
Gallery including Forakis and Ruda, as well as Grosvenor and
Edwin Ruda, ca. 1966. Park Place Gallery Art di Suvero (who are both currently represented by Paula Cooper). The
Research Records and the Paula Cooper Gallery
Records, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian opening of her gallery marked a new space for art and a new kind of
Institution. art dealer, who lived and worked with artists. In 1969, Peter
Schjeldahl noted, The Cooper is, if you will, an activist gallery, aim
ing to reflect and influence the actual production of new art as much
as its acceptance by critics and collectors. It makes available a fuller
experience of art as it is evolving than do any number of gleaming
uptown emporiums.8
This year, Paula Cooper turned over to the Archives of American
Art the extant records of Park Place Gallery, dating from1964 to 1967,
and donated the early records of the Paula Cooper Gallery in its first
location at 96 Prince Street. Included are proposed plans and suggested
projects for the Park Place group, a certificate of incorporation for the
gallery, lease agreements and other legal records, artists files, corre
spondence, financial records, newspaper clippings, photographs of
artists and Paula Cooper, photographs and slides of works of art, and
exhibition announcements and other printed material.
The records illuminate some of the ideas that are central to the his
tory of art in the 1960sunconventional materials, new ways of expe
riencing art, and the space-age embrace of science and technology.
Liza Kirwin is the curator of manuscripts at the Archives of American Art,

NOTES
The author wishes to thank Ona Nowina-Sap Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institu
inski, William McNaught, Joan Lord, Laura tion.
Orgon MacCarthy, and Emily Taub for their
4. Ibid., p. 4.
assistance with this essay.
5. They wanted to call it The Center for New
Art, Inc., but found that similarly named cor
1. Later John Baldwin, David Novros, and Gay
porations already existed and settled on the
Glading joined the group. See Ed Ruda, Park
more scientific sounding Art Research, Inc.
Place, 19631967, Some Notes in Retrospect,
Arts Magazine (Nov. 1967): 3033. Another 6. Paula Cooper organized and installed exhibi
good source of information about the Park Place tions at World House Galleries, in New York,
Group is Claudine Humblet, La Nouvelle Abstrac from 1959 to 1961, and was a private dealer
tion Amricaine 19501970 (Milan: Skira, 2003), from 1962 to 1963, before owning and operat
pp. 16871977. ing her own gallery, the Paula Johnson Gallery
in New York, from 1964 to 1965.
2. Interview with Leo Valledor, 14 November
[1965], p. 1, Park Place Gallery Art Research 7. Ed Ruda, Park Place: Informal Notes in Ret
Records and the Paula Cooper Gallery records, rospect, 19631967, draft typescript, p. 6, Park
Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institu Place Gallery records.
tion (hereafter Park Place Gallery records). 8. Peter Schjeldahl, To Experience Art as It Is
3. Interview of Ed Ruda conducted by Michel Evolving, New York Times, sec. 2, 28 December
Oren, 11 March 1988, p. 8, Michel Oren Inter 1969, p. D29.
views with Artists, transcripts, 19791991,
Reviews
D AV I D C . WA R D
Ruth L. Bohan, Looking into Walt

Whitman. American Art, 18501920.
261 pp., illus., bibl. University Park, Penn.:
Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006. $50.
Walt Whitman (18191892) did not associ widened the gap between the poet and his
ate, either personally or intellectually, with peers. The American public, for whom
the leading writers of his day. Biographi Leaves of Grass was intended since it was the
cally, his education was not at a university books subject, was simply indifferent; the
but came out of the rough-and-tumble eight editions of the book that Whitman
world of New Yorks newspapers and the published during his lifetime never sold
street culture of the city; his salon was the many copies.
beer garden at Pfaffs, not a genteel literary In contrast to his distance from literary
gathering at Longfellows house in Cam culture, Whitman had a lively, lifelong
bridge. Aside from a personality that was interest in and involvement with American
unclubable, Whitmans poetic celebration artists who worked in all types of media.
of his all-encompassing vision of the Ameri Part of Whitmans interest in the visual arts
can individual required that he isolate him was derived, again, from his egoism. In par
self from the mainstream of literary culture. ticular, Whitman realized that pictures could
While he was happy to receive Ralph Waldo be used to advertise himself to the American
Emersons full-fledged celebration of Leaves public. Whitman meant advertisement in
of Grass when it was published in 1855, the widest sense. A portrait of himself would
Whitman used the endorsement as an provide a visual analogue to the poets
advertising blurb, not as an acknowledge encounter with the world as documented in
ment of any intellectual debt to the New the free-flowing lines of Leaves of Grass. For
Englander; indeed, he later complained that the reader, a portrait would give some sense
Emerson was too soft and intellectual for his of the man who had created the poem; this
more robust and sensual tastes. Whitman visual announcement of the writers pres
intentionally cut himself off from influence, ence confirmed the writers authority, a
both personal and literary. When he was necessity for Whitman, who argued that his
writing Leaves of Grass, he wrote a memoran poetic vision was a whole new way of see
dum to himself to Make no quotation and ing. What Whitman also realized, perhaps
no references to other writers and extended because he was schooled in the volatile the
this ban to include all of literary history: atre of the ever-changing streets of Jackson
Take no illustrations whatsoever from the ian America, was that portrait images need
ancients or classics . . . nor from the royal not be fixed or inviolate: identities could be
and aristocratic institutions and forms of represented according to circumstances.
Europe.1 Whitmans personal egoism And, Whitman saw, images could be manip
merged with an artistic conviction that his ulated by their subject to make an artistic,
subject was to be found within himself and intellectual, and biographical point; the sit
his encounter, embodied in free verse, with ter was no longer a passive object of repre
America. If Whitman had no need for other sentation but a participant in the creation of
writers, they reciprocated his self-distancing his or her likeness. The malleability of the
by largely ignoring the bombastic vulgarian image became even more possible with the
from New York City, an act that only further advent of new methods of mechanical

reproduction, especially photography. For argues that Whitman was a more astute stu
instance, the frontispiece of the first edition dent of the sister arts of poetry and paint
Leaves of Grass presents to the reader the ing than his scholars suggest. Whitmans
image of the poet in working class clothes as socialization with New Yorks artists and his
one of the roughs, a man of the people out observation of the visual in his work as an
on the road, master of all he sees. Yet at editor attuned him to a sophisticated sense
roughly the same time, Whitman portrayed of the interconnection of the visual and the
himself in a photograph by Gabriel Harrison verbal. As Bohan summarizes, Whitman
as so sensitive and ethereal that the picture paired his verse with carefully fashioned and
became known as the Christ likeness for judiciously placed portraits of himself. I
its spirituality. On the one hand, this pair of investigate how these portraits mediate the
photographs perfectly captures the two sides dynamic interface of the poet, his audience,
of Whitmans artistic personality, the quo and the poetic text (p. 8).
tidian and the exalted. Yet it also shows his Bohan is to be congratulated for her thor
mastery of self-presentation in an era in ough work in digging through the evidence
which the protean American individual was and unearthing so many portraits of Whit-
continually showing different faces to the man in so many guises. The simple cata
world. Most of Whitmans contemporaries loguing of these images goes a long way to
adopted one pose and stuck to it, convinced enhance our consideration of the poet as a
that the public would be confused if they
changed the way that they appeared. The
iconoclastic Whitman reveled in adapting
his pose and appearance to suit his purposes
as circumstances warranted.
Ruth Bohans book is a fascinating com
pendium of how Whitman had himself rep
resented throughout his lifetime by artists
working in every medium except photogra
phy; she acknowledges that Whitmans
involvement in photography has been
extensively covered. One of the many
remarkable things about Whitman is that for
a comparative failure he had his picture
taken an incredible number of times! Whit
mans sense of his poetic mission was such
that he drove Leaves of Grass through eight
editions because his certainty that he was a
singular genius led him to celebrate himself
through continual acts of portrayal. Bohan
argues that focusing on Whitman and pho
tography distorts Whitmans artistic pur
poses by closing off an examination of the
poets exploitation of every aspect of the
visual and the verbal in his self-portrayal. In
particular, previous scholars have seen the
relationship between Whitman and photog
raphy as going in only one direction or
another: either Whitman privileged photog
raphy because it was democratic art, exclud
ing the older arts of painting and sculpture,
or, for those scholars who treated painting,
unsubstantiated connections are applied
between Whitmans verse and the American Samuel Hollyer, Walt Whitman, ca. 18541855.
Stipple engraving after a daguerreotype by Gabriel
vistas depicted by mid-nineteenth century Harrison. Photograph courtesy of the National
landscapists and genre painting. Bohan Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.
from nave American artists to Jean-
Franois Millet, whom the poet admired
immensely. Whitmans cataloguing was not
indiscriminate, however. The ultimate point
was always the spirituality of the art work:
That is its soul, its animose, and makes live
art. The rest is but the matter, necessary to
give embodiment to the life; but what is
matter without life?(p. 29)
Bohan does a good job with Whitmans
manipulation of his images, as in the dueling
portraits done circa 1855 (discussed above),
but she is better at deciphering Whitmans
more conflicted images of himself. She does
a nice job with the more formal portrait of
the poet which introduced the 1860 edition
of Leaves of Grass. The engraving was done
from a very formal oil painting of Whitman
by the New York artist Charles Hine. The
poet is shown in ruddy and powerful good
health, his voluptuous hair and beard neatly
Charles Hine, Walt Whitman, 1860. Brooklyn groomed. The openness of his collar and the
College Archives and Special Collections. exposed flesh beneath contrast with the
Photograph by Doug Schwab. crisp whiteness of the shirt and the flamboy
ant elegance of the neck piece. On the one
shape-shifter who rivaled Melvilles Confi hand, Bohan argues, this is Whitman as he
dence Man. For instance, Bohan discovers has arrived, at least in his own eyes, as a
Whitman standing in the chow line in a substantial figure in the world of American
Union encampment (Edwin Forbes, Fall in letters. Yet, Bohan finds, the solidity of this
for Soup, p. 43). In 1899, he appeared lean public image plays off against new poems
ing on the balcony in Thomas Eakins fight written for the volume in which Whitman
scene, Between Rounds. Bohan also found expressed his sense of the dichotomy
numerous casual sketches and caricatures of between the public and private selves as well
Whitman as he was caught off-guard by as how the true self could be masked in pub
artists and amateurs who found themselves lic appearance; the real me, he wrote,
in the poets company; one sketch shows stands untouched, untold, altogether
him with an enormous phallus, simultane unreached (p. 42).
ously burlesquing and acknowledging the Bohan traces Whitmans portraits
poets sexuality. through the war years and outlines how he
But Bohans main focus is on the poet became sanctified by artists who admired
himself and his visual-verbal celebration of and wanted to associate themselves with the
himself as the quintessentially versatile poet. She shows how the artists purpose
American individual. She begins by setting was aided, paradoxically, by Whitmans
the scene with a survey of the art world in increasingly fragile health, a fragility that
Whitmans New York and suggests how made the assertion of his identity even more
what he saw was transferred, both literally fraught with conflict than it had been hith
and metaphorically, into his poems. At its erto. At times this work verged on idolatry,
most basic level, Bohan claims that Whit and Whitman disparaged his image. For
mans poem Pictures is a catalogue of the instance, he disliked the monumental por
art displayed at New Yorks Crystal Palace trait done in 1889 by John White Alexander
exhibition hall. Indeed, she insists that as having Bostonized him, by which Whit-
Whitman was the great descriptive cata man meant its conventionality reduced him
loguer of Americas visual scene; it is not a to the level to the group of genteel writers
surprise that Whitman was especially inter whose company he had always eschewed!
ested in genre painting as done by everyone Fortunately, Whitman rebounded from his

association with artists he found less than
proficient by forging an incredibly fruitful
relationship with Thomas Eakins.
Artist and poet were temperamentally
suited to each other, both finding in the
other the qualities of robustness and frank
directness that they admired. Among other
things, as Bohan points out, they shared a
common interest in rhetoric and the physi
cal act of speaking. Eakins 1888 portrait of
Whitman positions the poets mouth exactly
in the center of the picture, and builds out
ward from that mouth to depict the poet as
an aging but still powerful bard; the ancients
sang their poetry, and Eakins reached back
into the prehistory of literature to create the
poet as a transcendent voice. As Whitman
himself suggested, the picture made him
part of nature. The strength of the painting,
he summarized, is that the subject is not
ratified, not improvedbut given simply as
in nature (p.121). Despite the oil paintings
power over him, Whitman suggested that he
Thomas Eakins, Walt Whitman, 1891. Platinum print.
actually preferred Eakins photographs of Photograph courtesy of the National Portrait
him as perhaps more mechanical but yet Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.
more accurate. Eakins responded not by
making his art more literal or empirical but,
Bohan argues, by creating a symbolic repre marks a critical transition in American mod
sentation of Whitman in his portrait of ernism, pioneering the way for art forms
Weda Cook as The Concert Singer that carried on Whitmans insistence on the
(18901892). In the portrait of the per spirituality of life as lived but divested of its
former well known to and admired by Whit- physical or corporeal trappings. She con
man and Eakins, the painter sublimated a cludes Looking into Walt Whitman with chap
message of consolation to the aging poet by ters on three American modernists, painters
using song as the metaphor through which Marsden Hartley and Joseph Stella, and the
all conflicts would disappear. Cook is shown writer and polemicist Robert Coady, who
singing Mendelssohns Elijah (the notes are published the journal The Soil. These final
inscribed on the frame), and Bohan identi chapters are fine studies of Whitmans influ
fies Elijah as Whitman in his role both as an ence on American culture but they give the
outcast and as a prophetic voice singing a book a bifurcated aspect. The main problem
message of healing unity. Bohan identifies is that the question of Whitmans influ
the conductors hand as Whitmans and enceand the equally important question,
interprets the intrusion of the masculine raised in verse by Ezra Pound, of resistance
into female space as part and parcel of Whit to himcan only be hinted at in a coda of
mans polymorphic nature. The painting three chapters. If Bohan wants to deal with
was completed after Whitmans death, and this question in as comprehensive fashion as
Bohan suggests that the flowers Eakins she has with Whitmans portraits she needs
added at the singers feet have a funereal to go beyond the survey that she presents
and memorial function. They also are an here. Furthermore, the question of Whit
explicit reference in Whitmans verse to his mans influence cannot just be assumed in
great cause of union: Lay on the graves of the work of artists who paid tribute to him;
all dead soldiers, North or South, / (Nor for Whitman as a general artistic inspiration is a
the past alonefor meanings to the future,) far different thing from Whitman as a spe
/ Wreaths of roses and branches of palm. cific influence. For instance, there is no
Bohan concludes that The Concert Singer question that Walt Whitman played a major
role in the career of Marsden Hartley, both JENNIFER N. THOMPSON
as an artist and as a gay man. However,
Hartleys fastidiousness, both personal and
artistic, is antithetical to Whitmans ebul- Mark Kingwell, Nearest Thing to Heaven:
lience; one simply cannot imagine Whitman The Empire State Building and American
ever expressing his love for another man as Dreams.
Hartley did in his symbolic and geometrical 256 pp., illus., bibl. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
paintings for his German aviator. I would University Press, 2006. $26.
argue that Hartleys didacticismeven the
fact that he self-consciously knew too The Department of Homeland Securitys
muchis the direct opposite of Whitmans determination in June 2006 that Manhattan
acceptance of uncertainty and his reveling in has no remaining landmarks or icons fol-
Keats state of negative capability. Hartley, lowing the destruction of the World Trade
instead, seems to exemplify the strain of Center towers came as an amusing outrage
reactionary modernism that typified artists to New Yorkers who orient themselves by
as diverse as F. Scott Fitzgerald and the the mast at the corner of Fifth Avenue and
Regionalists. The question of Whitmans Thirty-Fourth Street. The pronouncement
artistic influence needs as detailed an exam- would also baffle the millions of annual vis-
ination as Bohans exemplary discussion of itors to the Empire State Building, and it
Whitmans portraits. must have been especially astonishing to the
David C. Ward is a historian at the National

Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. He is
the curator of the exhibition One Life: Walt
Whitman, a kosmos.
NOTES
Nota Bene: At a time when publishing houses seem
less and less interested in producing well-made and
attractive books, the Pennsylvania State University
Press is to be congratulated for how well they have
served Ruth Bohan in the appearance of her book.
1. Justin Kaplan, Walt Whitman: A Life (New York: Simon and

Schuster, 1980), p. 169.
Cover of a brochure announcing the opening of the

Empire State Building, 1931. Warshaw Collection of
Business Americana, Archives Center, National
Museum of American History, Smithsonian
Institution.

small group of scholars who make this most
quintessential of skyscrapers the subject of
their study and who add to a steady stream
of scholarship about the building, of which
Mark Kingwells The Nearest Thing to Heaven
is the latest, and most welcome, contribu
tion.
Unlike most histories of the Empire State
Building, such as Neal Bascombs Higher: A
Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City
(2003), which regard its construction as an
act of egotistical building, Kingwell sees it
instead as an act of cultural creation. Indeed,
he claims that the Empire State Building
was constructed to be consumed as a cul
tural property, an image (p. 46). His is the
story of the creation of a skyscrapers myth,
both iconic and monumental: it is the
purest example anywhere of a building that
enfolds an entire culture within itself,
Kingwell declares, and sets out to unravel
the culture it encloses at the hands of film
makers, writers, architects, tourists, sou
venir makers, and, above all, the media.
Icons are made, Kingwell reminds us, just as
surely as buildings are built: such work is
the business of storytellers and their audi
ence, and it is this business with which
Kingwell particularly occupies himself in The
Nearest Thing to Heaven.
Kingwell recaps quickly the oft-told story
of how, from the forces of economic
depression, cheap materials, and desperate
labor an unprecedented building project
emerged (p. 3). Spearheaded by the charis
matic politician Al Smith and the clever
financier John Jakob Raskob, with the
design inspiration of architect William
Lamb, an against-all-odds tale of derring-do
and Fountainhead-like ambition and vision,
emerged a real-life parable of citius, altius,
fortiusfaster, higher, stronger. Kingwell
reminds us, though, that a skyscraper rarely Ironworkers constructing the Empire State Building,
1930. Charles Rivers Photoprints, Archives Center,
makes economic sense, so its meaning is not National Museum of American History, Smithsonian
purely practical. For him, the Empire State Institution.
Building is an expression of ideas more than
a business venture, or the only possible for
mal outcome based on a set of real-estate sources and is as comfortable pulling from
and zoning determinants (as Carol Willis architectural theorists Robert Venturi, Aldo
argues in her history of the building, Form Rossi, and Rem Koolhaas, as he is from
Follows Finance [1995]). philosophers Ferdinand de Saussure, Lud
A professor of philosophy at the Univer wig Wittgenstein, Roland Barthes, Martin
sity of Toronto, Kingwell writes eloquently, Heidegger, Michel Foucault, and Paul Vir
at times poetically, and draws on a breath ilio.
taking range of materials. He knows his Following Panofsky, Kingwell distin
guishes between iconography, the reading of wells mind, such a thing as a complete
subsigns within an icon, and iconology, the building. We can only understand the
reading of iconic meanings, sometimes hid Empire State Building from a series of
den or encoded, against a cultural and polit frames or viewpoints of the kind that King-
ical background. It is this latter kind of inter well so skillfully and entertainingly lays out
pretation that Kingwell tasks himself. here. Readers who like their histories tied-
Iconology is, he reminds us, a diachronic up in a nice neat bundle by books end may
process: icons can only be understood as find Kingwells peripatetic itinerary too ram
constantly shifting node[s] in a system of bling, possibly even disjointed. But no mat
cultural self-regard and self-understanding ter: like the steel girders that provide the
(p. 145). We cannot even experience a framework to hang marble and brick, the
building except over the course of time, and Empire State Building, in Nearest Thing to
in this sense, too, it is invisible to us as a Heaven, serves as the framework for an
totality. The Empire State itself is a giddy entertaining and enlightening journey with
simulacrum of time travel, Kingwell con an original thinker and writer, proving
cludes after visiting many of its back-in-time Kingwells conclusion: The function of this
tenants (p. 123). building is simply to exist, to be there.
To understand the iconology of the
Empire State Building, Kingwell mines film,
philosophy, picture postcards (over a billion Jennifer N. Thompson is the editorial direc
postcards featuring its image are produced tor at Princeton Architectural Press.
every year, a number even Kingwell admits
invites doubt), and countless other repre
sentations of the building, including models
made of playing cards (135 decks required)
and matchboxes (it took 3,212). More than
one hundred films featuring the building
have been made, but Kingwell focuses on
the obvious King Kong and An Affair to
Remember; Andy Warhols unknown eight-
hour-long single-shot Empire (which, King-
well reports, allegedly drove Valerie Solanas
to try and take Warhols life); and the not
at-all obvious Elf. Kingwell similarly plumbs
novelsMichael Chabons Amazing Adven
tures of Kavalier and Clay and Don DeLillos
White Noise appearfor differing perspec
tives on the building, New York, and the
nature of city life.
Along the way, Kingwell muses on elites,
technology, politics (democratic and fascist),
power, sports, model making, nostalgia, ter
rorism, and, above all, the nature of icons
(including pop figures and movie stars) to
create a book that he himself describes as
peripatetic, maybe kaleidoscopic (p. 22).
Kingwell even reflects on the nature of bore
dom, something readers of this book simply
will not feel: Nearest Thing to Heaven is an
unfailingly interesting meditation on the
worlds best-known, and, in Kingwells
hands, its most interesting, building.
Without a more traditional chronological
narrative, there is no complete or finished
story here, no more than there is, in King

GRAHAM SHEARING
Lindsay Pollock, The Girl with the

Gallery: Edith Gregor Halpert and the
Making of the Modern Art Market.
464 pp., illus., bibl. New York: Public Affairs
Books, 2006. $30.
There is a painting1 illustrated in Lindsay sive keeper of records now securely pre
Pollocks The Girl with the Gallery which served in the Archives of American Art. Her
shows Edith Gregor Halpert selling a paint collections and her stock-in-trade (which
ing to an anonymous (male) client. They are may have amounted to the same thing)
seated in a pair of Donald Deskey brown were dispersed by sale or auction, not so
leather swivel chairs on either side of a much by design, but by mishap. The brain
Deskey occasional table. It might be a tumor which ultimately killed her could
domestic setting, but the client is still wear have been responsible for her otherwise
ing a heavy overcoat. Halpert, by contrast, is inexplicable decision to revoke her existing
wearing a light blue dress, showing a bit of will, without drafting any other. Collections,
white petticoat and leaning forward to the which might have been given to the Corco
client, directing his eye and hers to the small ran Gallery of Art or the Israel Museum, fell
painting, which he holds. Halpert is young, back into her general estate, to benefit only
and, it seems to me, flirtatious. They are in her heirs. But the Archives of American Art,
the Daylight Gallery of her Downtown which received her voluminous papers, and
Gallery. A painting (possibly a Sheeler) the public it serves are her real beneficiaries.
hangs on the wall. It is an ideal setting for an Her biographer, Lindsay Pollock, is singu
art deal. larly fortunate and deals well with an over
The commercial art world (and probably whelming mass of documentation.
the noncommercial art world too) is all Edith Halpert (born around 1900 as
about the art of the deal and about posses Ginda Fivoosiovitch) was a Russian Jewish
sion. The literature of art is principally given immigrant whose once-affluent parents had
over to surveys of artists, movements, col experienced hardship and prejudice in their
lectors, museums, curators, criticism, and art native Russia and further hardship in their
auctions, but the role of the dealer is a little adopted country. Pollock stresses this as part
overlooked. There are dynastic dealerships of Halperts formation even though Halpert
(Agnews, Wildenstein, Knoedler), which herself in an interview in later life dis
have made their mark. Individual trailblaz counted its effect: The Odessa business . . .
ers (Vollard, Levy) who anticipated move theres nothing there (p. 1). The immigrant
ments and or market trend are the subjects experience may often be tough, but it is in
of careful monographs. I can think of no no way exceptional. Her learning curve took
comprehensive survey of the art dealer as a in the early education that daily commercial
discrete phenomenon. But women dealers life (dull and practical) ordinarily offers and
are now a market force and claim much which people in the arts usually avoid. It
attention. Londons The Guardian 2 recently stood her in good stead, for art dealing is a
profiled seven such women, all important strict discipline, if it is to be successful, with
figures in London and New York, but also, diligent (if occasionally creative) book- and
significantly, making marks in such unlikely record-keeping.
locations as Guangzhou and bombed-out Halperts interest in art may well have
Beirut. They are representative of a whole been initially escapist. Escape from a home
class. in which art had no place was first provided
A survey of a dealer and his or her deals by the National Academy of Design (inter
needs comprehensive documentation. Edith rupted by the First World War) and second
Gregor Halpert, who is almost the first by the Art Students League, places she
woman art dealer in America, was an obses found more congenial. In both environ
An exhibition of folk art ments she appreciated the social life that Before Halpert made the decision to open
at the Downtown Gallery. opened up for her. It also closed another an art gallery in 1926 she had already
Downtown Gallery Records,
Archives of American Art, world, when her strait-laced, orthodox fam immersed herself in the New York art world
Smithsonian Institution. ily discovered drawings by her from life class for some ten years and at the very end of
at the league. Effectively, they threw her that period she had spent time in Paris, fur
out. (Moreover, her art was of no especial ther expanding her art horizons. (In Paris
merit, as she was later to discover.) By day the problems in her marriage with Samuel
she pursued the regular existence of a more Halpert perhaps came to a head.) Her busi
than competent businesswoman . . . at ness skills were well honed. She remained
Bloomingdales, Macys, a furriers, and young and attractive (never a hindrance in
other outfits in the rag trade. Later still, she the art trade), and she had ready cash. She
joined an investment bank (wearing work- had, particularly through her husband,
appropriate tortoiseshell spectacles). She come to know the important artists of the
had become an organizational genius and dayAbraham Walkowitz, Max Weber,
efficiency consultant and by 1926, aged per John Marin, Marsden Hartley, Charles
haps 26, she was earning $6,000 a year with Demuth, Stuart Davis, Yasuo Kunioshi, Walt
a $10,000 bonus. Kuhn, Leon Kroll, and Marguerite and
Parallel to this was her developing life in William Zorach. She was well connected to
art. It provided her with a society and even the new art institutions springing up in New
tually a husband, Samuel Halpert, a mid York, notably the Whitney Studio Club
range artist who moved in the society of the (1918) founded by Gertrude Vanderbilt
New York avant-garde, although a deal of Whitney and Juliana Force, which was to
his formation had taken place in Paris. develop by 1931 into the Whitney Museum
Importantly, she became an observer of the of American Art. Perhaps most important of
circle around Alfred Steiglitz and his Gallery all, Halpert had developed a critical and ana
291, the very locus of modernism in Amer lytical view of the art market.
ica and, in terms of style and appearance, a The gallery, first called Our Gallery, was a
sharp contrast with the staid red velvet of partnership (with the shadowy Berthe Gold
the conventional New York gallery. But smith, sister of Leon Kroll), which opened in
Halpert also saw through the pretensions of November 1926, and a year later changed its
Steiglitznotably his contempt for the name to the Downtown Gallery. From the
commerce of art and his failure to appreci beginning it was marketed. A mailing list in
ate (as a trust fund beneficiary) the struggles 1926 was an expensive rarity. Halpert cre
of the poor artists he chose to represent. ated her own. The gallery announcement
Only in later years when he saw her bring in reads like a manifesto but with subtly
her client Abby Aldrich Rockefeller did he gemtlich overtones: a wide choice of paint
grasp Halperts potential. ings, sculptures. . . . all of dimensions proper

to the modern home. . . . Coffee Room will
be open . . . evenings, after dinner (p. 65).
Despite Halperts best efforts to avoid the
aura of the polished urban gallery, she man
aged to appeal to affluent and well-heeled
clients. It is as likely as not that the gallery
might have failed had she not, more by
chance than anything, encountered a
patroness in the form of Abby Aldrich
Rockefeller, whose unexpected taste was
roughly compatible with that of the gallery.
Rockefellers budget (always carefully con
trolled and almost entirely free of impulse
spending) made the difference. Beyond her
interest in modern art, particularly Ameri
can modern, she collected the folk art that
Halpert had chosen to decorate the gallery.
The collecting of folk art was in its infancy,
promoted by Elie Nadelman in the early
years of the century and taken up by Force
at the Whitney Studio Club. Halpert saw the
potential of folk art. Setting up with a cura
tor, Eddie Cahill, who became a runner
for her, she scoured the auctions and rural
countryside of Pennsylvania for suitable
works of forgotten art. (Cahill also became
her lover.) Profits from the sales of folk art Edith Halpert, ca. 1921. Downtown Gallery Records,
materially supported the gallery in the lean

est of times.
Pollock also outlines the role a dynamic a steady income. By the mid 1930s her deal
gallery has outside the strict confines of art ings with one of the jewels in her crown,
dealing. Through the Rockefellers she came Stuart Davis, had caused him to leave the
to be closely involved in the art projects gallery; the two Zorachs followed soon after.
required for the Radio City Music Hall and Pollocks pursuit of these fairly sordid tales
promoted additionally many of the artists of financial difficulty, which Halperts metic
she represented. This was to lead to the ulous records so precisely adumbrate, comes
Rockefeller Center project with its abortive over easily enough. Even her dealings with
scheme for the notorious mural by Diego the difficult Stieglitz and his wary wife,
Rivera, and also to the controversial Georgia OKeeffe, teem with frustrations.
Municipal Art Exhibition that followed it. Those occasional fits of depression to which
The Federal Art Project involved her as the mercurial Halpert fell victim are so much
director of exhibitions on what might seem more easily understood in the light of these
to any contemporary curator an unimagin challenges.
able scale. By 1936, some 5,200 artists had It is never particularly clear what kind of
been engaged, countrywide, on the project. an eye Halpert possessed. She was cer
All this had the indirect result of support tainly no connoisseur in the strict sense of
ing her gallery, and more importantly, her the word. For example, her dealings in the
artists, many of whom had been seriously work of the nineteenth-century realist
affected by the Depression. Only the Rocke William Harnett, whom she effectively
fellers and a handful of devotees kept the rediscovered, transformed the finances of
gallery together in the most difficult times the gallery. She was mortified to discover
when the income of the gallery was halved. later, however, that many of the paintings
Such stressful circumstances resulted in she had marketed as by Harnett were in
awkward exchanges with many of Ediths reality painted by John F. Peto and perhaps
own artists who had come to rely on her for others. Alfred Barr, the director of the
Museum of Modern Art (also taken in by the
lure of Harnett) questioned the quality of
some of the folk art pieces Halpert had sold
Mrs. Rockefeller, who later donated them to
the museum. By contrast, some of the great
est American paintings passed through
Halperts hands: she acquired Raphaelle
Peales After the Bath for $75, having dis
cerned its quality through layers of grime.
But she didnt know who Peale was when
the signature was exposed. With contempo
rary artists the matters were easier, and she
adopted the practice of reserving the best
paintings for her best collectors or institu
tions. Nor did her commercial instincts lead
her to shy away from difficult paintings.
Peter Blumes controversial South of Scranton
remained unsold on her walls for many
years.
Halperts own sense of being an outsider
induced her to support the African Ameri
can community. She employed an African
American member of staff from the begin
ning and in the 1940s launched on an ambi
tious series of exhibitions including Jacob Edith Halpert at an exhibition opening, 16 April
Lawrences first one-man show and a major 1968. Downtown Gallery Records, Archives of
exhibition American Negro Art: Nineteenth American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
and Twentieth Centuries (the impact of
which was diminished by the attack on Pearl
seemed to despise Andy Warhol. Lindsay
Harbor the day before the opening). Her
Pollock puts it succinctly: Ediths gallery
support of social radicalism (Ben Shahn,
roster had become the establishment
Jack Levine) is powerful evidence of her
(p. 358). The bitter irony was that she had
own social independence.
become what once she had herself rebelled
The years after the Second World War
against.
perhaps marked the heyday of the Down
Halperts decline and death makes sad, if
town Gallery. By then Halperts reputation
salutary, reading. By contrast the fate of her
was made. The gallery had already moved
collections, the stuff, rather like Andy
uptown, keeping its name. Its function in
Warhols stuff, revives interest in this
the 1950s was primarily to foster its relations
almost tragic figure. Both she and Warhol
with museums and collectors. Ediths busi
come to life in their archives, although both
ness acumen never let up. Thematic exhibi
of them might have been surprised as to the
tions constantly explored the ways in which
extent to which their possessions authenti
art made its claims on society. Art for the
cate their existences.
Office (1953) reflected her interest in build
ing up corporate art collections and making
deals with businessmen, most notably Graham Shearing is a Pittsburgh-based writer
Joseph Hirshhorn. and critic. He once owned a gallery.
Success, and the power that came with it,
did not make Halpert an easier person to
deal with. Always controlling, she became NOTES
more so. Her physical health deteriorated
1. Marguerite Zorachs Edith Halpert and a Client, ca. 1930.
and she became dependent on others. She Collection of Barney Ebsworth.
felt the threat of newer movements in art. 2. Alice Rawsthorne et al., Space Women, The Guardian,
She admired Pollock and de Kooning but did 12 October 2006.
not attempt to deal in their works. She

Recent Acquisitions
Laura Orgon MacCarthy
Miriam Beerman Papers addition,

19452006
Donor: Miriam Beerman (b. 1923)
Biographical material, letters, writings, pho
tographs, newspaper clippings, exhibition
announcements, catalogues, and DVDs.
(1.0 linear ft.)
These materials are related to Beermans
career as a painter and printmaker. Included
are two DVDs of artist books by Beerman:
Three Sentences Beginning with the Letter S (2006),
which features poems by Halvard Johnson
and others; and Washing the Corpse (2006),
which is based on a poem by Rainer Maria
Rilke and narrated by Beerman.
J. B. Blunk Interview
J. B. Blunk (19262003)
Interview of J. B. Blunk conducted by Glenn
Adamson for the Archives of American Arts
Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Project for
Craft and Decorative Arts in America, at the
artists home in Inverness, California, on
16 March 2002. (2 audio cassettes, 2 hrs.; tran
script, 61 pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collec
tions/oralhistories/transcripts/blunk02htm)
J. B. Blunk was a California woodworker
who made monumental sculptures. This inter
view was completed with the help of the
artists daughter Mariah Nielsen before the Letter from Alson Skinner Clark to Amelia Mela
artists death in 2003. Blunk speaks about Baker, 7 May 1897. Alson Skinner Clark Papers,
taking classes with ceramic artist Laura

Andreson at the University of California, Los
Angeles; meeting Isamu Noguchi at a Mingei
ceramic shop; apprenticing to potter Kitaoji
Rosanjin; and working in Japan with potter
Toyo Kaneshige. The artist discusses his bench
entitled Seating Sculpture (19681969) and his
sculpture Six Stones (1993), and talks about
his use of shoe dye to blacken his works.
Alson Skinner Clark Papers addition,

18701971
Donor: Deborah Lee Clark
Alson Skinner Clark (18761947)
Letters, photographs, and a card file inventory.

(6.7 linear ft.)
This addition to the Archives sizeable col
Miriam Beerman in her studio. Photograph by Tova. lection of the papers of painter Alson Skinner
Miriam Beerman Papers, Archives of American Art, Clark contains letters from Clark to Amelia
Smithsonian Institution. [Mela] Baker, Clarks brothers Mancel Talcott
Patricia Faure Interview
Patricia Faure (b. 1928)
Interview of Patricia Faure conducted by
Susan Ehrlich for the Archives of American
Art, at the artists home in Beverly Hills, Cali
fornia, on 17, 22, and 24 November 2004.
(6 digital recording discs, 5 hrs., 20 min.; tran
script, 104 pp. at http://www.aaa. si.edu/collec
tions/oralhistories/transcripts/faure04.htm)
Art dealer Patricia Faure speaks about her
early childhood in Wisconsin and her familys
move to California. She talks about attending
Hollywood High School, meeting young stars,
taking classes later at the New School of Social
Leonard Creo and others at the door of his studio, Research in New York City, meeting Joseph
19581959. Leonard Creo Papers, Archives of Cornell, and opening the Asher-Faure Gallery
American Art, Smithsonian Institution. with Betty Asher. Faure talks about the growth
of galleries and art museums in Southern
Clark and Edwin Hill Clark (who worked for California; art writers Christopher Knight,
Wadsworth-Howland, a paint company in Suzanne Muchnic, David Pagel, Leah Ollman,
Chicago), and others; five photographs; and a Holly Myers, and others; and discusses how
card file inventory detailing the title, date, size, the art market is independent of the stock
canvas, varnish, and exhibition history of market. Faure recalls Jo Baer, Billy Al
works Clark painted between 1903 and 1911. Bengston, Irving Blum, Sam Francis, Rico
Lebrun, Man Ray, Ed Moses, Larry Rivers, and
Frank Sinatra.
Robert Cremean Photographs,
ca. 1960
Donor: Robert D. Ehrlich Rosamund Felsen Interview
Robert Cremean (b. 1932) Rosamund Felsen (b. 1934)
Interview of Rosamund Felsen conducted by
Photographs. (12 items)
Anne Ayres for the Archives of American Art,
Of the twelve photographs in this collec
at the dealers home in the Loz Feliz Heights
tion, eleven document a Robert Cremean
section of Los Angeles, California, on 10 and
sculpture exhibition held around 1960 at the
11 October 2004. (5 digital recording discs,
Esther-Robles Gallery in Los Angeles; two of
5 hrs.; transcript, 93 pp. at http://www.aaa.si.
these photographs show Cremean. Another
edu/collections/oralhistories/transcripts/felsen
photograph by an unknown photographer
04.htm).
shows Cremeans sculpture Three Figures.
Art dealer Rosamund Felsen discusses her
involvement with such political artists as Jef
Leonard Creo Papers, 19512003 frey Vallance, her thoughts on other Los Ange
Donor: Leonard Creo (b. 1923) les galleries of the 1970s, the influence of the
Correspondence, writings, photographs, two Beatnik movement on L.A. art, the financial
sketchbooks, a transcript of an audio record ramifications of exhibiting Conceptual art, and
ing, financial material, exhibition announce the importance of art schools in forming a
ments, clippings, and other printed material. regional art scene. Felsen describes her
(1.0 linear ft.) ambivalence about feminist art, the differences
Painter Leonard Creo studied mural paint between high art and design, her relationships
ing for three years in Mexico City with Jos with various collectors, and her definitions of
Gutierrez and David Alfaro Siqueiros and then the terms art world and taste. Felsen talks
for one year in Italy with Pietro Annigonni. about her marriages to Vern Hinderer and Sid
Correspondents in Creos papers are the ACA ney Felsen, and recalls Virginia Dwan, Tim
galleries, the Carter Gallery, the Shayne Ebner, Tom Hanks, Patrick Hogan, Man Ray,
Gallery, Rooksmoor Gallery, and the Portal Lari Pittman, and others.
Gallery. Writings in the collection include My
Friend, a typescript by Richard E. Heller about Fiberworks, Center for the Textile
Creo; and notes entitled Media Developed by Arts Records, 19731987
Gutierrez for David Siqueiros and Diego Donor: Gyngy Laky (b. 1944)
Rivera, ca. 1951. The photographs are of Creo
and his works, and the financial materials Minutes of the Board of Trustees meetings,
include price lists of paintings, sales receipts, statements of purpose, brochures, exhibition
and receipts from the Morris Singer Foundry, announcements, newsletters, miscellaneous
Ltd., London. The radio transcript contains printed material, photographs, slides, and
Creos recollections of Mexico City, where he audio and video tapes. (3.3 linear ft.)
studied under the GI Bill. Fiberworks, Center for the Textile Arts in

Minutes from the Official Book of Minutes, Fiberworks Center for the Textile Arts, 10 November 1974.
Fiberworks, Center for the Textile Arts Records, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Berkeley, California, was founded in 1973 by with Edgar Miller about a 1952 exhibition of
sculptor Gyngy Laky and offered undergrad the sculptors work; Frackmans published and
uate and graduate programs in the fiber arts. unpublished writings on Storrs; photographs
The center fostered growth and experimenta of Storrs, his daughter Monique, and his home
tion in the field of textile arts and influenced Chteau de Chantecaille in Mer, France; and
many designer-craftsmen. Among the printed photographs and slides of sculptures, paint
material in this collection is a copy of ings, graphics, and other objects by Storrs.
Fiberfinder, a guide to Bay Area fiber sources, Printed material includes exhibition cata
and photographs of artists Trude Guermon logues, invitations, reviews, published articles
prez, Sheila Hicks, David Ireland, Jan Janeiro, regarding Frackman, and material concerning
Laurie Kovak, Laky, Tina Martin, Nance the Storrs exhibition at the Whitney Museum
OBanion, Maureen OHara, Sheila OHara, of American Art (19861987).
Sylvia Seventy, Weldon Smith, Katherine
Westphal, and others. Audio and video mater E. C. Goossen Papers addition,
ial includes one video tape entitled Fiberworks:
Symposium on Contemporary Textile Art 1978, and 19311988
thirty-four audio cassette tapes of interviews, Donor: Patricia Johanson
lectures, panel discussions, symposia, and E. C. Goossen (d. 1997)
Fiberworks events featuring such artists as Lecture notes, exhibition announcements,
Neda Al-Hilali, Joanne Brandford, Daniel Graf clippings, photographs, negatives, one inter
fin, Ferne Jacobs, Ina Kozel, Chere Mah, and view transcript, and four audio cassettes. (4.4
Sylvia Seventy. linear ft.)
E. C. Goossen was an art critic and a pro
Noel Frackman Research Material on fessor of art history who taught at Bennington
John Henry Bradley Storrs, 19722003 College and Hunter College of the City Univer
sity of New York. This collection contains
Donor: Noel Frackman (b. 1930)
Goossens lecture notes; exhibition announce
John Henry Bradly Storrs (18851956) ments and clippings; photographs (including
Correspondence, writings, photographs, slides, negatives) of Goossen, his friends, family, and
and printed material. (2.0 linear ft.) works; an undated transcript of an interview
Art historian Noel Frackman conducted with Ellsworth Kelly; and an interview on
research on modernist sculptor John Henry audio cassettes with Robert Morris conducted
Bradley Storrs. This collection includes 6 and 13 December 1969.
chronologies of Storrs life; correspondence
Vincent Grimaldi Papers, 19672004
Donor: Vincent Grimaldi (b. 1929)
Correspondence, writings, printed material,
lists of works of art, artists statements, and
miscellany. (0.2 linear ft.)
Vincent Grimaldis career as an assemblage
artist, painter, and photographer is docu
mented in this collection. The papers include
Grimaldis brief recollections of Paul Cadmus,
Ray Johnson, William H. Littlefield, and Regi
nald Marsh. Correspondents include David
Bourdon, Cadmus, and Johnson. Also
included are exhibition announcements,
newspaper clippings, and postcards about
Grimaldi and Johnson (most of them photo
copies).
Henry Halem Interview

Henry Halem (b. 1938)
Interview of Henry Halem conducted by Murray Hantman, sketch of an ice cream and
William Warmus for the Archives of American lemonade vendor, 1928. Pencil on paper. Murray
Hantman Papers, Archives of American Art,
Arts Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Pro
ject for Craft and Decorative Arts in America,
at the artists home in Kent, Ohio, on 14 May
2005. (3 digital recording discs, 5 hrs., 10 min.; Murray Hantman: From Image to Abstrac
transcript, 81 pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/col tion. Photographs in the collection are of
lections/oralhistories/transcripts/halem05.htm) Hantman, his wife Jo Levy, and works of art.
Glass artist and educator Henry Halem
speaks of his family background and growing Hans Hofmann Papers addition,
up in the Bronx, New York; attending the
Rhode Island School of Design and studying
19041978
ceramics; working as resident craftsman at the Donor: Hans Hofmann Trust
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts; and opening a Hans Hofmann (18801966)
gallery and studio in Alexandria, Virginia. He Typescripts and notes for Das Malerbuch:
talks about transferring to the University of Form und Farbe in der Gestaltung by Hof
Wisconsin, Madison, for his graduate degree, mann. (1.0 linear ft.)
and describes working as Harvey Littletons Das Malerbuch: Form und Farbe in der
glass studio assistant. Halem describes Little Gestaltung is about Hofmanns theories on
tons teaching methods and talks about mak form, color, and space. Based on notes begun
ing political pieces, selling his work to the in Paris circa 1904, Hofmann wrote this while
Corning Museum of Glass, and writing his he was teaching a summer session at the Uni
book GlassNotes. He talks about founding the versity of California, Berkeley, in 1931.
Glass Art Society and how it has changed Although Hofmann produced additional notes
throughout the years. Halem recalls Jaroslava and revisions over the next two decades, the
Brychtova, Dale Chihuly, Fritz Dreisbach, manuscript remains unpublished.
Erwin Eisch, Audrey Handler, Dominick
Labino, Stanislav Libensky, Marvin Lipofsky,
Mark Peiser, Don Reitz, Peter Voulkos, and Wilhelmina Cole Holladay Interview
others. Wilhelmina Cole Holladay (b. 1922)
Interview of Wilhelmina Cole Holladay con
Murray Hantman Papers, 19402006 ducted by Krystyna Wasserman for the
Archives of American Art, at the collectors
Donor: Portland Museum of Art
home in Washington, D.C., on 17 and 24
Murray Hantman (19041999) August and 16 and 23 September 2005. (4 dig
Correspondence, sketchbooks, color studies, ital recording discs, 3 hrs., 51 min.; transcript,
lists of works sold, photographs, biographical 57 pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/
material, research notes, and miscellaney. (1.3 oralhistories/transcripts/hollad05.htm)
linear ft.) Founder of the National Museum of
Muralist and painter Murray Hantman Women in the Arts, Wilhelmina Cole Holladay
summered on Monhegan Island in Maine for speaks of her first exposure to the work of
more than thirty years. The papers in this col women artists Rosa Bonheur and Louise-lisa
lection contain research material on Murray beth Vige-Lebrun; working as a social secre
Hantman complied by Jessica Nicoll, curator at tary for Madame Chiang Kai-shek; and begin
the Portland Museum of Art, for the exhibition ning her collection of work by women artists

while living in McLean, Virginia. She talks classes with Ron Blumberg during her senior
about her favorite exhibitions at the museum, year of high school; meeting Dominic di Mare
including those on Grandma Moses, Berthe in San Francisco and Lenore Tawney in New
Morisot, Georgia OKeeffe, Frida Kahlo, Emily York; her first foray off the loom at the sug
Carr, and Julie Taymor; and her hopes for the gestion of Arline M. Fisch; and her second
museums future. She recalls Marion Camp show at the Fairtree Gallery in New York,
bell, Helga Carter, Claire Getty, Cynthia Helms, where Paul J. Smith, curator of the Museum of
Gwen John, Joel Macy, Louise Nevelson, Contemporary Craft, first saw her work. Jacobs
Linda Nochlin, Hester Beall Provensen, and talks about her artworks, including Container
others. for a Wind (1974), Wind (2004), and Tide
(2005), and the various fiber techniques,
including twining, coiling, and knotting, she
Carl Holty Papers addition, 18601965
used to make them. Jacobs also recalls Mag
Donor: Virginia Liles dalena Abakanowicz, Neda Al-Hilali, Kate
Carl Holty (19001973) Anderson, Gabriel Laderman, Jack Lenor
Photographic prints, tintypes, cartes de visite, Larsen, Nancy Margolis, Agnes Martin, Francis
and cabinet prints. (1.0 linear ft.) Sumner Merritt, Marilyn Pappas, Joanne
Carl Holty lived in New York and is best Rapp, Kay Sekimachi, and others.
known for his abstract canvases of pure geo
metric forms. This collection, which was given Anthony F. Janson Research Material
to the Archives of American Art by Holtys on Worthington Whittredge addition,
biographer, Virginia Liles, contains images of
Holtys family members, friends, works of art, 19692003
and studios. Donor: Anthony F. Janson (b. 1943)
Worthington Whittredge (18201910)
Daniel Jacobs and Derek Mason Letters. (0.2 linear ft.)
Papers, 19701993 This addition to the Anthony F. Janson
research material on Worthington Whittredge
Donor: Derek Mason (b. 1927) consists of correspondence with auction
Daniel Jacobs (19402004) houses and individuals about Jansons
Correspondence, rsums, exhibition files, appraisal of paintings and sketches attributed
slides, photographs, exhibition announce to Whittredge.
ments, catalogues, financial records, and other
printed material. (8.0 linear ft.) Michael John Jerry Interview
Daniel Jacobs and Derek Mason began col
Michael John Jerry (b. 1937)
lecting ceramics in 1979 and within five years
they had amassed a collection of more than Interview of Michael John Jerry conducted by
eight hundred objects. The intimacy, honesty, Jan Yager for the Archives of American Arts
and thoughtfulness conveyed in spirited,
handwritten letters in this collection testify to
the close relationships both Jacobs and Mason
formed with artists. The collection includes
correspondence with dealers Charles Cowles,
Helen Drutt, Leslie Ferrin, and Nicolas
Rodriguez, and correspondence with artists
Laura Andreson, Rudy Autio, Clayton Bailey,
Mary Jo Bole, Arthur Gonzalez, Michael
Lucero, Ken Little, and Patti Warashina.
Ferne Jacobs Interview

Ferne Jacobs (b. 1942)
Interview of Ferne Jacobs conducted by Mija
Riedel for the Archives of American Arts
Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Project for
Craft and Decorative Arts in America, at the
artists home in Los Angeles, California, on
30 and 31 August 2005. (4 digital recording
discs, 5 hrs., 6 min.; transcript, 84 pp. at
http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/oralhisto
ries/transcripts/jacobs05.htm)
Ferne Jacobs is a fiber artist who uses Postcard from Michael Lucero to Daniel Jacobs,
ancient basket weaving techniques to create 11 August 1981. Daniel Jacobs and Derek Mason
fiber works of unusual shapes and colors. In Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian
this interview, the artist discusses her first art Institution.
Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Project for Community in Stony Point, New York. She
Craft and Decorative Arts in America, at the discusses her techniques for making pottery,
artists home in Santa Fe, New Mexico, on 15 including the first time she used a salt kiln in
and 16 November 2004. (7 digital recording 1967. Karnes recalls Paulus Berensohn, John
discs, 9 hrs., 15 min.; transcript, 159 pp. at Cage, Garth Clark, Shoji Hamada, Goren
http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/oralhisto Holmquist, Jack Lenor Larsen, Bernard Leach,
ries/transcripts/jerry04.htm) Warren MacKenzie, Mary Caroline Richards,
Metalworker Michael John Jerry speaks of Marguerite Wildenhain, Paul and Vera B.
his parents background and their careers as Williams, Soetsu Yanagi, and Mikhail Zakin.
artists and educators. He talks about the
Rochester Institute of Technologys School for
Kennedy Galleries Miscellaneous
American Craftsmen, working for Ron Pearson
at Shop One, and his tenure at Cranbrook Records addition, 18641980
Academy of Art, where he made commis Donor: Martha Fleischman
sioned liturgical pieces. Jerry discusses his Photographs, glass slides, glass plate negatives, a
decision to work with metal, the first Society business card, letters of introduction, financial
of North American Goldsmiths (SNAG) confer records, and printed material. (1.3 linear ft.)
ence, and L. Brent Kingtons blacksmithing Among the five hundred photographs in
workshop in Carbondale, Illinois. Jerry also this collection are pictures of Walt Kuhn and
comments on his tools and studio setup, his of his works of art, painter John Steuart Curry
process for designing pieces, and problems and of his works of art, painter William Hol
with university art programs. Jerry recalls brook Beard in his studio, and painter Thomas
Hans Christensen, Robert Ebendorf, Fred Fen Bigelow Craig in his studio. Also included are
ster, Stanley Lechtzin, Tom Markusen, John papers concerning painter Vincent Colyer,
Paul Miller, Jack Prip, and Olaf Skoogfors. including his business card, letters of introduc
tion from Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecum
Jean Ellen Jones Research Material seh Sherman, receipts and other financial
accounts, and printed material including
and Writings on Self-Taught Artists,
Report of the Hon. Vincent Colyer, United
19972001 States Special Indian Commissioner, on the
Donor: Jean Ellen Jones (b. 1942) Indian Tribes and their surroundings in Alaska
Project summary, transcripts of interviews, a Territory, from personal observation and
CD, lists of artists, and photocopies of two arti inspection in 1869 and Brief Report of
cles. (0.4 linear ft.) the Services Rendered by the Freed People to
Jean Ellen Jones, an art historian in the United States Army in North Carolina, in
Atlanta, Georgia, donated her research on the the Spring of 1862, after the Battle of New
role of assistants to self-taught artists. The bern, by Vincent Colyer.
transcripts in the collection are of interviews
with Rick Berman, Lee Garrett, Richard William King Papers addition,
Gasperi, John Geldersma, Marshall Hahn, Jean
19102005
Ellen Jones, Jo Kallenborn, Haywood Nichols,
Tom Patterson, Luise Ross, Randy Sewell, and Donor: William King (b. 1925)
Tom Wells. Biographical material, correspondence, pho
tographs, business files, writings, exhibition
Karen Karnes Interview catalogues, invitations, announcements, clip
pings, awards, works of art, a sketchbook, and
Karen Karnes (b. 1925) a blueprint. (3.5 linear ft.)
Interview of Karen Karnes conducted by Mark This addition to the papers of New York
Shapiro for the Archives of American Arts artist and art educator William King includes
Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Project for business and personal correspondence as well
Craft and Decorative Arts in America, at the as printed material related to his career as a
artists home and studio in Morgan, Vermont, sculptor.
on 9 and 10 August 2005. (3 digital recording
discs, 3 hrs., 40 min.; transcript, 65 pp. at
http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/oralhisto Silas Kopf Interview
ries/transcripts/karnes05.htm) Silas Kopf (b. 1949)
Karen Karnes has been making functional Interview of Silas Kopf conducted by Edward
salt-glazed pottery pieces in the United States Cooke for the Archives of American Arts
and Europe for more than fifty years. In this Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Project for
interview she talks about attending the High Craft and Decorative Arts in America, at the
School of Music and Art in New York City, tak artists studio in Easthampton, Massachusetts,
ing a class with Serge Chermayoff at Brooklyn on 1 October 2001. (3 digital recording discs,
College, attending a summer session at Black 3 hrs.; transcript, 60 pp. at http://www.aaa.
Mountain College in North Carolina, taking a si.edu/collections/oralhistories/transcripts/kopf0
class with Josef Albers, and starting Gatehill 4.htm)

Known for the marquetry in his furniture
pieces, Kopf speaks of growing up in Pennsyl
vania, getting a degree in architecture at
Princeton University, working at Wendell
Castles studio and at the Leeds Design Work
shop, traveling to Italy to examine Renaissance
intarsia panels, exploring portraiture and
trompe loeil styles, choosing furniture designs,
participating in exhibitions, pricing his work,
working on commission, and teaching work
shops. Kopf also talks about his favorite furni
ture pieces and how the market for and
general interest in studio furniture has
changed. He recalls James Krenov, George
Nakashima, Stephen Proctor, and others.
Brenda Kuhn Notes Concerning Walt

Kuhn, 19741985
Walt Kuhn (18771949)
Notebook. (1 item)
Brenda Kuhn was the daughter of Walt
Kuhn, a painter and one of the organizers of
the 1913 Armory Show. Her notebook con
tains material written by Kuhn about her
father. In the form of recollections of conver
sations she had with individuals, Kuhn reflects
on her fathers legacy. She recounts conversa William King, paper maquette of a sculpture.
tions with Juliana Force and Eloise Spaeth, William King Papers, Archives of American Art,
and writes her recollections of Alfred Barr, Smithsonian Institution.
Arthur B. Davies, and Gertrude Vanderbilt
Whitney, among others. Also included are country scenes of Ukrania and Lithuania, and
notes regarding a meeting in October 1974 street scenes of Moscow, Kiev, and Petrograd
with Garnett McCoy, then deputy director of (present-day St. Petersburg). Letters in this
the Archives of American Art. collection are from David Burliuk, Boris Grig
oriev, Sam Ostrowsky, Joseph Stern, and oth
Golda Lewis Papers, 19612003 ers. The scrapbook contains articles in Hebrew,
Russian, and English.
Donor: Golda Lewis (d. 2005)
Rsums, letters, exhibition catalogues,
announcements, printed material, two video Judy Kensley McKie Interview
tapes, and photographs. (1.5 linear ft.) Judy Kensley McKie (b. 1944)
New York assemblage artist and paper Interview of Judy Kensley McKie conducted
maker Golda Lewis was an innovator in the by Ned Cooke for the Archives of American
use of handmade paper as an expressive Arts Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Pro
medium. She invented compages, a cross ject for Craft and Decorative Arts in America,
between collage and assemblage, by embed at the artists studio in Medford, Massachu
ding fiber, metal, wood, glass, and other mate setts, on 22 November 2004. (3 digital record
rials in paper pulp that she colored and ing discs, 4 hrs.; transcript, 88 pp. at
molded. The videotapes are Golda Lewis: A http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/oralhisto
Lifes Work (2003) and Golda Lewis Art ries/transcripts/mckie04.htm)
Tape (1974). Photographs are of Lewis, her Woodworker Judy McKie describes strug
works of art, her papermaking process, and gling to make ends meet while living in Boston
exhibition installations. in the 1960s, and making furniture, even a tri
cycle for her son, out of need. Today she is
Abraham Manievich Papers, known worldwide for her innovative and spir
18831973 ited furniture designs. In this interview the
artist talks about growing up in Massachusetts,
Donor: Alan Pensler
making wall hangings and other early projects
Abraham Manievich (18811973)
with her husband Todd McKie, exhibiting her
Correspondence, newspaper clippings, one work at Design Research in Boston, joining
scrapbook, and printed material. (2.6 linear ft.) New Hamburger Cabinetworks, being a self-
Post-Impressionist painter Abraham taught furniture maker, using animal imagery
Manievich was born in Russia and immigrated in her work, making small-scale objects out of
to the United States in 1922, when he was in resin, and working on public art projects. In
his early forties. His subjects were village and addition to discussing the future of furniture
making, McKie recalls Garry Knox Bennett, artist-run cooperatives. Members of this group
Wendell Castle, Ted Dodd, Mary Gregory, were later represented by the Paula Cooper
James Krenov, Alphonse Mattia, and others. Gallery, the first art gallery to open in New
Yorks SoHo district.
Letters from George McNeil to Adele
Travisano, 19721993 Poindexter Gallery Records,
Donor: Adele Travisano (b. 1944) 19561999
George McNeil (19081995) Donor: Christie Poindexter Dennis
Letters and postcards. (10 items) Files, photographs, negatives, printed material,
In these ten letters and two postcards to and miscellany. (3.0 linear ft.)
Adele Travisano, his former student, McNeil Among the papers of New York collectors
wrote about exhibitions, books, painting mate and gallery owners Elinor and George
rials, his health, and other topics. Poindexter are files on Willem de Kooning,
Richard Diebenkorn, Robert De Niro, Earl
Kerkam, Franz Kline, Milton Resnick, and
Francis Davis Millet and Millet
Giorgio Spaventa. Also included are pho
Family Papers, 1987 tographs, negatives, and slides of works of art;
Donor: Frank D. Millet
and legal records regarding Spaventas estate.
Francis Davis Millet (18461912)
Letters. (2 items) Viktor Schreckengost Papers

This collection consists of two handwritten addition, 19331947
letters from John Singer Sargent to Francis Donor: Viktor Schreckengost Foundation
Davis Millet written 20 October [1887] and
Viktor Schreckengost (b. 1906)
Monday [ca. August 1887].
Correspondence, photographs, sketches, news
paper and magazine clippings, and miscellany.
Papers Regarding the Restructuring (60 items)
of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Industrial designer and educator Viktor
19971999 Schreckengost designed mass-produced din
Donor: Patricia Hills nerware for the American Limoges China
Company. The correspondence in this addition
Correspondence, clippings, diaries, printed
to his papers includes letters from the artist to
material, and miscellany. (1.0 linear ft.)
the manufacturer. Photographs are of his din
These papers are about the 1999 restructur
nerware production lines, and eight color
ing of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
renderings are of his refrigerator ware. The
(MFA), when Jonathan L. Fairbanks, curator
clippings from various publications feature
of American decorative arts and sculpture, was
Schreckengosts designs.
dismissed and the decorative arts department
at the MFA was dissolved. Included in this col
lection is a bound volume of the MFAs strate Honor Sharrer Papers, 19272002
gic plan entitled One Museum, New Museum, Donor: Perez Zagorin
Great Museum: The Plan to Transform the MFA Honor Sharrer (b. 1920)
[Boston](1997), correspondence regarding the
Rsums, biographical statements, letters,
MFA Museum School, Hills notes and a diary
sketchbooks, drawings, and photographs.
(4 July15 December 1999), newspaper clip
(10.0 linear ft.)
pings and other printed material about the
Influenced by Ben Shahn and George
MFAs restructuring, and miscellany. Also in
Tooker, Honor Sharrer in the late 1940s
the collection is a typescript of a lecture,
Active and Passive Voices, delivered at the
Sterling and Francis Clark Art Institute, 9 April
1999, by William Truettner, a senior curator of
painting and sculpture, Smithsonian American
Art Museum.
Park Place Gallery Art Research

Records and the Paula Cooper Gallery
Records, 19641973
Donor: Paula Cooper (b. 1938)
Project files, artists files, correspondence,
financial and legal records, newspaper clip
pings, exhibition announcements, pho
tographs, and slides of works of art, artists, and Viktor Schrekengost, drawing of a serving dish, n.d.
art installations. (6.0 linear ft.) Viktor Schreckengost Papers, Archives of American
Park Place Gallery was one of the first Art, Smithsonian Institution.

became a well-known magic realist painter niques. He discusses the writing of Michael
who juxtaposed ordinary objects with out Cardew and its influence on his work and
landish animals. The correspondence in this career, and recalls Cynthia Bringle, Wayne
collection includes letters from Peter Blume, Branum, Shoji Hamada, Gib Krohn, Angel
Lincoln Kirstein, M. Knoedler and Company, Lillo, Earl McCutcheon, Ron Myers, Andy
Madeleine Ellen Poland (Sharrers mother), Nasisse, Mark Pharis, and others.
May Stevens, Honor Sachs (Sharrers grand
mother), George Tooker, and others. The pho Paul J. Smith Photographs of Jane
tographs and negatives are of Sharrer, her
family, friends, houses, and works of art. Sauer and Alice Kagawa Parrott,
19852005
Manny Silverman Interview Donor: Paul J. Smith (b. 1931)
Manny Silverman (b. 1941) Copyprints. (5 items)
The five digital copyprints of photographs
Interview of Manny Silverman conducted by
taken by arts administrator and curator Paul J.
Anne Ayres for the Archives of American Art,
Smith are of fiber artist Alice Kagawa Parrott
at the Manny Silverman Gallery in Los Ange
in and around her home in Santa Fe, New
les, California, on 10 and 11 December 2004.
Mexico (16 July 2004); and of artist and
(2 digital recording discs, 2 hrs., 30 min.; tran
gallery owner Jane Sauer in her home studio
script, 47 pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collec
in St. Louis, Missouri (1985), and in her
tions/oralhistories/transcripts/silver04.htm)
gallery (11 July 2005). These prints were col
Los Angeles gallery owner Silverman dis
lected as part of the Nanette L. Laitman Docu
cusses his Russo-Jewish parents and his child
mentation Project for Craft and Decorative
hood in Los Angeles, working as a social
Arts in America.
worker before starting at the Ernest Raboff
Gallery as a research assistant, opening Art
Services with Jerry Solomon, and establishing George Sugarman Papers addition,
his own gallery on La Cienega Boulevard. He 19751990
discusses his ideas on how artists are influ Donor: George Sugarman Foundation
enced by other artists, the political aspects of
George Sugarman (19121999)
museums, and operating a gallery with a nar
row focus on Abstract Expressionism. Silver Audio and video recordings. (1.0 linear ft.)
man recalls Edward Dugmore, Rudi Gernreich, George Sugarman made collages, prints,
Philip Guston, Paul Kantor, Klaus Kertess, paintings, and large- and small-scale pedestal-
Joan Mitchell, Shaun Regen, Gerhard Richter, free works of abstract shapes, which are
Paul Schimmel, David Stuart, and others. painted in vivid colors.
Michael Simon Interview

Michael Simon (b. 1947)
Interview of Michael Simon conducted by
Mark Shapiro for the Archives of American
Arts Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Pro
ject for Craft and Decorative Arts in America,
at the artists home and studio in Colbert,
Georgia, on 27 and 28 September 2005. (3 dig
ital recording discs, 3 hrs., 10 min.; transcript,
52 pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/
oralhistories/transcripts/simon05.htm)
Potter Michael Simon is best known for the
serene yet playful designs he paints on his
pieces. The artist discusses studying at the Uni
versity of Minnesota with Warren MacKenzie,
obtaining conscientious objector status, and
working at a hospital in Athens, Georgia. He
talks about using various materials for his pots,
including Georgia kaolin and English grolleg;
experimenting with images such as fish and
bamboo; and getting a large commission for
dinner plates from the Nakato Restaurant in
Atlanta. Simon describes being inspired by
Chinese Yangshao pottery from the Neolithic
period; going to Cortona, Italy, where he
taught pottery for the University of Georgia; Alice Kagawa Parrott. Paul J. Smith Photographs of
and visiting Santiago, Chile, where he taught, Jane Saur and Alice Kagawa Parrott, Archives of
traveled, and learned Chilean pottery tech American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Rengetsu, Kitaoji Rosanjin, Jeff Schlanger,
Kaneshige Toyo, and others.
Bob Thompson Papers, 19552000

Donor: Elaine Plenda
Bob Thompson (19371966)
Biographical material, business and personal

correspondence, writings, photographs, print
ed material, inventories, checklists, price lists,
questionnaires, and miscellany. (1.2 linear ft.)
African American painter Bob Thompson
used bright colors and flattened perspectives.
The artist became well known as a painter in
the 1960s, which was unusual for an African
American artist at the time, but his life was
unexpectedly cut short in 1966 just before his
twenty-ninth birthday. Photographs in this
collection are of Thompson, his family, his stu
dio, and his friends Christopher Lane, Ornette
Coleman, Robert Beauchamp, and others.
Questionnaires entitled Comments and infor
mation regarding Bob Thompson were com
George Sugarman, 1977. Photograph by James pleted by Margaret Bridwell, Dario A. Covi,
Matthew Auer. James Matthew Auer Photographs, Carl Crodel, Allen Ginsberg, LeRoi Jones,
Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Mary Spencer Nay, and Meyer Schapiro. Also
included are memorial poems by A. B.
Spellman and Jones.
These audio and video recordings comple
ment the Sugarman collection, which docu
ments the sculptors career primarily through Robert Trotman Interview
correspondence, project files, exhibition files, Robert Trotman (b. 1947)
writings, and photographs. Interview of Robert Trotman conducted by
Carla Hanzal for the Archives of American
Toshiko Takaezu Interview Arts Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Pro
Toshiko Takaezu (b. 1922) ject for Craft and Decorative Arts in America,
at the artists home and studio in Casar, North
Interview of Toshiko Takaezu conducted by Carolina, on 14 September 2005. (4 digital
Gerry Williams for the Archives of American recording discs, 3 hrs., 20 min.; transcript, 51
Arts Nanette L. Laitman Documentation Pro pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/oral
ject for Craft and Decorative Arts in America, histories/transcripts/trotma05.htm)
at the artists home in Quakertown, New Jer North Carolina sculptor Robert Trotmans
sey, on 16 June 2003. (2 audio cassettes, 1 hr., carved wooden sculptures are inspired by
40 min.; transcript, 33 pp., available only at regional woodworking traditions. The artist
the Archives of American Art, Washington, discusses his first interest in woodworking, his
D.C.). involvement with the Penland School of Crafts
Known for her closed-form ceramic pots, and its influence on his work, his first visits to
Toshiko Takaezu has been working with clay galleries in New York, his thoughts on the dif
for more than forty years. Moving from func ference between art and craft, and why he
tional works to ornamental pots, Takaezu has stopped making furniture in 1997. He talks
made many innovations in size, color, and about his major artistic influences, including
form. In this interview the artist describes Martin Puryear, Judith Shea, and James Surls;
growing up in a large family in Hawaii, work his academic background in philosophy and
ing with Claude Horan, studying ceramics at his attraction to existentialism; and his view of
Cranbrook Academy of Art with Maija Grotell, America as a puritanical country and of upper-
visiting artists in Japan, and setting up a studio class Americans as wooden and lacking feel
in Clinton, New Jersey. She talks about how ing and soul. He describes his fascination with
religion factors into her work, and describes his grandmothers collection of four- and five-
her career highlights, the inspiration she finds inch-tall wooden figures of European peasants.
in nature, her role in political and social activ He discusses the influence and support of his
ities, her teaching philosophy, the role of uni wife Jane Trotman, and recalls Stephan
versities and apprenticeships in the craft move Balkenhol, John Currin, Julie Heffernan,
ment, the changing face of the American craft Stuart Kestenbaum, Robert Lazzarini, Sam
movement, and her relationship with galleries, Maloof, Robert Morris, Ron Mueck, Evan
including Perimeter and the Charles Cowles Penny, Tom Spleth, and others.
Gallery. She also recalls Claude Horan, Otagaki

ment with the Fluxus Group and Arte Povera,
his relationships with collectors Count
Giuseppe Panza di Biumo and Emily and Bur
ton Tremaine, the studios of Robert Smithson
and Claes Oldenburg, his belief in the impor
tance of originality, and his experience with
art fairs. He recalls Arman, Joseph Beuys,
Mary Boone, Leo Castelli, Paula Cooper, Jim
Dine, Andre Emmerich, Hamish Fulton, Eva
Hesse, Joseph Hirshhorn, Ivan Karp, Franz
Kline, Yves Klein, Sol LeWitt, Anina Nosei,
Tom Otterness, Martial Raysse, Dorothea
Rockburne, Robert Ryman, and Jean Tinguely,
Kirk Varnedoe, Andy Warhol, and Angela
Westwater.
Paul Wonner Papers, 19562005

Donor: Paul Wonner (b. 1920)
Photographs, exhibition announcements, cata
logues, printed material, a scrapbook, and mis
cellany. (1.0 linear ft.)
Bob Thompson in his studio on Clinton Street,
San Francisco painter Paul Wonner studied
New York City, 1960. Photograph by Charles Rotmil.
at the Art Students League in New York and is
Bob Thompson Papers, Archives of American Art,
now best known for his still lifes. The scrap

book contains clippings about Wonner, pho

tographs of him and his friends, and approxi
mately three hundred works of art by Wonner.
Jock Truman Papers, 19492004 The printed material is related to painter
Donor: Jock Truman (b. 1920) William Theophilus Brown, one of Wonners
longtime friends and colleagues.
Correspondence and a curriculum vitae. (38
items)
Jock Truman is the former director of the
Betty Parsons Gallery and the Jock Truman
Gallery, both in New York. The collection con
tains correspondence, including personal let
ters and postcards to Truman from friends and
artists. Among the correspondents are Christo
and Jeanne-Claude, Helen Feeley, Helen
Frankenthaler, Miriam Gabo, Naum Gabo,
Henri Ghent, Grace Glueck, Adele Lovett,
Albert Maysles, Sam Miller, Eliza Moore,
Louise Nevelson, Betty Parsons, Lucio Pozzi,
Saul Steinberg, Marsha Tucker, Ruth Wash-
burn, Nancy Wolfe, and Ruth Vollmer.
John Weber Interview

John Weber (b. 1932)
Interview of John Weber conducted by James
McElhinney for the Archives of American Art,
at the art dealers home in Chatham, New
York, on 21 March and 4 April 2006. (2 digital
recording discs, 3 hrs., 25 min.; transcript, 62
pp. at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/oral
histories/transcripts/weber06.htm)
Art dealer John Weber discusses his educa
tion at St. Catherines Military School in Cali
fornia, and the Admiral Farragut Academy in
St. Petersburg, Florida. He describes working at
the Dayton Art Institute, the Martha Jackson
Gallery, and the Dwan Gallery; and getting
involved with land artists Robert Smithson, Paul Wonner in his studio in Santa Monica, California,
Michael Heizer, and Walter De Maria. He talks ca. 1960. Paul Wonner Papers, Archives of American
about the John Weber Gallery, his involve Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Paper Trail
Technique over Trend:

The Papers of Honor Sharrer
Laura Orgon MacCarthy
In 1948, critic and philanthropist Lincoln Kirstein

published an essay titled The State of Modern
Painting in Harpers Bazaar. Kirstein was con
cerned that the abstract and nonobjective painting
becoming prevalent at that time were tending
dangerously toward frivolity and dilettantism,
and he wanted to assert the primacy of
technique over trend.1 Kirstein preferred rep
resentational work, and this piece lauded both
historical and contemporary painters whom he
admired, among them Antoine Watteau, Gustave
Courbet, Georges Seurat, and postwar realists Ben
Shahn, George Tooker, and Paul Cadmus. He
viewed these modern painters, he said, as con
temporary heroes.
Honor Sharrer, untitled painting. Honor Sharrer

Institution.
The painter Honor Sharrer was another

favorite of Kirstein. Sharrer was a Yale-trained
artist whose work was resolutely figurative and
drew on a broad array of sources, from fifteenth-
century Flemish paintings to Farm Security
Administration photographs to images from the
popular press, especially Life magazine. Two years
before Kirstein wrote his article, Sharrer had
exhibited Workers and Paintings (1943) in the
Museum of Modern Arts Fourteen Americans
exhibition, and by 1946 she was at work on her
masterpiece, the polyptych Tribute to the American
Working People (19461951). Both treated themes
common for Sharrer at the time, and both were
rendered, to paraphrase George Tooker, with
sharp observation, sympathy, and jewel-like
tones.2
Sharrer was born in 1920 to painter Madeleine
Sharrer and army officer Robert Allen Sharrer,
and she took up painting at an early age. At 16
she became an artist-member of the San Diego
Fine Arts Society, and after graduating from the
Bishops School in La Jolla, California, she
attended Yale and the California School of Fine
Arts in San Francisco. In 1947, she married histo
Honor Sharrer, study for Two Dogs in a Still Life, rian Perez Zagorin and gave birth to a son, Adam
ca. 1997. Honor Sharrer Papers, Archives of Amer Desmond, in 1953. Thereafter the family lived in
ican Art, Smithsonian Institution. various cities in the United States and Europe.

The Archives of American Art has recently
been given a group of Sharrers papers. Docu
ments cover all aspects of her career, but they are
particularly helpful in placing Sharrers work in
context. To take one example, materials offer
scholars an opportunity to recapture the battle
between realist and nonobjective painting at mid-
century. In a letter dated 17 May 1953, typical of
many in the collection, Kirstein commented on
Reality: A Journal of Artists Opinions, a magazine
Sharrer and forty-five other artists had produced
that spring. Though only published three times,
Reality provided a forum for realist art at a time
when the supremacy of nonobjective painting
was being proclaimed in such influential journals
as the Nation and the Partisan Review. The Sharrer
papers are full of such documentation, including
many letters from Kirstein and numerous artists
statements and musings on painting.
The collection is also rich in sketches, draw
ings, and painting studies that give a vivid sense
of why Kirstein so admired Sharrers work. Col
orful and beautifully painted, the tempera paint
ing studies showcase Sharrers talent in depicting
figures and objects, as do a series of ink drawings
from the early 1940s. Favorite themes and motifs
abound. The study for Two Dogs in a Still Life, a fin
ished work by Sharrer dated 1997, shows dogs,
which Sharrer loved to paint, and the recurring
motif of bent forks and spoons through which
Sharrer depicts the outcome of telekinesis or psy
chokinesis, a mind trick of illusionists and magi
cians.
Just as Sharrers paintings are the outward dis
play of her lifelong and extraordinarily intense
focus on the world around her, this rich accumu
lation of documentsletters, photographs,
sketchbooks, drawings, and abundant source
materials among themreveals the inner work
ings of the life and career of an artist whom critic
Aline Loucheim dubbed an American sort of sur
realist.3 They are a magnificent addition to the
Archives of American Arts collections and will
help to fill out the biography of a painter who is
too little known.
Letter from Honor Sharrer to Honor Sachs, 14 April 1950.
Honor Sharrer Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Laura Orgon MacCarthy is an archives spe

cialist at the Archives of American Art.
NOTES
1. Lincoln Kirstein, The State of Modern Painting, Harpers
Magazine (October 1948): pp. 4753.
2. Honor Sharrer (New York: Spanierman Gallery, 2002), n.p.
3. Aline B. Loucheim, Conclusions from a Chicago Annual,
New York Times (28 October 1951), p. 15.

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From the Director page 2

ARTICLES Modernism for the Masses: The Industrial Design

First Light: John I. H. Baur, James Suydam,

Art and Space: Park Place and the Beginning of the

REVIEWS David C. Ward on Ruth L. Bohans Looking

Jennifer N. Thompson on Mark Kingwells

Graham Shearing on Lindsay Pollocks The Girl with

RECENT ACQUISITIONS Laura Orgon MacCarthy page 52

PAPER TRAIL Technique over Trend: The Papers of

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 5

Vassos ideas about design have survived in a scattered form. Through

that survive in his papers, however, Vassos articulated a philosophy

shaped by a strong commitment to modernist aesthetic ideas and the

promotion of industrial design in America.1 Though Vassos supported

modernist principles throughout his career, his work also expressed an

American preference for comfort, functionality, and commercial via

Unlike some mass-market designers, Vassos always took into

account the specific characteristics and functional requirements of the

commercial products he was commissioned to package.3 In the case of

adapt easily to the new machines, which after their introduction so

radically transformed time, space, and culture by bringing voices and

images created elsewhere into the private space of peoples homes.

John Vassocopoulos, a name he shortened to Vassos around 1920,

was born in Romania to an affluent Greek family that moved to Con

As a young artist, Vassos published brash political cartoons that even

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 1-2 7

new modernist ideas and gave slide shows arguing on behalf of an

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 9

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 11

efficient and customers to be more free spending.

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 13

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 15

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 17

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 19

early years in the United States, he stopped; apparently he pitched the

Danielle Schwartz is an assistant professor of communication at American

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 21

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 23

John I. H. Baur (19091987) was a leading force in American art his

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 25

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 27

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 29

In his first writings about luminism, Baur conceptualized the

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 31

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 33

Mark D. Mitchell is associate curator of nineteenth-century art at the

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 35

studios Dean Fleming found at 79 Park Place, in downtown Manhat

Exhibition poster, Park Place Invitational

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 37

Leo Valledor, plans for Park Place, The Gallery

Liza Kirwin is the curator of manuscripts at the Archives of American Art,

Ruth L. Bohan, Looking into Walt

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 41

ARCHIVES OF AMERICAN ART JOURNAL 46 12 43

David C. Ward is a historian at the National

1. Justin Kaplan, Walt Whitman: A Life (New York: Simon and