582 IEEE TRANSACTIONS

AUTONATIC
ON CONTROL, VOL. AC-16,NO. 6, DECEMBER 1971

Controllability, Observability, Pole Allocation,

A b ~ t r ~ ~ tthis
- h paper we discuss the concepts of controllability,
these concepts in the now f a m i l i a r synthesis techniques
reachability,reconstructibility, and observability andattempt to for linear systems. I n fact, all of the results of this paper
show why these concepts are important in linear systems theory.
We show how the above concepts allow us to solve the existence
(if not of this issue) a.re directly or indirectly consequences
of Kalnmn'spioneeringwork.
problem of closed-loop regulation of a linear time-invariant h i t e - Othera.uthors who have
dimensional system. The main results related to this are Theoremsmadeimporta.ntcontributions in this areaareGilbert
[7] and Luenberger [SI.
4 and 5. Similar but less sharp results arealso presented for time-
varying systems.The discussion then proceeds totheprecise The concepts of controllability and observability are of
relationships that exist between input-output and state descriptions
particularimportanceinthedesign of linearfeedback
of systems. Finally, the question of equivalence of internal and
input-output stability is discussed. cont.rollers and linear filters for linear stationary systems
in t.he presence of white Gaussian disturbances. It is an
import,ant fact that if the system is controllable then the
linear feedback system obtained by using the theory of
I. INTRODUCTION optimalcontrolwithaqua.dratic cost is asymptotically
stable. Similarly, if the system is observa.ble the linear

T H E most innovat.ive aspect of modern system theory filter obtained by using Iialman filtering theory is asymp-
is undoubtedly the prevalence of st.ate-space models totically st.a.ble. The concepts of controllability
for dynamical syst.ems. This has providedaframework
and
observability are also important in the context of mathe-
which is at the same time extremely general, offers many matica.1 model building. Indeed, although wanting to use
advantages of a. conceptual and philosophical nature, and a state-space model to carry out the a.nalyticdesign task,
yields concrete and specific pract,ical results much more one often starts with an input-out.put model which may
directly t,han other methodswere able to provide. have been obt,ained experimentally. I n realizing a state-
I n treating dynamical systems described by st,ate-space spacemodelwhichproduces the desired input-output
models, it wasrecognized at a veryearlystagethat, relation, one may ma,kean excellent case for requiring this
certa.in regularityassumptionson t,he modelswere of realizat,ion to beminimal;t,hatis,tobe an accurate
essentia.1 importance for thevalidity of the various representa,t,ion which does not. introduceany phenom-
synthesis and ana.lysis techniques which were being em- ena whichwere not, accounted for a t leastimplicitly
ployed. These assumptions originally appeared as purely in the input-output. descript,ion. It turns out nore or less
mat,hematical devices [l], [2]. However, it. was soon accident.a.llf that t.his minimality is intimately relat.ed to
recognized that theseproperties were of importancein t,he circle of conceptsincludingcontrollabilityand ob-
their own rightandrelated to thevery possibility of servabi1it.y.
achieving the desired degree of control a.nd obtaining the The purpose of this pa.per is to introduce theconcepts of
desired information about the syst.em. These notions were controllabilit,y andobservability for linearsystems for-
hence t,ermed controllability and observability. mally. I n doing t.his we will consider several relat,ed con-
Reference [3] appears to be the first' fundamental cepts, e.g., those of rea.chabilityandreconst,ructibility,
study of controllability (in t,he context. of finite-dimen- which are of equalimportance, but whoserelevance is
sional linea,r systems) and it is mainly the early work of not as widely a.ppreciated. We feel, moreover, that it is
Kalman and Bucy [4]and Iialman [5] which introduced conceptuallyadvant,ageous tostartthe discussion by
considering these notions in their generality and then to
specialize to finite-dimensional linear systems.
Xanuscript received July 29, 1971. Paper recommended by R. W.
Brockett, Associat,e Guest Editor. The work of J. C. Willems was We then consider the regulatorproblemfor finite-
supportedbythe Unit.ed Kingdom Science Research Council. dimensional linear st.ationary systems.We first prove that
The work of S. K. Mitt.er was supported by the Air Force Office
of Scient.ificResearch under Grant AFOSR 70-1941. for such syst,ems it, is possible to 1ocat.e t.he closed-loop
J. C. Willems was temporarily with the Department of Applied poles using st,at.e feedback if and only if t.he system is
Mathematicsand Theoret.ical Physics, Gniversity of Cambridge,
Cambridge,England. He is now wit.h the Decision and Control controllable. We then show that is is possible to build a
Sciences Group,ElectronicSystemsLaborat,ory, h1assachuset.t.s
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. 02139.
S. IC. Mitter is with the Decision and Control Sciences Group,
Elect.ronic Systems Laboratory, Massachusett.s Institute of Tech- We are notimplying that thereis no simple intuitive explanation
nolog,-, Cambridge, Mass. 02139. as t.o why t.his should be the w e . What we mean is that there does
For a det.ailed account of the historical development of this area, not seem to be any a priori reason why the possibilit,y of achieving
see [6, sec. 111. control and observation isrelated tothis aspect of model building.
WILLEMS AND NITTER: CONTROLLABILITY APV'D STATE RECONSTRUCTION 583

state reconstructor (using inputandoutput measure- A dynamical system in state-space form thus views the
ments) with arbitmry error dynamics provided the sys- generation of outputs from inputsandinit,ialstatesas
tem is observable. By combining t,hese two results occurring via the mechanism of composition of the state
we are able to demonstrate that a feedback compensator evolutionmapandt,heoutputreadingmap.Thestate
can be designed such that the closed-loop system has any evolution map takes into consideration the memoryof the
preassigned poles provided the system is controllable and system while the output reading map is memoryless and
observable. The existence question for linear regulators is depends only on the current value of the time, the state,
thus answered. It should be pointedout that the structure and the input.
of the resulting feedback compensator t.hat is obt.a.inedby Notation: The function r(t, 4(t, to, a , u), u ( t ) ) defined
using the above theory is exact.ly the sa.me as that ob- for t 2 to will for convenience be unambiguously denoted
tained by invoking the separation theorem of st,ochastic by y(tol t o , u).
optimal control for the design of linear feedback systems The most prominent example of a dynamical system in
with a quadratic performa.nce crit.erion and in thepresence state-spaceformis the finite-dimensional linear syst,em
of Gaussian disturbances. (FDLS) described by the ordina.rydifferent.ia1equation
The discussion then turns to time-va.rying systems,
where m-e consider the questions of stabilizabilityand 3i. = A(t)z B ( t ) u + y = C(t)x (FDLS)
state reconstructibility. We consider qualit.ative aspectsof n;it,h X = R", 7 i = R", and Y = RP. The ma.t.ricesA(t),
input-output descriptions versus state-space descriptions B(t), and C(t) are throughout assumed to have compatible
and find that minimality of the state space is equivalent dimensions a.nd (again, mainly for technical reasons) to be
to controllability (reachability) and observa.bility. +
continuous and bounded on (- m , m ). It is well known
Finally wedemonst,rate theequidence of internal that the above different.ia1 equat,ion t,hen defines a dy-
Lyapunov stabi1it.y andinput-outputstability for uni- namica.1syst.emin t,he senseof the abovedefinit,ion with the
formly controllable and uniformly observable 1inea.r sys- state evolution ma.p given by t.he so-called variation of
tems. constants formula:
Pt
11. DYNAMICAL
SYSTEMS
= 4(t, to>x(to> +Jtu
40, T ) B ( 7 ) U ( T ) CET
We fist introduce the notion of a dynamical system
in state-space form. The formal definition att,empts to cap- where the transition nzutrk 4 ( t , 7)is defined as the solution
ture the essential properties of finite-dimensional smooth of the mat,rix differential equation d(t, 7) = A(t)$(t, T),
linearsystems.Wehavechosenourinput, a.nd output 4 ( ~T,) = I . The transition matrixsatisfies t.he composition
functions to be continuous functions of time. This avoids law 4(&, tl)d(tl, to) = 4(&, to). See [lo]for more details.
vaiious technical difficult.ies and simplifies questions re- The abovedynamicalsystemhas a veryconvenient
lated to the existence and uniqueness of solut,ions for a.dditiona1 property not, expressed by the basic axioms of
finite-dimensional linear different.ia.1systems. Definit.ion 1; namely, the stat,e evolution map is defined
The following definition of a dynamical system is con- for all t a.nd not only for t 2 to. Such dynamical systemsa.re
venient for this discussion. More general concepts ma.y be said to have the group property. Most systems described
found in [9]. bypartial differential equationsanddelay differential
Let U , Y , and X be normed linear spaces, and let U, equations do not have the group pr0pert.y. Discret,e sys-
y denote the space of cont,inuous funct,ions defined on tems and even time-va.rying systems for n-hich the A(t)
R = (- a, a ) withvalues in U, Y , respectively. %. matrix does not satisfy the smoot.hness properties stated
is termed the input space, y the output space, U the set above also need not have this property.
of input values, Y the set of &put values, and X the state Of particular importance in pra.ct,ice are the so-called
space. stationary dynamical systems in which 4 and y commute
Let to E R and let 3 = { t E Rlt 2 t o ] . Consider the with the shift operator, i.e., if ST denotes t.he map from
m a p s + : 3 X R X X X % + X a n d r : R X X X 17-Y % (respectively y) into itself defined by ( S T u ) ( t ) =
termed the state euolution. n m p and read-out map, respec- u(t + TI, then ST4(t, to, 20, u) = 4 ( t +
T , to +
T , 20,
tively. +
STu) (respectively, STy(tO,zo,u) = y(to T , zo, STu)).
DeJinition 1: A dymnticalsystem is a quintuple { %, St.ationarylinear finite-dimensional systems(SFDLS)
y, X , 4, r ] satisfying thefollowing axioms, for all ul, a E are described by t,he differential equation
U, XO E X, to, t1, tz E R, to 5 tl 5 h.
3i.=Ax+Bu y=Cz (SFDLS)
a ) Causality: 4(tl, to, 20,ul)= 4(tl, to, zo, uz) whenever
ul(t)= uz(t) for to 5 t 5 tl. whichcorresponds to a. systemwithtransferfunction
b ) C o n S i ~ t a ~4(to,
y : to, 2 0 , U ) = xO. matrix G(s) = C(1s - A)-lB, where s is a complex
c) Semi-group property: 4(h, to, xo, u) = variable.
4 4 2 , tl, 4@l,to, x07 4 , 4 . The state-space descript,ion of dynamical systems will
d ) Smoothness: The functions 4 and r are continuous be contrasted with the input-output description in Sec-
functions of t, t 2 to. tion VI.
584 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON dUTOX4TIC CONTROL, DECENBER 1971

111. SONE FUND?lMENTAL PROPERTIES O F latt,er case any u will do. Any unobservableirreducible
STATE-SPACE MODELS system is thus highly unsatisfactory from the viewpoint
I n t,his section the basic concepts rela.t.ed t.0 control- of state reconstruction. This seems to have been over-
lability, observability, a.nd Lyapunov stabi1it.y are intro- looked in t,he literature.
duced. The properties of controllabiliby and observability The analogous definit.ionsreferring to reconstructing the
of a dynamical syst,em refer to the influence of the input present st.ate from past observa.tions become as follow.
on the state and of the st.ate on the output, n.hile Lyapunov Definition 4: Let t o be an element of the real line. Then
stability refers totheasymptotic behavior of undriven the state of a dynamical system is said to be zero input
systems. These notions nil1 be introduced in the context, recon.structible a t to if lmon-ledge of theoutput corre-
of general dynamics1 syst.ems as int,roduccd in Sect,ion I1 sponding to a.n input u = 0 for t < to uniquely deternunes
and then, in the follon-ing sect,ion, specialized to finite- x0 E X . Thus the output. due to someinitial state at
LC
dimensional linear syst,ems. t-1 = - m " is observed and t,he present state x. is to be
The fist series of definit,ions refers t.0 possible t.ransfers reconstructed. The stateof a dynamical syst.emis said to be
in the statespace which may result. from a.pplying inputs. reconstructible a.t to if orall u E U, knowledge of the
The concept of controlla.bility refers t.o t,ransferring an output for t I to uniquely determines .xo E X.
arbit.rarg init,ial st,at,et.0 a desired trajectory. This desired Note that connectedness implies reachability and con-
t.raject,ory is often an equilibrium point. R e nil1 assume trollability,and t.hat. observability implies zero-input
t.his t,o be the case and take the zero element, t.0 represent observabilit.y, which in turn implies irreducibility. These
this equilibrium. not,ions arein genera1 notequivalent unless, as will
Assumptian: It mill be assumed that for all to E 2, be shon-n in the nextsection, the system is linear and
+(t, to, 0, 0) = 0 for t 2 to and r(to,O, 0) = 0. finit.e dimensional. The simplest. example of a nonlinear
D e J n i t i m 2: Let t o be an element of t.he real line. The system for which this equivalence does not hold is the
state space of a dynamical system is said to be wachable sgst.em R = A 5 u; y = Cx,n-here x E R", u E R, and
a t if, given any m E X,there exists a L 1 5 to and a u E u y E RP, and the matrices A and C a.re compatible. It
such t.hat X = +(to, t-1, 0, u).A dynanlical system is mid should also benoted [ll] t,hat rea.chability, control-
to be controllable a.t to if, given a,ny mo E X, there exists labilit.y, connectedness, observabilit,y,irreducibility, and
a tl 2 to a.nd a I L E U such that +(tl, to, xo, u) = 0. The reconstructibility a.re preserved under
(out,put.) feed-
siate space of a dynamical system is said t.0 be connected back, butthat zero-input observabi1it.y and zero-input
if, given any .xo, X I E X , there exist to 5 tl and a u E U reconstructibilit,y are in general not unless the system is
such t.hat +(&,to, zo, u) = 21. aga.in linearandfinite dimensional. If asystem is not
Observabilit,y refers to the possibility of reconstructing irreducible, then there exist tn-o initial states such t,hat
the stat,e from output measurements. As remarkedby t,he out,put to any input will be the same on the interval
Iialman et al. in [9], there are however two separate state [to, ). These two sta.tes are thus compleOely indistinguish-
reconstruct.ion problems which one should consider. One able under experimentation a,nd the st.ate space may thus
refers to deduc.ing the presentsta.tefrompast, output, be reduced by eliminatingone of these two states from t,he
observahions and t,he other refers to deducing the present state space. Note that although the observability defini-
st.at,efrom futureoutput observat,ions. It, is the first tions ask for the reconst.ruction of the init,ial st,at.e,this is
property which is essential in filtering. There is also equivalenttoreconstructing the st.at,e on the whole
the question of what happens to t,he inputs in thisprocess. interval [to, m ). It. may in fact bemore logical to demand
Fortunately t,his is of no consequence for linear systems, this in the verydefinitions.
but for nonlinear systemsoneshould dist,inguish t,hree It should be remarked t,hat the abovedefinitions might
cases, depending on u-hether the input, is a priori known, not be appropriate for certain applications. In particular,
is arbitrarily assigned, or may be selected in t.he cxperi- for distributed parameter systems i t issometimesmore
ment.This lea.& us to consider the folloxving series of convenient to make definit,ions of controllability which
definitions around the theme of deducing t.he st.ate from require that, every state can be driven arbitmrily close
output observations. to theorigin rat,herthan exactly to it.
DeJinition 3: Let to E R. A dynamical system is said t,o It is importantfor many applications to have somewhat
be zero input observable a t to if knodedge of the output stronger cont,rollability and observability properties than
y(f0, xo, 0) for t >_ to uniquely determines x,,.A dynamical merely t,hose implied by the basic definit.ions. These are
system is said to be obseraable a t t o if for all xa E X and now int,roduced. With linear syst.emin mind \?.-e nil1
u E U lmon-ledge of the observed output y(to, mo, u ) for norm the input and output, spa.ces by means of an LAype
f 2 to determines x. uniquely. The state space of a dy- norm.
namical system is said to be irreducible a t t o if for all x0 E Dejinition 5: -4dynamical systemis said to be unifolmly
X there exists a. u E % such that knowledge of the out,put controllable if there exists a T > 0 and acontinuous
y(to, xo,u)for t 2 touniquely determines .co. function au:R + R such that for all x0 E X and t o E R
The difference between irreducibility and observability t.here exists a u E % with fi$Tllu(t) l u2 dt 5 a(IIroll) such
is t,hat in the former case the u which yields t,he initial +
t,hat +(to T,to,xo,u) = 0. The statespace of a dynamical
state x. may be a function of xo itself, u-hereas in the system is said to be uniformly reachable if t,here exists a
AKD WILLEMS NITTER: CONTROLLABILITY
RECONSTRUCTION
-4ND STA4TE 585

T > 0 and a continuous function QI :R -

all 50 E X and to E R there exists a u E U with .fi-~
R such that for X ( L ) = { V I E VllLUl = 01
CR(L)= {vz E V Z ~ V = ~ L V ~some
, v1 E I)'~).
lluz
Ilu(t) dt 5 a(llxol))such that +(to, to - T , 0, u)= 20.
A dynamical system is said to be uniformly zmo-input The adjoint of L, denoted by L*, is t,he operator from ,T'

function p : R
x1 E X and to E R
-
observable if there exists a T > 0 and a monotone increasing into V I which sa.tisfies (v2, Lal)r.72
R witlbhp(0) = 0 such that, for a.11 20, v1 E VI and u:! E Vz. The adjoint is linear and uniquely
= {L*vz, E ~ ) for
~ , all

defined whenever it exist,s. It exist,s n-hen @ ( L )is closed or

whenever L iscontinuous and VI a,nd V 2 areHilbert
J;+TllY(t, 40, to, x09 O ) , 0) spaces. I n pa.rticular L* exists whenever V1 and/or 8 2
are finite dimensional. It. isthis case which will be of
- y(t, +@, to, 21, 01, 0)1l2dt 2 P(llZ0 - 2111). interest, in the sequel. If L* exists, then so does (L*)*
A dynamical system is said to be uniformly zero-input and, in fact,(L*)* = L, and if L1 and Lz are linear operators
recmlstructt%le if there exist.s a T > 0 and a monotone non- from VI into V Z a,nd V 2 int>o IT3which have an adjoint,
increasing function 6 : R + R with p(0) = 0 such that for then LzLl has an adjoint and (LzL1)*= L1*Lz*.Consider
all 5 0 , 5 1 E R , and to E R now the following lemma which is proven in most. texts on
linear algebra [13].
Jo:TllY(t, 44, to - T , x02 O), 0) L e m n a I : Let L be a linear operator from VI into V 2
1vit.h V1 and/or V2 f i d e dimensional. Then L* exists,
- Y(t, +(t, to - T , $1, 01, 0)1l2dt %(L) = &(L*)'-, @(L)= X(L*)', X ( L ) = X(L*L), and
2 B ( l l ~ ( t o , t O - T,zo,0 ) - cp(to,to - T,z, 0)II). CR(L) = CR(LL*).
There are two t,ypes of linear operators which will be of
The next, notionsrefer to the zero-inputst,abilit,y of
part.icularinterest inthe sequel. Let R" denotereal
dynamicalsystems in sta.te-space form. Since only the
Euclidean n-space withthe usual Euclidean inner product,
not,ion of exponential stability mill be used in the sequel,
x 2 let Cz"(t0, tl) denote t,he inner-product
( X I , x?) = ~ 1 ~ and
attention will be limited t.o this concept,. For a more de-
space of all continuous R"-valued funct,ions on [to, t l ] with
tailed discussion of Lyapunov stabi1it.y concepts see [12].
the inner product (XI, xz) = f$xl'(t)xz(t) dt. Let F ( t ) be a
Dejinitim 6: A dynamical system in st,ate-space form is
rea.1 ( m X n) matrix-valuedcontinuousfunct,ionon [to,
said to be exponentially stable if there exist, constants Jf,
t l ] and consider now the operators L1 and L,2from R" into
X > 0 such that
Czrn(tO,tl) and from Czrn(tO,tl) into R", respectively, defined
IlxolJ
Il+(tl, to, 5 0 , 0) (1 5 M e - X(t1--tO). by :
for d l xo E X a.nd tl 2 to. LIZ = F(t)z
IV. FINITE-DIMENSIONAL LINEARSYSTENS : a.nd
ALGEBRAICc O h 9 I T I O N S FOR CONTROLLABlLITY
AND OBSERVABILITY

It is usually quite diacult to obtain specific a.lgebraic

conditions for controllabilit,y and observabilit,y. The one It is easily verified t,ha.tL1 = Lz* and hence that, Lz = L1*.
class of systems for wbich such explicit, testsmay be Notice t>hatLzL1 = Ll*LI = L2Lz*is the linear transforma-
obta.ined isthe linear finite-dimensional system.The tion on R" induced by the mat.rix fib' F'(t)F(t) dt.
proof of the basic result which states these conditions in Turning now t.0 the question of controllabilit,y and ob-
terms of invertibility of the W and 171 matrices given servability,observe that it. follows from the variat.ion
here is based on abstract. vector space concepts. Alt.hough of constants formula for the finite-dimensional linear sys-
this a.pproa.chis not standard and although theconditions t,em (FDLS) that t,he statme x0 E R" a t to nil1 be trans-
may be obtained using much more modest, means, it. is felt ferred to t,he st-atex1 E R" a t tl by the cont.inuous control
that the results follow more naturally in t.his framework. u ( t ) if and only if
I n order to keep the discussion on a.n elementary level,
topological notions will be avoided as muchas possible.
Dejinition 7: Let V be a n inner product space and let
S beasubspace of V . Then t,he orthogonalcomplement
+(to, t1)zl - 50 =
lof'
+(to, T)B(T)U(T) d7

Similarly it follows that t>he output. on [to, t1] due to the

Fu.

of X, denot,ed byS'-, is defined as S'- = {v E Vl(v, s) = 0 init.ial st,ate x. at to and the control u ( t ) satisfies
for all s E 8 ) . If S is a closed subspace(and t,hw in
particular if X is finite dimensional) t,hen V = S @ SI; y(t) - Jtc(t)+(t,
r ) u ( r )dr = C(t)+(t, t0)zo Hz0
i.e., any elenlent v E V has a unique decomposition into to

+
v = XI x2 with X I E S and xz E SI. Let L be a linear where to I t I tl.
operator from VI into V z wit,h V I and V 2 inner product It is immediately clear from the above t,hat the finit,e-
spaces. Thenthe null space X ( L ) and the rangespace dimensional linearsystem (FDLS) is cont.rollable at to
R(L) of L are t.hesubspaces of V I and V z , defined re-
spectively by operat.or F:Czm(to,tl) -
in some finite time interval [to, t l ] <fm z d ody i f the linear
R" is onto R" and is observable
586 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AUT~XATIC CONTROL, DECEMBER 1971

in t.he interval [to, t l ] if and only i';f the linear operator if for some T > 0 there exist.s an el > 0 such t,hat W (to,
H:R" 4 CZp(tO,t 1 ) is oneone on R". Consequently lo + T ) 2 QI for all ta E R; it isuniformlyobservable
controllabi1it.y on [to, t l ] requirest>hat, @(F) = R" and (uniformly reconstructible) if and only if for some T >
observability on [to, t l ] requires that. Z ( H ) = ( 0 ) . Thesr 0 there exists an e2 > 0 such that. J P ( t 0 , t o +
T ) 2 gI for
characterizationsare, however, somen-hat, unsatisfactory all to E R.
in the sense t,hat, they require knowledge of the range Sot.ice that, in vim- of the bounde.dness assumpt.ion
space a.nd null space of operators defined from or into on A ( t ) , uniform cont>rollability is equivalent, to the exis-
infinit>e-dimensional spaces. If one considers Lemma 1, tence for some T > 0 of const.ants 1, 2 > 0 and M I , iif2
it becomes appa,rent, t,hat. these condit.ions can be st-ated such that
asrequiring, respect.ively, that @(FF*) = R" and X-
(H*H) = ( 0 ) . Since, however, FF* and H*H b0t.h map
0 5 EJ 5 TV(t0, to + T ) 5 Jf1l

R" into R", these 1inea.roperators u-ill be cha,racterized by a.nd

mat.rices. It is t,hus entirely nat.ura1 t.0 rephrase the con-
dit,ions in terms of FF* and H H " . This leads to t,he fol-
0 5 E ~5I +(to + T , to)W(tq, + T)+'(to+ T , t o )
fq MJ
loviing theorem. for all t o E R. Thus for the systems under consideration
Th.eorenz 1: The finit.e-dimensional 1inea.r system (FD- the present definit.ion is equivalent to the one originally
Ix)is cont,rollable at. to if and only if det, W ( t o , f l ) # 0 proposed by Kalman [SI. The same holds for observability.
for some tl 2 to, its stlate space is reacha.ble at to if and Theorem 1 suffers from t,he drawback that. it does not
only if det. W ( t - 1 , to) # 0 for some f-1 5 f o , and its state give cont.rollability and obserrability conditions in terms
spa.ceis connected if a.nd only if det. W ( f - 1 , fl) # 0 for some of the original model which involves t,he mat.rix A(t),
t l , tl. It is observable(zero-input observa,ble,irreducible) at but instead in terms of t.he associated t,ransition matrix
t o if and only if det d l ( t o , tl) # 0 for some f l 2. to and its + ( f , T). It is, hoxever, possible to remedy t,his sit.ua.t,ion,
state isreconstructible (zero-input, reconst.ruct,iblc) at to a.t least. for sufficiently smoothsystems. In the case of
if and only if det M ( t - 1 , tq) Z 0 for some t-1 5 io. The stationary systems, cont.rollabilit,y and observa.bility
(n X 1%) ma.trices W and d l are defined by t,urn out to be determined by the following well-lulown
conditions.
W(t0, t l ) J:+(~O, T)B(T)B'(T)+'(fO, 7 ) d T Theorem 3: The st,ationa.ryfinite-dimensional linear sys-
tem (SFDLS) is controllable (reacha.ble, connect,ed) a t to
if and only if rank ( B , AB, A2B, . . . , A"-IB) = n. It is
df(t0, t l ) l i ' ( T , t O ) C ' ( T ) C ( T ) + ( T , to) d T . observa,ble (reconstruct.ible, irreducible) a t to if and only
if rank (c',A' c', . . . , ( A ' ) n - ~ ~=' }n.
Proof: The operat.or FF*: R" ---f R" corresponds to Proof:See, for inst.ance, [lo, p. 791.
the matrix W ( t o , t l ) and the operator ---fH*H :R" R" Silverman and Meadows [14]andChang [15] have
corresponds t.o the matrixM ( t 0 , t1). Since a linear operator developed algebraic conditions which are applicable to
mappinga finite-dimensional space into a spa.ce of the linear t,ime-varying dynamical systems. These results re-
same finit.e dimension is oneoneif and only if it is onto,i t quire t,hat,t.he matrices A ( t ) , B(t),and C ( t ) be sufficiently
follows that, invertibility of these mat,rices is equivalent smooth.
to, respect,ively, controllability and observabilit,y in the Renmrk: For finit,e-dimensionalst.a.tionery linear systems,
interval [to, tl]. Since however (R(W(f,,, t l ) ) is monotone if the system is controllable in finite t h e , t,hen it is con-
nondecreasing (in the set, theoretic sense) with tl and trollable inanarbit,rarily smalltime. This resultis in
since (M(t, t l ) ) is monotone nonincreasing n i t h t l , the general no longer true for infinite-dimensional st,ationery
controllability and observability claims follon-. The ot>her linear syst,ems.
cases are proven in a similar way. A very useful concept ist.hat of dzud systems. Dual
It remains to determineacontrol which makesthe dynamicalsystems have theintriguingpropertythat
desired transfer in t,he case of controllabi1it.y and to give cont,rol problems of one become observation problems for
a.n algorithm to compute t,he init,ialstaatein the case the other, and vice versa. Optimal control problems t.hus
of observabi1it.y or reconstruct.ibilit,y. I n fact, u.*(f) = lead to optimal estimation problems. It is fair to say t.hat
B'(t)$'(to, t)TV-l(to, t~)(+(lo,t 1 ) t l - $0) transfers the system the concept is so far not. understood inany degree of
from zo at to to x 1 a t tl, while minimizing J:dlJu(t.)112 dt, genera1it.y. It, is analogous, but not, ident,ical, to t.he con-
a.nd 50 = A/-'(to, t l ) J i : + ' ( ~ , t o ) .C'(T)V(T)d7, n-here y(t) = cept of reciproca.1systems: one strongly suspects these con-
y ( t ) - J:nC(t)+(t, T)u.(T) d T , is the unique state a t t o cepts t.0 be relevant for general nonlinear systems.
which will yield t.he output y ( t ) on to 5 t 5 tl (or tl 5 MTe begin 1vit.h asimpleidentification of two adjoint
t 5 t o ) when t.he input isu(t). operators. It is easy t.0 show that if L1:CZm(to,t l ) R" is
The minimizing property of the above control leads im- defined by x(&) = I;lu n i t h
mediately to thefollowing conditions for uniform controll-
ability and uniform observability.
+
33 = A ( t ) z B(t)u, L(to) = 0
Theorem2: The finite-dimensional linear syst,em (FDLS) then I;l*:R" + CZm(t0,t l ) is given by y ( t ) = L I * p ( t l ) ,
is uniformly controllable (uniformly rea.chable) if and only to 5 t 5 tl wit.h
WILLEMS AND NITTER: CONTROLLABILITY
STATE AND RECONSTRUCTION 587

p
Similarly, if L2:R"
=

Lzz(to),to 5 t 5 tl, with

-
-A'(t)p, y = B'(t)p.

CZp(tO, t l ) is defined by y(t) =

3) design an output feedback compensator which regulates
the closed-loop response.
I n t,hissection wemill trea.t t,hese quest,ions for the
st,ationary finite-dimensional lineardynamicalsystem
d = A(t)z, y = C(t)z, introduced in Section 11.
then Lz*:G p ( t 0 , tl) + R" is given byp(to) = Lz*u with d = AX + Bu, y = CZ. (SFDLS)
p = -A'(t)p - C'(t)u, p(T1) = 0.
We assume as before that the input u(t) is a continuous
These formulas are easy to verify after not,icing t,hat the function of t. The problems of regulation a.nd state re-
t.ransition matrices of d = A(t)z and p = - A ' ( t ) p are construction discussed above will be "solved" in t.he same
related by #(t, 7) = +'(T, t ) . class of dyna.mica.1systems, i.e., Jve will only use st.ationary
By Lemma 1, it follows that there exists a very simple fmite-dimensional linear systems to achieve a. possible de-
relat.ion between the null spaces and the range spaces of sign procedure.
L1,L2and their adjoint,s. These associations give a relation- Consider first t>hequestion of regulationunderstate
ship b e h e e n cont.rollabilit,y and observabilit,y c0ncept.s. feedback and assume t,ha.t the feedback -Kz isbeing
The difficulty, however, is that the operators Zi* and L2* applied to the system. The closed-loop response is then
are defined backwards in t,ime (the a.ppearance of -A'(t) governed by t.he dynamica.1 equations:
strongly suggests that this better be the case if these a.re
to be concept,s of any degree of generality). Thus, in order
d = ( A - BK)x Bu, +
?J = CX.

to associate controllabilit,y propertieswith observabilit.). A represent,at,ive feature of the response of this closed-loop
properties of the nmthematical adjoint, one would have to system is given by t,he location of its poles, i.e., by t.he
int,roduce t,he concept, of a dynamical syshem which runs zeros of det ( I s - A +
B K ) . The question t>hm arises of
backwards in time or reverse t,he time direct>ionof t.he ad- under wha.t condihions is it possible t.0 assign the poles of a
joint and consider the dynamical system t,hus obtained. dgnamicalsystemarbit,rarilybysuitablychoosing the
Thus one associates with the system feedback gainmatrix K . More precisely, given an arbitrary
d = A(t)Z +
B(t)u, y = C(t);t: polynomial

its so-ca.lled dual defined by ~ ( s )= sn + ,r,-lsn-l + . . . + ro

i = Al(t)Z + B1(t)v, w = C,(t)z rn-it.h real coefficients, whendoes there exist, for given
matrices A a.nd B, at least one (m X n) mat.rix K such
where
t.hat det (Is - A + B K ) = ~ ( s ) ?The possibility of pole
Al(t0+ t ) = A'(t0 - t ) assignment turns out t o be equivalent to controllability.
&(to + t )
Thisproperty of stat.e feedbackappears to havebeen
- t)
= C'(t0
knon-n for a long t.ime in the single-input case (see [6] for
C,(h + t ) = B'(t0 - t ) . historical comments), but, has only recently come t o the
foreground for t,he multiple-input case.

- -
I n view of the above remarks it is now- very simple to
I n t,he multi-input case the first results in this direction
prove t,he following correspondences between a. dynamical
are due to Langenhop [16] and Popov [l'i1. They proved
syst,em and it.s dual: cont,rollability a t to reconstructi-
t,hat, given an arbitrary polynomial ~ ( s with ) coefficients
bilit,y at. to, and reachabilityat to observability at to.
in t.he field of real or complex numbers?there exists a
Remark: Any finite-dimensional linear dynamical system
may be decomposed into four subsystems: (1) a. control-
mat.rix K (possibly complex)such t.hat det. ( I s - A +
B K ) = ~ ( s if) and only if the system is controllable. The
lableandobservablesubsyst,em; (2) a. subsystemwhich
proof given by Popov [17] makes interesting use of Kal-
is controllable but not observable; (3) a subsyst,em which
man's canonical structure theorem and is different, from
is observable but not controllable; and finally, 4) a, sub-
Langenhop's. W-onham [18] gave a different proof and fur-
system which is neit,her controllable nor observable.This
ther shorn-ed that, if the polynomial has coefficients in the
is Kalman's canonica.1 structure theorem (see the paper by
field of rea.1 numbers, then t,he matrix K can be chosen to
Silverman, this issue).
be real. In our cont,ext, Wonham's appears to be the first
complete proof. ,4 different proof and algorit.hms for pole
V. ALLOCATION, STATERECOXSTRUCTIOX,
POLE AKD
assignment was presented bp Simon andMitter [19]
CLOSED-LOOP REGULATION
and Simon [34]. The proof given inthispaper uses a
The following questions about, t,he control of dynanlical lemma due to Heymann [20]. The lemma also appears in
systems are of fundamental import.a.nce in ma.t.hemat,ical Popov [31, p. 261, proposition 2, appendix A].
systemtheory-how to: 1) designa state feedbacklaw Theorem 4: There exists a rea.lm X n matrix L such that
which regulat.es t,he closed-loop response; 2) design a det (Is - A - BL) = s" + T,-~s"-' + +
. . . ro for
st.a.te reconst,ructor, i.e., asystemwhichdeduces t,he arbit,rary real coefficients {yo, .rl, . . , rn-l ] if and o d y if
current state from past observations of the output; and the system 2 = A x + Bu is controllable; i.e., if and only
588 IEEE TRdNSACTIONS ON AUTO5L4TIC CONTROL, DECEMBER 1971

if the (nm X n) matrix [B: AB: -

:A"-'B] is of rank +
such that the system3i: = ( A - BL)x blv is controllable
n. and bI3 is in thecolumn space of B.
The proof of the t.heorem will proceed via several Proof: Let 6, denote the i t h column of B a.nd let E ,
propositions. be thesubspacespannedbythevectors b,, Ab,, . ,-
Proposition1-Suficiency for the Case where B i s a An-%,. Since [B: AB:. . * :A"-'B] is of full rank n,
Column Vector: Let A be an n X n ma.trix and let b be an there are n vectors of the form Ajbi which form a basis
n X 1 mat,rix. If the system is cont.rollable, then there is afor R". Let ( e l , ez, . . . , e,) denote this basis. Thus any
k' (1 X n)such that the characteristic polynomial A - bk' x E R" may be written as latei.But ei E Et a.nd thus
is an arbit.rary preassigned polynomial (of degree n). t.he linearcombination xin_laiei may berearranged as
Sketch of Proof: Since thesystemis controllable, the x1 x2 . . + + +
zm u-it.h x i E Ei.
controllability matrix H = (b, Ab, . . . , A"-%) has rank n. In genera.1 the subspac.e E , will not be independent in
Therefore the n columns of H span R". It is then \yell the sense t,hat. E<l fE , # (0) for i # j . However there
known that there existsa basis of the st,ate-space X = R" are subspaces Siof Ei such that S i n Sj = {O} for i # j
such t,hatt,he system li. = Ax +bu may be brought in t.he and such that R" = SI + + +
8 2 * * . S m . TO see this,
standard cont.rollable form [lo] i = Alz +
blu where let SI = El. Then 8 1 hasa basis bl, Abl, . . . , Ak1-'b1
where K 1 is an integer 2 l.4Let b2* be the fist. column of
0 1 0 . s . B not in SI and let T1 be a subspace of R" containing b2*
0 0 1 . m . 0 such that R" = SI @ Tl.j This may be done by extending
the basis for SI to a basis for R" containing bz*. Let SZ
be thesubspacespannedby b2*.Ab2*, . . . , A"- 1b2 *
with k2 the largestintegersuch that thesevectorsare
1inea.rly independent in TI. Then SI @ SZis a subspace of
It is t,hen easy tosee that the chara.cteristic polynomial R" with basis bl, Abl, . - e
Ah-1 bl, b2*, Abz", . . . ,
,

of A + blk' may be chosen to have anypreassigned form. A"-%~*;moreover, s1n SB = {o).

Remark: The proof of the above proposition consists of Now let b3* be the first column of B not in SI @ SZ.
first puttingthesystemin sbandard controllable form, By thesame process as above, thereis a. subspace T2
and once this is done, the pole assignment becomes t.rans- containing b3* such that E = SI @ S2 0Tz.Also, t,here isa
parent,. The two parts of this algorithm may be combined number k3 so that b3*, . * , b3* are
linearly in-
to give t.he following direct algorithm for pole assignment dependent in Tz. Let. St be the subspace spannedby
b3*, . . . , AkJ-1b3*. Then SI @ S2 0S3 is a subspace of R"
[16]. Let
m<th basis b , . , - moreover, (81 @ S2) n Sa =
p ( s ) = S"+ +
pn-lsn--l * . *+ po = det ( I s - A ) 0.
a.nd Since R" is finite dimensional and equal to E1 @ E2 . . *
@ E,, this process termina.t,es a t some stage. HenceR" =
r(s) = S" + + +
T,-~S"-~ . . ro = det ( I s - A +bk') XI S2 +- . . 0 X, as indicat.ed, and a. basis for E is
be the open-loop and desired closed-loop chara.cteristic obtained by combining the bases for the subspaces. By
polynomials, respectively. Form the mat,rix rearranging the columns of B (hence, the coordinates of
the control) it can beassumed that thefirst. T columns of B
were in t,his process. Hence, the basis is bl, . . * , Ak'-'-
-
bl, . . , b,, . . , ALr-'b,, and C i e I k i = n. Let Q = [bl,
. . . Akl-lbl, . . . l b T J . ' * 7 Ah-1 b,] be the matrix whose
columns are thesebasis vectors. Hence Q is invertible.
Define a.n m x n mat,rix S = [ S I , . . * , s,] where each
\Po PI column is an m-vector defined as follows: srj = q+l('@
then the vector k is given by
-
if r j = z i = l k , a.nd j = 1, . , r - 1; sj = 0 otherwise,
where ei(*) is the ith st,andardbasis vector of R". Finally,
b' let L = SQ-1; then LQ = S. Consider LAki-Ibi since
Aki-'bj is the rjth column of Q , LAki-'bj = ej+1(*) for
k = - each j = 1, . . , T - 1. Similarly, LA'bJ = 0 for all other
powers of A.
Let AI = A - BL, then H I = [bl, * * , A1"-&] is the

We mill now show that the case when B is n X may

be reduced to the case that m = 1 by first applying state
3 Any nomero vectorin the column space of B will do for bl.
feedback. The reader may find it useful t o look up the notion of a cyclic
Proposition 2: If the system R = Ax +
Bu is control- subspace of a vect.or space V with respect t o a linear map A in a
book on matrix theory. See, for example, [33, p. 1851.
lable, then there exist matrices L(m X n) and bl(m X 1) 5 @ indicates direct sum; i.e., R n = S1@ T1,and SI Il TI = 01.
FyILLEblS AND B.IITlXR: CONTROLLABILITY
STATE AND RECONSTRUCTION 589

controllabilitymatrix of the pair (AI, bl). Considert,he Hyi" = vi (2)

following columns of H I .
-
where yi" = (bl(ai)Lvi,. . , b,(ai)LvJ'.
bl
Alb1
= bl.
Ab1 - BLb1 = Abl.
Since the eigenvalues of A +BL aredistinct,, the
= eigenvectors V I , * . . , v, axe linearlyindependentand
Al2b1 = A2bl - BLAbl = A'bl. form a basis for R". Then a.ny v E R" can be expressed as
v = Cr=llkivi; so, using ( 2 ) , u = xiiipi
= ~ , k , H y l *=
Albl-lb 1 -- Abl-1 bl . H(Cikiyl*).Then the range of H is Rn, so H has rank n.
Alklbl = A"b1 + BLAX"-'bl = bz +
linear combina- Therefore, the system is controllable.
Theorem 3 provides a method for approaching a hrge
tion of previous vectors.
Atl+'bl = Ab2 + linear combination of previous vec- class
on
of cont.ro1 problems. Other design procedures based
opt,imality criteria are t,reated elsewhere in thisissue.
tors.
Remm*ks: Theorem 4 hasbeengeneralized inseveral
Aln-lbl = A"'-' b, +linearcombination of previous
directions. -4generalizat,ion to periodic syst,ems may be
foundin [ 3 5 ] . For a. restricted class of time-varying
vectors. syst.ems a. pole-allocat.ion result has been proved in [29].
Thus the jthcolumn of H1 is t h e j t hcolumn of Q plus a The theorem is
also true for discret.e-time finite-dimensiona.1
linear combinat,ion of the previous j - 1 columns. Hence 1inea.r syst,ems defined over an a.rbitrary field [36].
the columns of H 1 are 1inea.rly independent so ra.nk of H , The pole-allocation result of Theorem 4 states tha.t. the
is n. Clearly bl is in the column space of B. Proposition 1 characteristic polynomial of t.he closed-loop system matrix
rimy be chosen at will by the use of state feedback. More
can now be applied t.o the controllable system 2 = ( A -
+
BL)z blv to complete t,he proof of t,he theorem. generally, one would like to ansn-er tlhe quest,ion as to
what. Jordan forms of the syst,em ma.t,rix can be realized
Proof of Th.eorem 3-Necessity: Let al, * . . , a , be distinct.
scalars such tha.t. det ( A - a i l ) # 0 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. using stat,e feedback (in fact it, is clear from the single-
By hypothesis, t,here is an L such that det, ( A +
BL - input
will
case thatthisJordan
since A - bk' will all\-ays
formcannotbechosen
have t,he same characteristic
at
SI) = (a1 - s) . . . (a, - s), that is, a!, * . . , a, are the
eigenvalues of A + BL. Then for each ai there is a u, E as minima.1 polynomial). This aspect of thestate feed-
+
R" such t>hat( A BL)ui = a,vi a.nd v i f. 0. Since ( a i l - backproblemhasbeen
turns out t.hat for a
studiedbyRosenbrock[32].
J0rda.n form to be possible certain
It
a
A ) is invertible, t.his can be writ,t,enas
priori inequalities have t,o be satisfied. From an algebraic
(ail - A)-'BLvi = v i , i = 1,2, . . . ,.TL. point of view, trhe resultsof Ilosenbrock appear t o present
pretty much thedefinitive story ast.0 what. can be achieved
For each a,, there are scalarsbj(ai) such t,hat wing stat.efeedback.
n We will consider the second questmionraised inthe
( a i l - A)-l = bj(aJAj-l. introduction to this section, namely, the design of a st,ate
j= 1
reconstructor. A nat.ura1 approach for such a design is to
To see this, let d = x:=&* be the cha.racterist>icpoly- attempt to discover a. dynanlical system whose st,ate will
nomial of aiI - A . Then since d o = det (ail - A ) , I = be an est.imate of thest.ate to bereconstructed. The
(air - A )(- (ch/do)I-, . . . , - (d,/do) ( a J - A )"-I). systemto bedesignedhasknowledge of the input a.nd
This shows t.he above,noting that ( a J - A ) k = x;=o
output. of the dpamica.1 system for which we are designing
a state reconstructor.
(:)(a,l)j(- l)k-jAk-j. Consider asa possible choice forsuchasystemthe
Combining the above, n-dimensional linear system
n L = F? + LU + H y
Aj-'B(bj(ai)LUi) = ui (1)
j= 1 where u and y represent theinput,andoutput. of the
syst,ems (SFDLS) and where 2 represents the estima.ted
for i = 1, . . ,n.
state. Since one would like the dyna.mics of the original
Let H = (23, AB, . . . , A"-'B) and consider Hy for
systemandthestate reconst.ructor t.0 be compat.ible,
Some y E Rnm' If Y is x*tten as each Of lengthit, is na,t,ural t,ochoose L = B and F = A - H C suchtha,t
m, i.e., y = (yl', . . . , y,') where each g i is an ,m-t,uple,
t,he estimator dynamics become
then
+
b = A2 BU - H ( i - y )
Hy = (B, AB, . . . , A"-'B) with $ = C2. The estimator
t,hus
is driven
by t,he error of
j= 1
t.he est.imated out.put andthe observed output through the
Yn
feedback gain H . The error e = 2 - z is governed by the
Letting y j = bj(at)Lv,,(1) becomes differential equation
 590 ONIEEE TRdNSACTIONS AUTOX4lTC CONTROL, DECEMBER 1971

k! = ( A - HC)e. B = AX + Bu
y = cx
A possible criterion for the quality of the st.at,e recon-
st.ructor
are the eigenvalues of t,he matrix governing the i = A? + Bu - H ( $ - y)
error equation, i.e., the zeros det (Is - A + H C ) . The
jj = CP
question thus arises of under what conditions on A and C
can
one
make the zeros of det (Is - A + H C ) arbitrary u = -KP.
by appropriately choosing H . This questionis precisely
Written in terms of x and e = f - x, this closed-loop
the dual of the pole-allocation question, and this observa-
dyna.mica1system may be m i t t e n as
tion immediately leads to the follouing theorem.
Theorem 5: There exists an (n X p ) matrix H such that 3i: = ( A - BK)x - BKe
the error dymmicsof t-he state reconstructor aregoverned
I! ( A - HC)e
by b = ( A - HC)e where e = P - x vith det ( I s - A + =

H C ) = an + ,rn-lsn-l + +
. . TO for arbitraryreal or
coefficients TO, TI, . . . , rn-l] if and only if t.he system 3i: =
Ax + Bu, y = Cx is reconstructible (observable); i.e., if )
dt e
= (A -0BK -BK
A - H C >(>.e
a.nd only if the (np X n) matrix [C:AC: . . : (A)+lC]
is of full rank n. The above representation shows that the poles of the
+
Proof: Since i = A z Bu, y = Cz is reconstructible, closed-loop system are the zeros of det (Is - A BK) +
i = Az + Cv is controllable. Hence H may be chosen det (Is - A +
H C ) and may hence be allocated at will
such t.hat det (Is - A + CH) is preassigned. Since det by choosing K and H if and only if the system (SFDLS)
(Is - A + CH) = det. ( I s - A + H C ) , the result. is both controllable and reconstructible(observable) ;
follo\vs. i.e., if and only if t,he (nm X n) and ( n p X n) matrices
Remmk: The above state reconst,ruct>orissometimes [B:AB: . . : A - B ]and [C:ACi . . . : (A)-C] have
called a n obsewer. It suffers from one fundament.al draw- full rank n.
back; namely, that, in reconstructing the state from the One may of course replace the stat.e reconstructor in
- 0ut.put.s y x e ignore the fact. t.hat,Jve lmou- y = Cx exactly t,his compensator by a Luenberger observer. This in fact
- andthusthat it. would be logical t.0 choose 2 such that yields a simpler design n-hich specializes to the state feed-
C2 = y. I n ot.her words, rather than estimating the whole back case.
st.ate x, i t suffces to estimate the components of z in the The stat.e feedback regulator, t.he state reconstructor,
null space of C. This problem has been studied by Luen- and t.he out.put feedback regulator are shown in Fig. 1.
berger [SI lvho showed that thereexists a. stat.e reconstruc- Rwlzark: Thestructure of t,he feedba.ck compensator
tor of order (n - p ) n-hose st.ate in combination n-ith the shown in Fig. 1 is precisely the same as t,hat obtained by
observed output results in an errorvector which has p invoking the separat,ion theorem of stochastic control and
components identically zero and whose (72 - p ) remaining designing the feedback compensator for a linear system
components are governed by a st,at.ionary linear dynamical \tilth Gaussian dist,urbances on the basis of deterministic
system of order ( n - p ) with preassigned eigenvalues of its optimal cont,rol theory for a quadratic cost and Kalman
system matxix. For a more complete account of this see filtering theory.
Wonham ~ 2 2 1 .
The regulator design based on pole allocation explained VI. STABILIZABILITY A h 9 STATE RECONSTRUCT~BILITY
in t.he first p u t of this sectmionis based on exact, knowledge FOR TIME-VARYING SYSTEMS
of all the st.ates. For technological reasons i t is often very It was shoqn in Section I11 that the control
difficult, and inefficient to measure the complete st.at.e
u(t) = -B(f)$(to, t)W-l(t,, t&O, to 5tI11
vector, and one only has access to the out,put formeasure-
ments. The question thus a,rises whet.her i t is possible to will t,ransfert,he state of acontrollablelinear finite-
use the above ideas to design a compensator which has dimensional syst,em from state x0 at time to to state 0 at
as its input the output, of the syst.em to be controlled. A time tl. 1mplement.ed in a feedback form, this would lead
logical and intuitive procedure in obt.a.ining such an out,- to the feedback control law
put compensator is to separate the task of stat,e recon- u = -B(t)W-l(t, t1)s
st,ruc.tion and feedbackregulationby first designing a
&ate reconstructor and then using t.he estimated value of which, since limt,t,lIW-l(t, 51)11 = 00, calk for unbounded
the state (instead of t,he act.ua1value of the st.ate) in the feedback ga.ins. This is not, surprising since i t amounts to
feedbackcontroller. Thisapproachis aprelude to t,he driving a linear system to zero in finite time. The problem
separation t.heorem for stochadc optima.1 control. I n tmhe t.hus arises as to whether it is possible to design a con-
present, context. it, shouldbe considered as a reasonable t.inuous bounded feedback cont.ro1 law which makes the
first approach to the design of an output feedback cont,roller. closed-loop system exponentially stable. It will be shown
Using t.his idea we obtainthe follon-ing closed-loop that. under suitable cont,rollability assumptions this is in-
dynamical system: deed possible.
WILLENS AND MITTER: CONTROLLABILITY AND STATE RECONSTRUCTION 59 1

Y
. In choosing the correction input r in a feedback form it
should be realized that one has incomplet,e information of
e in that only x and Cx are known. Assume, however, that
r ischosen to be the dual of the feedback contxol lam
considered in thebeginning of this section,i.e.,
r = -&I-l(t, to)C(t)e = M - l ( t , to)(y - 9).
This correction signal is admissible sinceit only dependson

i y and leads to the error equation

whichissuch
k! = (A(t)- M-l(t, to)C(f))e
that e(to) = 0. This state reconstructor,
however, asks for unboundedgains and will beunac-
I I ceptable in most situations. By dualizing Theorem 6 one
obtains a procedure for designing a st,ate reconstructor for
which the error approa.ches zero at anexponential rate.
Theorem 7: Assume that the system(FDLS) is uni-
formly observable. Thenthere exists abounded con-
tinuous matrixH ( t ) such that thesyst,em
I
I I

I
i = A(t)2 + B(t)u - H(t)($ - y)
(C)

Fig. 1. witrh $ = C(t)? is a state reconst,ructor suchthat the error

(a.1 State feedback controller. (b) State reconstructor.
(c) Output feedback controller. equation e = (A(t)- H(t)C(t))eis exponent,ially stable.
The combination of t.he stabilizing control law with the
Theorem 6: Assume t,ha.t. t,he system(FDLS)is uni- above state reconstructor in a loop for which t,he state
formly cont>rollable. Thenthere exists aboundedcon- reconstruct.ion and cont.ro1 funct,ion a.re separated lea.ds to
t.inuous matrix G(t) such tha.t the feedback system 2 = the following result
+
A(t)z B(t)u,;u. = -G(t)z is exponentially stable. Theorem 8: Assume that the system(FDLS) is uni-
formly cont,rolla,bleand uniformly observa.ble. Then t,here
The proof is based on the optimal control resultsof [j].
The details of t.he proof ma.y be found t,here a.nd only a.n exist bounded continuousmatrices G(t) and H ( t ) such
out.line will be included. that the closed-loop syst,em
Outline of the PPOO~: Consider the Riccati differentia,l
equation k, = - A ( ~ ) K - +
~ KTA(t) K,B(t)B([)K, -
2 = A(t)x + B(t)u
I with K,(T) = 0. Then limT,, KT(l)= K,(t) exists for y = C(t)z
all t. This limit
is
approached
beloxand also sat,isfies theaboveRiccati
monotonically from
differential
b = A(t)f - B(t)u + H ( t ) ( y - $)
equation [K,(t) isthus differentiable and hence con- 9 = C(t)2
tinuous]. Moreover KT(t) isboundedonany half line u = -G(t)P
[to, a ) by uniform cont.rollability. The result. follom if it
is proved that, the system2 = (A(t) - B(t)B(t)K,(t))xis is exponentially stable.
exponentia,lly stable. This, however,follova by considering
zK,(t)z as a Lyapunov function. For detailssee [5]. VII. INPUT-OUTPUTDESCRIPTIONS
OF
It was shonm in Section I11 t,hat one may reconshruct DYNARfICAL SYSTEMS
the present, state from past observations of the input and
There are two (fundament.ally different but, essentially
the output,. This problem ist h e d u dof the control problem.
equiva,lent,) possible descript.ions of dynamical syst,ems.
The cont.rol nature of the st.a.te reconstructionproblem
One isthe so-called state-space description.An appropriate
may be brought out. asfollows.
set of a.xioms for a large class of such systems has been
Suppose we consider a state reconst,ruct.or governed by
introduced in Sec.tion 11. The ot.her is the input-output
the equations
description. An axiomatic fra.mework for t,he st.udy of a
i = A ( t ) 2 + B(t)u + r $ = C(t)2 class of systems described in terms of input-output data.
and which possesses all of the essential propert,ies of
1vit.h 2 the state of t,he st.ate reconstructor, u the input to
finite-dimensional linear systems will now be introduced.
the plant, and T a correction signal (which is to be de-
As before, let U denot,e the collection of d l cont.inuous
signed). The error e = 2 - r is then governed by the
equation +
U-valued functions on (- a , a).The spaces Y and y
aresimilarly defined. m e aasumeagain tha.t I: and Y
e = A(t)e + r. are normed vector spaces.
 592 I E E E TFLANSACTIONS O X AUTOMATIC CONTROL, DECEMBER 1971

Consider6 now the subset U+of U defined as dynamical systems in state-spaceform inthat these
axioms donot a,llow for systemswitha t,ime-varying
U+ = { u E +(t) = o for t I to, some to E R } stat.e spa.ce. For most, applications this inconsistency is of
and assume that + is similarly defined. Consider now a no consequence, but in order to obt,ain in a simple manner
mapping F from %+ int.0 y+. Then F is said to be ca.usal an abst>ract solution to the minimal realization problem
on %+ if UI, u2 E %+ with ul(t) = ~ ( t for ) t 5 to implies fortime-varying syst.ems, this problem proves to bea
that (Ful)(t) = (Fu2)(t)for t 5 to. st.umbling block. This difficulty maybe overcome bya
Dejinitim 8: A dynamica.1system in input-out.put form suit,able modification of the a.xioms of dynamica.1systems.
is a map from U+into y+xhich iscausal on %+. The input-outputdynamicalsystem which will be
The problem of realization is to construct a dynamical studied in this paper is described by a. Volterra integral
system in stat,e-spa,ceform such that it generates the same equation.Let w(t, T) be a ( p X nz) matrix defined and
input-out,put.pairs as the dynamicalsystemininput- continuous for t 2 7, and consider the input-output
output form. The question thusreduces to constructing an system defined with U = R" and Y = R P as follows.
appropriate stat,e-space X and suitable maps4 and I'. Consider u E %+ a.nd let to be such that u ( t ) = 0 for
The problem of realizationistrivially solved if one f 5 to. Then
requires no additional properties of the state-space model.
Indeed let X denote the set of all continuous Lr-valued
functionson [O, m ) which va.nish for sufficiently large
values of theirargument. Consider now adynamical
system in input-output form and let us ta.ke t.he state This system \vi11 in short, be denoted by y = Wu.
space a t t,ime t t o be the element of X svhich sat.isfies The next- section is concerned Tvith the realization of a
z(s) = u ( t - s) for t 2 0. This element of X will indeed system (LS) by means of a syst.em (FDLS).
quaIify for a st,at,e since, in trying to satisfy the require-
mentthat,thestate should summarize the essential VIII. ~IININAL REALIZATIONS OF LIKEARSYSTEMS

feat,ures about t.he past input, we in fact. decided to store The question of state-space realizations of the system
the complete pastinput. It isinfact asimplematt.er (LS) has been actively investigated in recent times, par-
[ll] to induce the appropriate state t.ransit.ion map and ticularly as a result of t.he work of Iialman, Youla, and
readout. map to go along with this choice of t,he state. This Silverman. The present, section is devoted to one special
shows t,hat every input.-output dynamical syst.em has a. aspect, of this problem, namely, the relationship of mini-
state-space realizat.ion and yields a rather int.erest,ing ma1it.y and controllability and obsenrability. The full
decomposit,ion of a dynamical system intoa. linear stat.ion- implications and the algorithmic quest.ions related to t.his
axy reacha.ble dynamical part and a memoryless part. Of realization theory may be found in thepa.per by Silverman
course one can essentially never expect this system to be in t,hisissue.
observable. This realization is indeed ext,remely inefficient. It is clear that. theinput.-output. system (LS)is realized
A much more interestingrealizationis t,he minimal by the state-space model (FDLS) if and onby if w ( f , 7) =
realizat,ion for which the stat,e-space X has as feu- elements C(t)+(l,T ) B ( Tfor ) all t 2 T. Furthermore the system ( I S )
as possible. This realizat,ionis always reachable and has a finite-dimensional linear realizabion (FDLS) if and
irreducible. It is logical to consider as the state at. time t only if there exist continuous mat.rices G a.nd H such t,hat
the equivalence class of inputs up to time t which yield w(t, 7) = H ( ~ ) G ( Tfort ) 2 T.
the same output a.fter t,ime t, no matter how these inputs D e j i n i f i m 9: Assume t.hat t,he state-spacemodel (FDLS)
are continuedafter t.ime t. I n other words, theinputs is a realizat,ion of the input-output syst,em (LS). Then itis
UI E 21 and u2 E % will result. in the same stat.e at time t saidto be a minimal realizatimz of (IS) if every other
if any V I , u 2 E % with v1(s) = u1(s) and zlz(s) = u2(s) for realization of t,he t.ype(FDLS) has a state space of greatw
s I t and v l ( s ) = v2(s) for s 2 t yield out.puts ( K 1 ) ( t ) = or equal dimension.
(Fv2)(t) for t > s. One may then proceed t.o induce the It is importantt.0 note that minimality of the realization
maps 4 and T from there. Thisrealization procedure works does not preclude the existence of nonlinear state-spa.ce
well for stationarysystems.The difficulty withtime- realizations with a lower dimensional state space. I n fa.ct,
varying systemsarises from the fact tha.t.usually the above such lower dimensional (indeed, one-dimension.al)nonlinear
equivalence class idea will result in a state space which is realizations will always exist.. It sufFIces, therefore, to
itself time varying. This difficu1t.y is basically a conse- consider space-flling curves which map R" o n e o n e a,nd
quence of a deficiency in the axiomaticframework for ont,o R. I n order to ensure that every finite-dimensional
realization requires a state space of a dimension at. least
that of the minima.1(linear) realization, one has t.0 require
some smoothness on the maps4 and T .
There is no real need to restrict att.ention t o %+.The difficulty
withinputs which extend t.0 - is that is is usually difficult to One may expect from the discussion in Section VI11 that
prove well-posedness of typical mathematical models. This problem the problem of constructing a minimal realization will (at
is completely avoided by considering % + as the class of admissible
inputs. least in principle) be simple for stationary syst.ems, but
WILLEMS AND NITTER: CONTROLLABILITY AND STATE RECONSTRUCTION 593

ill cause some difEculties for timevarying systems. We Proof: Let G(u) = e-AuB, u 2 0, H ( t ) = CeAt,
will thus consider the stationarycase first. t 2 0, a.nd let the operators G and H be as defined in the
Theorem 9: The linear system (LS) is realizable by a proof of Theorem 9. Sinceminimalityisequivalent to
state-space model (SFDLS) if and only if: 1) t,he kernel R(G) = R" (= reachability)and N ( H ) = { O ] ( = ob-
w(t, T ) isseparable, i.e., t,hereexist mat,rices H and G servability) the first pa.rt of the theorem follows. Exist,ence
such that H(t)G(7) = w(t, T ) for t 2 T ; and 2) w(t, T ) = of a minimal realizationfollows from the proof of Theorem
w(t - 7,0). 9 and the similarity transformation follows since in every
Proof: The "only if" part of t-he theorem is obvious. minimal realization the st,ate space must, beisomorphic
To prove the "if" part we need to ident,ify a triplet of (in t.he vector space sense) to the quotient. spa.ce @(G)/
matrices A , B, C such that C 8 ' B = w(t, 0) for t 2 0. x(H).
We will first identify the state space. Let. %- be the Therealization t.heory for stationary 1inea.r systems
functions in % restricted to (- 03, 01 andlet y+ be thus presents inprinciple no difficulties. The time-va,rying
t,he functions in y restrided to [0, a).Consider now t,he case is much more involyed, however. Indeed assume t.hat
mapping from X- to y+defined by w(t, 7) = H(t)G(7) [which is a necessary condition for a
realization (FDLS) to exist,],a.nd let G, and HT be defined
y(t) = S_Onw(t, T)U(T) d7, t 20 as GTu = j?,G(u)u(u) d u and H,z = H ( t ) x for t 2 T .
It is then natural t.0 consider X , = R(GT)/N(HT) as the
stat,e space at time T and t,o define the maps 4 and P
and denote this mapping by y+ = W+u.Since w(t, T ) = from t.here. There is, however,one basic difficulty with
H ( ~ ) G ( T )W, + maybe viewed ast,he composition W + this idea, namely X , is in general an explicit function of
= HG with G :U + Rqa n d H :Rq3 y+ defined by Gu = T , and in ordert.0 account for this it, becomes necessary to
~ ' ! , G ( T ) u ( T )d r and H z = H ( t ) x , t 2 0, where q denot,es start from a new axiomatic framework for t,reat,ing
t.he number of rows of G (= t.he number of columns of H ) . dynamicalsystems. A second difficu1t.y is t.ha.t even if
Consider now t.he quotient, spa.ce X = a ( G ) / X ( H ) .This is X , is always a subspaceof, say, R", it may not, be possible
clearly a finite-dimensional (sayn-dimensional)vector to construct an n-dimensionalrealization exhibit,ing t.he
space. required smoothness for t.he parameters A(t), B(t), C(t).
We d l now ident,ify the A matrix. To do t.his, observe This sit,uationisillustrat.ed by trying tJo obt,ain a. one-
that the space X qualifies as a st,ate space byviewing the dimensionalrealization of the system & = bl(t)u, & =
st.ate a.t.t = T corresponding to the input u E % as the +
b2(t)u.,g = cl(t)zl c2(t)z2with bl(t) = cl(t) = 0 for t 2
element in R ( G ) / N ( H ) corresponding to u., E %+ wit,h 0 and bz(t) = ~ ( f )= 0 for t 5 0. Thus, a.lthough reach-
+
u,(t) = u(T t ) for t 5 0. It is an easy matterto formalize abilityandobservabilityat some timeare certa.inly
the linear maps 4 a.nd r associat,ed with this choice of t,he sufficient conditions for minimality, they are not neces-
state space. Let 4(t)zo, t 2 0, be the zero-input, response sary.
result,ing from z(0) = xo. Then 4(t) is an (n X n.) matrix Thereis, however, another (somewhat, artificial) pro-
which satisfies 4(0) = I and 4(tl)4(tz) = 4(tl +
tz) for cedure for achievingacertainamount of structural
tl, t 2 >_ 0. Thus +(t) = ea'for some matxix A . inva,riance for timevarying systems. This procedureis
The matrix C is then t,he linear mapping form R" into based on considering ant,i-causal systems in association
RP which t.akes x. into y(0). To ident.ify the B mat,rix, with the causal syst,ems considered so far. This requires
notice t.hat, by properly redefining G and H we may assume t.he state tsa.nsitionmap t o possess thegroup propert,y
t,hat H ( t ) = CeALand x0 = j?,G(u)u(u) du. Then B = and the input-output maps to be defined as a causal map
G(0) sa.tisfies w(t, 0) = H(t)G(O) = Ce"'B for t >_ 0, when timerunsin t,he usua.1 fonvard direct,ion and an
which shows that w(t, U ) = Ce"(lPu)B for t 2 u and t,hat the anticausal map when time runs bacltrmrd. The sta.t.e of a
triplet { A , B , C) isindeedarealization. Notmicet,hat state-space rea1izat.ion of such an input-output dynamical
this realization is in facta minimal one. system is this alternatively required to summarize past
Extensions a.nd more details of the ideas invoked in the and future inputs. This thenyields the required invariance
proof of t,he above theorem may be found in [6] and int.he properties.
paper by Silverman in t,his issue. This device has been successfully applied to dynanlical
The following theorem is a.n immedia.t,e consequence of systems described by
the proof of Theorem 9 and yields the desired rela.tion-
ship between minima.litp and reachability-observability.
Th.eorem IO: A realization A , B , C is minimal if and
only if the system 2 = Ax +Bu; y = Cz is observable for t 2 t o when t runs forn-ard and for t 5 t o when t runs
a,nd has a reacha.ble st.atespace.Moreoveraminimal backwards.Finite-dimensional rea1iza.tions arethen re-
realization always exists and a,ny two minimal realizations quired t.0 sat,isfy the equalit,y w(t, 7) = C(t)4(t, T ) B ( T )
A I , B1, C1 and A*, B2,C2 are related via. the similarity for all t, T E R. In thiscont.ext.one may in fact prove that a
t,ransformation A2 = TAT-I, B2 = TBI, C2 = CIT-l realiza,t,ionis minimal if a.nd only if t.he result.ing syst,em is
for some invertible matrixT . reachable and observable at some time. These notions are
594 I E E E TRANSACTIONS O N AUTOMATIC CONTROL, DECEMBER 1971

of course to beextendedtodynamicalsystems which there exists a constant K < m such that

possesst.he grouppropert,y. For details see Weiss and Ily(tJ+(t,0,0, 1
11 dt 5 Jz-Tllu()112 at. Thus v(zJ f)
Kalman [23], Youla 1241, and Desoer and Varaiya [25]. is well defined a.nd by uniform reachability and uniform
observabilitythere exist constants E > 0 and R such
E. STABILITY that ~ 1 1 x 1 15~ V ( z , t ) I R ( ( c ~By
( ~uniform
. observability
Anotherinterestingapplication of controllabilityand v(X0, h) - v($(tO + +
TI 6, 2 0 , 0)~f 0 T ) = J;+
observability in connection with deducing int,ernal from I l ~ ( t +(t,
, ~ll.11.
to, 50,01, 0)II dt 2 +
Since v(4(lo T , 20,
external properties of systems and vice versa ist-heequiv- 0), to + T ) i (1 - E/R)V(Q, t o ) , exponential st.ability is
alence of int,ernalstabilityandinput-output.stability. established as claimed.
This is the subject of the following theorem. First, how- Note t,hat the above theorem states as a side result the
ever, \\-e m i l l define input-output stability. equivalence of L , input-output stabilityfor all 1 _< p _<
Dejinitim 10: Let, G be a dynamical system in input- for systems (LS) with a uniformly controllable and uni-
out,put, form and assume that Go = 0. Then it is said t.o formly observable state-space realization. Theorems along
be L,-input-ouLput stable, 1 5 p Im , if thereexistsa the line of Theorem 10 for nonlinear systems may be found
constant K < m such that all u E U, u E L,, yield in [lo].
Gu E L, and l l G ~ lI l ~KIIuIIL~.
~
It may be shonm [26, sec. 21 tha,t for systems of the X. CONCLUSIONS
class (FDLS) and for any system of the class (LS) when I n t.his paper we have attempted to give a broad-based
p = 03 [27] the existence of the K follows from the fact review of what me consider t.he most importa.nt applications
t,hat y E L , whenever u E L,, Le., if G is a map from of the controllabilit,y-observability circle of ideas. We
L, fl U into L, t>henit. is automat.ically bounded. It. is have tried to emphasize concepts, but also discussed some
int,erest,ing to note [lS] that L,-stability, 1 5 p 5 m , is specific results in t.he cont.ext of finite-dimensional linear
equivalent to t,he existence of a. constant K such that for systems. One of t.he things which ma.y have come out of
all u E % t,he inequa1it.y thistreatmentist,hat (for linearsystems)oneshould
properly be discussing four concepts, namely, reachability
a,nd controllability(input, t, state)on one hand a.nd
reconstructibility and observability (stat.e f--f output) on
is satisfied. the other. Problemsof control face thequestion of control-
Theorem 11: Assumet,hat, t.he syst.em (FDLS) is uni- lability,problems of state reconst.ruction and filtering
formlyreachableanduniformly observable. Then ex- face the questionofreconstructibilityandproblems of
ponentialstabilityand L,-input.-output. stabilit*y, 1 I output-feedback control will face both the questions of
p 5 03 , are equivalent. reconstructibility and cont,rollability. On the other hand,
Proof: If thesystemis exponentially st.able, then questionsrelated to deducingint,ernalpropertiesfrom
there exists M , CY > 0, such that Ilw(t, .)I1 I input-out,put properties, such as minimality a,nd stability
for t 2 T (recall that we assumed B(t) and C(t) to be of the stat.e-space realization, face the questions of reach-
bounded). Hence Ijy(t)II I fioe-(f-r)~~u(~)~~ dr. The ability and observability. (The quest,ion t,hen is: What, did
convolut.ion of t.he L,-funct.ion I/u(t)II againstthe L1- the input do and n-hat,will the output be?) Byconsidering
kernel e-, t 2 0, maps L,, into itself byMinkowskis dynamical systems defined backwards in time, one may
inequa1it.y and defines a bounded linear transformation also drag the questions of controllability and reconst.ructi-
wit.h boundby M fre-f dt = I V / C Y . This est.ablishes bilit,y in the minimalky question in a somen-hat art>ificial
that exponent,ial stabilit,y implies L,-stability. The way.
converse nil1 nox be shown in the case p = 2. The method Many problems in this area remain to be investigated.
of proof works equally well when 1 2 p < 03 andthe First amongthese isto find conditions andstructure
case p = m is well documented in the literahre (see e.g., theorems for classes of nonlinearsystems andsystems
[SI and [IO, se.c.. 30, t.heorem 31. Assume tha.t t,he syst.enl defined via algebmicst.ructureswhich do not involve
(LS) is L2-input-output stableandt,hat (FDLS) isa the
usual vector spaceassumptions. Some results in
uniformly reachable and uniformly observable realization. t,his vein are presented in1301.
Consider the real-valued function defined on R X R
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Engineering, Massachusett,s Institute of Technology,
(Corresp.), vol. X - 1 3 , pp. 748-749, Dec. 1968.
B.Gopinath, On the control of multiple input-output sys- Cambridge, where he is currently an Associate Professor. He was a
tems, in Conf. Rec. 2nd Asilomar Conf. Circuits and systems, consdt.ant, wit,h the Cleveland Illuminating Company,Cleveland,
1968. Ohio, from 1966 to 1970. He has contributed to the literature on
IV. hI. Wonham, Dynamic observers-geomet.ric theory, control and system theory.
I E E E Tra.ns.Automat.Contr. (Corresp.), vol. AC-15, pp. Dr. Mit.ter was theChairman of the Technical Committee on
258-259, Apr. 1970. Computational Met.hods, I)istribut.ed Systems of t.he Information
1,. Weiss, and R. E. Kalman, Contributions t o linear system Dissemination Committee of theIEEEGroup on Automatic
t.heory, Int. J . Eng. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 141-lil, 1965. Control.
D. C. Youla, The synt.hesis of linear dynamical systems from
prescribed weighting patterns, STAX J . -4ppZ. M&., vol. 14,
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1966
[25] C. 8 . ?e.soer and P. P. Varaiya, The minimal realization of a
nonanttclpabive impulse response mat.rix, S I A X J . A p p l .
Mafh., vol. 15, pp. 754-764, 1967. Jan C. Willems (S66-3168) was bornin
[26] J. C. Willems, The Analysis of Feedback Systems. Cambridge, Bmges, Belgium, in 1939. H e graduated in
Mass.: X.I.T. Press, 1971. electrical and mechanicalengineering from
[27] C. A . Desoer and A . J. Thomasian, X n0t.e on zero-stat.e the University of Ghent., Belgium,in 1963,
st.ability of linear systems, PTOC. 1st Allerton C o n f . Circuit and received the M.S. degree in electrical engi-
System Theory, 1963, .pp. 50-52. neering from the Universit.y of Rhode Island,
[28] L. 3.1.Silverman and B. I>. 0. Anderson, Cqpt.rollahility, Kingst.on, in 1965, and the Ph.l). degree in
obaervability and stability of linear systems, S I A X J . electrical engineering from the Massachusetts
Contr., vol. 6, pp. 121-130, 1968.
1291 W. A . Wolovich. On the stabilization of controllable svstems. Institute of Technology, Cambridge, in
I E E E Trans. Automat. Contr. (ShortPapers), vol:AC-13, 1968.
pp. 569-5i2, Oct,. 1968. H e is currently an AssistantProfessor in
R. X. Brockett., System t.heop on group manifolds and
~~
the Department of Electrical Engineering, M.I.T. His area of main
coset spaces, to be published, interest is aut.omatic control. He is the author of The Analysis of
P . h,I. Popov, Hyperstab1lit.atea sistemelov aut,omate, Feedback Systems (M.I.T. Press, 1971). During 19iO and 1971 he
Editura. dcademii Republici SociidisteRomania (Bucharest), was with the Department of Applied Xat.hematics and Theoret.ia1
1966. Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England.
H.H. Rosenbrock, StateSpace and Alfu!ticariabk Theory.
Appleton, Wis.: Nelson, 1970. Dr. Willenls is presently Chairman of t,he Stabilit,y, Eonlinear
F. R. Gantmacher, The Theory of Xatrices, vol. 1. New York: Systems,Dist,ributed SystemsCommittee of theIEEE Control
Chelsea, 1959. Systenls Society.