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HANDBOOK
&
FORMULA BOOK
for
GATE, IES, JTO, PSUs & SSC

ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

Published by Engineers Institute of India

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2016 By Engineers Institute of India

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright

herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any
means graphic, electronic, or mechanical & chemical, including but not
limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web
distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval
systems.

Engineers Institute of India

28-B/7, Jia Sarai, Near IIT Hauz Khas New Delhi-110016

Tel: 011-26514888

For publication information, visit www.engineersinstitute.com/publication

ISBN: 978-93-5156-854-4

Price: Rs. 349/-

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A WORD TO THE STUDENTS

GATE and Engineering Services Examinations are the

most prestigious competitive examinations conducted
for graduate engineers. Over the past few years, they
have become more competitive as more and more
numbers of aspirants are increasingly becoming
interested in post graduate qualifications & government
jobs for a secured and bright career.

This Formula Book consists of well-illustrated concepts, important

formulae and diagrams, which will be highly beneficial at the last leg of
candidates preparation.

It includes all the subjects of Electrical Engineering, which are required

for all type of competitive examinations. Adequate emphasis has been laid
down to all the major topics in the form of Tips / Notes, which will be
highly lucrative for objective and short answer type questions.
Proper strategy and revision is a mandatory requirement for clearing any
competitive examination. This book covers short notes and formulae for
Electrical Engineering. This book will help in quick revision before the
GATE, IES & all other PSUs.
This book has been designed after considering the current demand of
examinations.

It would be very fruitful if the students go through this book every day.
We are presenting this book by considering all the facts which is required
to get success in the competition.

With best wishes for future career

R. K. Rajesh
Director
Engineers Institute of India
eii.rkrajesh@gmail.com

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This book is dedicated to all

Electrical Engineers
Preparing for GATE, IES, JTO, SSC
& Public sector examinations.

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CONTENTS

1. NETWORK THEORY .............................................. 01-40

2. CONTROL SYSTEMS.............................................. 41-74

3. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS AND CIRCUITS .............. 75-118

4. MICROPROCESSORS ............................................ 119-136

5. ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS .................... 137-168

6. ANALOG ELECTRONICS ...................................... 169-204

7. SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ..................................... 205-230

8. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ............................... 231-264

9. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY ............................. 265-286

10. MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION ....... 287-308

11. ELECTRICAL MACHINES ..................................... 309-392

12. POWER SYSTEMS ................................................ 393-448

13. POWER ELECTRONICS ........................................ 449-504

14. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS ................................... 505-518

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Why IES?

Indian engineering services (IES) constitute of engineers that work under the
govt. of India to manage a large segment of public sector economy which
constitutes of Railroads, Public works, Power, Telecommunications, etc. IES
remain the most sought-after careers for the engineering graduates in India. A
combined competitive examination is conducted by UPSC for recruitment to the
Indian Engineering Services. The exam constitutes of a written exam followed
by an interview for personality test.

Why GATE?

In the present competitive scenario, where there is mushrooming of universities

and engineering colleges, the only yardstick to measure and test the calibre of
engineering students is the GATE.

The GATE Advantage

Many public sector undertakings such as BHEL, IOCL, NTPC, BPCL, HPCL, BARC
and many more PSUs are using the GATE score for selecting candidates for their
organizations. Students who qualify in GATE are entitled to a stipend of Rs 8,000
per month during their M.Tech. course. Better remuneration is being offered for
students of M.Tech./ME as compared to those pursuing B.Tech/B.E. A good rank
assures a good job. After joining M.Tech. at IITs and IISc, one can look at a salary
package ranging from Rs 7lakh to 30lakh per annum depending upon
specialization and performance. Qualifying GATE with good marks is also an
eligibility clause for the award of JRF in CSIR Laboratories.

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1
NETWORK THEORY
CONTENTS

1. NETWORK BASICS . 02-05

2. METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND THEOREMS .. 06-10

3. AC FUNDAMENTALS AND R, L, C CIRCUITS .. 11-15

4. RESONANCE . 16-18

5. TRANSIENTS 19-22

6. GRAPH THEORY . 23-26

7. TWO PORT NETWORKS . 27-30

8. MAGNETIC COUPLED CIRCUITS .. 31-32

9. FILTERS . 33-36

10. NETWORK SYNTHESIS . 37-40

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1. NETWORK BASICS
Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge flow.
dq
i (Ampere)
dt
t
Charge transferred between time to and t q idt
to

Sign Convention: A negative current of 5A flowing in one direction is same as a

current of +5A in opposite direction.
Voltage: Voltage or potential difference is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element, measured in volts.

Power: It is time rate of expending or absorbing energy.

Law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit.

Algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero.
i.e. P = 0
Circuit Elements:
Resistor: Linear and bilateral (conduct from both direction)
In time domain V(t) = I(t)R
In s domain V(s) = RI(s)
l
R= ohm
A
l = length of conductor, = resistivity, A = area of cross section
Extension of wire to n times results in increase in resistance: R ' n2R

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R
Compression of wire results in decrease in resistance: R'
n2
Capacitor: All capacitors are linear and bilateral, except electrolytic capacitor which
is unilateral.
t
Cdv(t) 1
Time Domain: i(t) = v(t) i(t)dt
dt C

1
In s-domain: I(s) = sCV(s) I(s) V(s) =
sC
Capacitor doesnt allow sudden change of voltage, until impulse of current is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of electric field and power dissipation in ideal capacitor
is zero.
1
Impedance Zc =-jXc & Xc = ; Xc Capacitive reactance ; = 2f
C
Inductor: Linear and Bilateral element
t
di (t ) 1
L
Time Domain: v(t ) L i (t ) v(t )dt
dt
Impedance Z L jX L & XL L
1
In s-domain V(s) = sL I(s) V(s) I(s) =
sL
Inductor doesnt allowed sudden change of current, until impulse of voltage is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.
Power dissipation in ideal inductor is zero.

Transformer: 4 terminal or 2-port devices.

I1 I2

+ +

Input Output
V1 N1 N2 V2 port
port

N1 N 2 : Step down transformer N 2 N1 : Step up transformer

V1 N1 I1 N 2

V2 N 2 I 2 N1

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N1
Where K Turns ratio.
N2
Transformer doesnt work as amplifier because current decreases in same amount
power remain constant.

Gyrator:
I1 I2
Ro

V1 V2

R o Coefficient of Gyrator
V1 R o I 2 V2 R o I1
If load is capacitive then input impedance will be inductive and vice versa.
If load is inductive then input impedance will be capacitive.
It is used for simulation of equivalent value of inductance.

Voltage Source:

In practical voltage source, there is small internal resistance, so voltage across the
element varies with respect to current.

Ideal voltmeter, RV (Internal resistance)

Current Source:

In practical current source, there is small internal resistance, so current varies with
respect to the voltage across element.
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Ideal Ammeter, Ra 0 (Internal resistance)

Dependent and Independent Source:

Independent Source: Voltage or current source whose values doesnt depend on any
other parameters. E.g. Generator etc.

Dependent Source: Voltage or current source whose values depend upon other
parameters like current, voltage.
The handling of independent and dependent voltage source is identical except.

(i) In Thevenin and Norton Theorem (ii) Superposition Theorem

Where, (i) All independent voltage sources are short circuited.
(ii) All independent current sources are open circuited.
(iii) All dependent voltage and current sources are left as they are.
A network in which all network elements are physically separable is known as
lumped network.
A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc, are not
physically separate for analysis purpose, is called distributed network. E.g.
Transmission line.

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2
CONTROL SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1. BLOCK DIAGRAM 42-44

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING . 45-46

3. TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS 47-52

4. STABILITY . 53-55

5. ROOT LOCUS 56-58

6. FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS . 59-60

7. POLAR PLOTS 61-64

8. BODE PLOTS .. 65-68

9. COMPENSATORS .. 69-72

10. STATE SPACE ANALYSIS . 73-74

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1. BLOCK DIAGRAM
Open Loop Control System:
In this system the output is not fedback for comparison with the input.
Open loop system faithfulness depends upon the accuracy of input calibration.

When a designer designs, he simply design open loop system.

Closed Loop Control System: It is also termed as feedback control system. Here the
output has an effect on control action through a feedback. Ex. Human being

Transfer Function:

C(s) G(s)
Transfer function =
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)

Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop control systems:

Open Loop:

1. Accuracy of an open loop system is defined by the calibration of input.

2. Open loop system is simple to construct and cheap.
3. Open loop systems are generally stable.
4. Operation of this system is affected due to presence of non-linearity in its
elements.

Closed Loop:
1. As the error between the reference input and the output is continuously measured
through feedback. The closed system works more accurately.
2. Closed loop systems is complicated to construct and it is costly.
3. It becomes unstable under certain conditions.
4. In terms of performance the closed loop system adjusts to the effects of non-
linearity present.
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Transfer Function: The transfer function of an LTI system may be defined as the
ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input under the
assumption

Y(s)
G(s) =
X(s)

The transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and
the gain factor.
The T.F. function of a system depends on its elements, assuming initial conditions
as zero and is independent of the input function.
To find a gain of system through transfer function put s = 0
s4 4
Example: G(s) = 2 Gain =
s 6s 9 9

If a step, ramp or parabolic response of T.F. is given, then we can find Impulse
Response directly through differentiation of that T.F.

d
(Parabolic Response) = Ramp Response
dt

d
(Ramp Response) = Step Response
dt

d
(Step Response) = Impulse Response
dt

Block Diagram Reduction:

Rule Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram
1. Combining X1G1 X1G1G2 X1 X 1 G 1 G2
X1 G1G2
blocks in G1 G2
cascade

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2. Moving a
summing point
after a block

3. Moving a
summing point
ahead of block

X1 X1 G X1 X1 G
G G
4. Moving a take
off point after a
block X1 1/G
X1

X1 X 1G X1 X 1G
G G
5. Moving a take
off point ahead X 1G
X 1G G
of a block

6. Eliminating a X1 X2
G
feedback loop
1GH

(GX1 X2 )
Signal Flow Graphs:
It is a graphical representation of control system.
Signal Flow Graph of Block Diagram:

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pk k
Masons Gain Formula: Transfer function =

pk Path gain of k th forward path

1 [Sum of all individual loops] + [Sum of gain products of two non-touching

loops] [Sum of gain products of 3 non-touching loops] + ..

k Value of obtained by removing all the loops touching k forward path as

th

well as non-touching to each other

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3
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
AND CIRCUITS

CONTENTS

1. NUMBER SYSTEM & CODES . 76-78

2. BINARY AIRTHMETIC .. 79-82

3. LOGIC GATES .. 83-89

4. DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS . 90-95

5. SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS . 96-100

6. SHIFT REGISTERS 101-102

7. COUNTERS 103-105

8. DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILY 106-112

9. ADCs AND DACs 113-116

10. MEMORIES .. 117-118

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1. NUMBER SYSTEM & CODES

Number System and Codes:

A number system with base r, contents r different digits and they are from 0 to
r 1.

Decimal to other codes conversions: To convert decimal number into other system
with base r, divide integer part by r and multiply fractional part with r.

Other codes to Decimal Conversions: ( x2 x1 x0 . y1 y2 ) r (A)10

A x2 r 2 x1 r x0 y1 r 1 y 2 r 2

Hexadecimal to Binary: Convert each Hexadecimal digit into 4 bit binary.

(0101 1010 1111)2

(5 AF )16
5 A F

Binary to Hexadecimal: Grouping of 4 bits into one hex digit.

(110101.11) 2 0011
0101 (35.C)16
.1100

Octal to Binary and Binary to Octal: Same procedure as discussed above but here
group of 3 bits is made.

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Codes:

Binary coded decimal (BCD):

In BCD code each decimal digit is represented with 4 bit binary format.

Eg : (943)10 1001
0100
0011
9 4 9 BCD

It is also known as 8421 code

Invalid BCD codes

Total Number possible 2 4 16

Valid BCD codes 10

Invalid BCD codes 16 10 6

These are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111

Excess-3 code: (BCD + 0011)

It can be derived from BCD by adding 3 to each coded number.

It is unweighted and self-complementing code.

Gray Code:

It is also called minimum change code or unit distance code or reflected code.

Binary code to Gray code:

+ + + +
MSB 1 0 0 1 0 Binary

MSB 1 1 0 1 1 Gray

Gray code to Binary code:

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Alpha Numeric codes: EBCDIC (Extended BCD Interchange code)

It is 8 bit code. It can represent 128 possible characters.

Parity Method is most widely used schemes for error detection.

Hamming code is most useful error correcting code.
BCD code is used in calculators, counters.

Complements: If base is r then we can have two complements.

(i) (r 1)s complement.

(ii) rs complement.

To determine (r1)s complement: First write maximum possible number in the

given system and subtract the given number.

To determine rs complement: (r1)s complement + 1

First write (r1)s complement and then add 1 to LSB

Example: Find 7s and 8s complement of 2456

7777 5321
2456 1
7's complement 8's complement
5321 5322

Find 2s complement of 101.110

1s complement 010.001

For 2s complement add 1 to the LSB

010.001
1
2'scomplement
010.010

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4
MICROPROCESSORS

CONTENTS

1. MICROPROCESSOR BASICS . 120-124

2. 8085 INSTRUCTIONS 125-132

3. 8086 BASICS . 133-136

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1. MICROPROCESSOR BASICS

A Microprocessor includes ALU, register arrays and control circuits on a single chip.

Microcontroller:

A device that includes microprocessor, memory and input and output signal lines on
a single chip, fabricated using VLSI technology.

Architecture of 8085 Microprocessor

1. 8085 MPU:

8 bit general purpose microprocessor capable of addressing 64 K of memory.

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It has 40 pins, requires a +5V single power supply and can operate with 3 MHz
single phase clock.

2. 8085 programming model:

It has six general purpose register to store 8 bit data. These are B, C, D, E, H
and L. It can be combined as BC, DE, and HL to perform 16 bit operations.

B, D, H high order register and C, E, L low order register.

Accumulator: Is an 8 bit register that is used to perform arithmetic and logic

functions.

Flags: 5 flags

Flag Register:

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY

Carry Flag (CY): If an arithmetic operation result in a carry or borrow, the CY flag
is set, otherwise it is reset.

Parity Flag (P):

If the result has au even number of 1s, the flag is set, otherwise the flag is reset.

Auxiliary Carry (AC): In an arithmetic operation

If carry is generated by D 3 and passed to D 4 flag is set.
Otherwise it is reset.
Zero Flag (Z): Zero Flag is set to 1, when the result is zero otherwise it is reset.

Sign Flag (S): Sign Flag is set if bit D7 of the result is 1. Otherwise it is reset.

Program counter (PC): It is used to store the l6 bit address of the next byte to be
fetched from the memory or address of the next instruction to be executed.

Stack Pointer (SP): It is 16 bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to memory
location in Read/Write memory which is called as stack.

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8085 Signals:
Address lines:

There are l6 address lines AD0 AD7 and A8 A15 to identify the memory
locations.

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5
ELECTRONIC DEVICES &
CIRCUITS

CONTENTS

1. SEMICONDUCTOR BASICS & ENERGY BANDS 138-144

2. JUNCTION DIODE . 145-148

3. VARIOUS SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES 149-152

4. CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS . 153-154

5. BJT (BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR) .. 155-157

6. FET (FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR) 158-164

7. FABRICATION OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS .. 165-165

8. THYRISTOR ... 166-168

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1. SEMICONDUCTOR BASICS & ENERGY

BANDS
Thermal Voltage: VT (Voltage Equivalent of Temperature)
T
VT volt
11600
Standard room temperature (300 K) VT 0.0256 voltagesVT 26mV
The standard room temperature corresponds to a voltage of 26 mV.

Leakage Current (I o )
Also called minority carrier current or thermally generated current.
In silicon it is in nano ampere range and in germanium it is in micro ampere range.
Io doubles for every 10C. For 1C, Io increases by 7%.
Io is proportional to the area of the device.
Advantages of smaller Io:
(i) Suitable for high temperature applications
(ii) Good Thermal stability
(iii) No false triggering

Energy Gap: Difference between the lower energy level of conduction band (CB)
E C and upper energy level of valance band (VB) E v is called as energy gap.
Metals: VB and CB are overlap to each other.
This overlapping increases with temperature.

e is both in CB and VB.
Insulators: Conduction band is always empty. Hence no current passes. Band
gap: 5 eV 15 eV.
Semiconductor: Energy gap is small and it is in range of 1 eV.
At room temperature current can pass through a semi conductor.
Energy Gap Ge Si Ga As
Eg T 0 7.85 eV 1.21 eV XX
Eg T 300 K 0.72 eV 1.1 eV 1.47 eV
Energy gap at temperature T
For Ge Eg(T) 0.785 7.2 104 T
For Si Eg(T) 1.21 3.6 104 T
Energy gap decreases with temperature.
dv volt
Electric Field Intensity
dx meter
drift velocity v m2
Mobility of charge carriers
electric field intensity sec
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Mobility Vs curve
< 10 3 constant
10 10
3 4
1/ 2
1
10 4

So drift velocity: V d Vd 1/ 2 Vd constant

Mobility indicates how quick is the e or hole moving from one place to another.
Electron mobility > hole mobility
Mobility of charge carriers decreases with the temperature.

T m
Mass Action Law: In a semi conductor under thermal equilibrium (at constant
temperature) the product of electrons and holes in a semiconductor is always constant
and equal to the square of intrinsic concentration.
[no po ni2 ]
no Concentration of e in conduction band
Po Concentration of holes in valance band
ni Intrinsic concentration at given temperature
ni2
Majority carrier concentration =
Minority carrier concentration
Eg

Intrinsic concentration n AoT e
2
i
3 2 KT

ni is a function of temperature and energy gap.

Einsteins Equation: Relation between diffusion constant, mobility and thermal
voltage.
Dn D P
VT KT
n P
D
The unit of is volts. Where, D n e diffusion constant

D p Hole diffusion constant
Diffusion and Drift Current:

Diffusion Current: It is defined as migration of charge carriers from higher

concentration to lower concentration due to concentration gradient.
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Drift Current: It is flow of current through the material or device under the influence
of voltage or electric field intensity.
Total current density in a semi conductor

J Jn Jp


(Total current) (Current carried by e ) (Current carried by holes)
Jn Jn Jn

current due to e
e drift current density
e diffusion current density
dn
For e J n nqn qDn A / cm2
dx
dp
For holes J p pq p qDp A / cm2
dx
e diffusion length Ln Dn cm

Hole diffusion length LP DP cm

Conductivity
In Metals: Metals are uni-polar, so current is carried only by e
nqn
In metal, conductivity decreases with temperature.
In Semi Conductors nqn pq P

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6
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

CONTENTS

1. VOLTAGE REGULATOR & RECTIFIERS .. 170-171

2. BJT & TRANSISTOR BIASING . 172-175

3. MULTISTAGE & POWER AMPLIFIERS 176-178

4. SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS ......................................... 179-183

5. FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS 184-187

6. OSCILLATORS . 188-191

7. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 192-204

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1. VOLTAGE REGULATOR & RECTIFIERS

Voltage Regulator Circuits:
VNL -VFL
% Regulation = 100%
VFL

VFL
Full load current = I FL =
RL

VNL -No load

VFL -Fullload

Smaller the regulation better is the circuit performance.

Zener Voltage Regulator Circuit:

Since Zener diode is conducting

VL Vz VBr VL IL R L Vz I z R z I I z IL

If Zener current is maximum then load current is minimum and vice versa.

I I z max I L min I I z min I L max

Vi VL
For satisfactory operation of circuit I I z min I L I z min I L
Rs

The power dissipated by the Zener diode is Pz Vz I z

Rectifier: To convert a bi-directional current or voltage into a unidirectional current

or voltage

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rms value of AC component

Ripple factor: r
DC value

2
V
r rms 1
Vdc

rms value Vrms

Form factor: F r F2 1
dc value Vdc

Peak value
Crest factor =
RMS value

DC power output
Rectifier Efficiency = 100%
ACpower input

TUF (Transformer utilization factor):

DC power output
TUF =
AC rating of transformer

Half Wave Rectifier: Average value of current and voltage

Im Vm
Idc , Vdc

Im Vm
RMS value of current and voltage: I rms , Vrms
2 2

Efficiency 40.6% Ripper factor = 1.21

Frequency of ripple voltage = f Form factor = 1.57

Peak inverse voltage = Vm TUF = 0.286

Full Wave Rectifier: Average value of current and voltage:

2Im 2V
Idc , Vdc m

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Vm Im
RMS value of current and voltage: Vrms , I rms
2 2

Efficiency 81.2% Ripper factor = 0.48

From factor = 1.11 Crest factor = 2

TUF = 0.692

Frequency of ripple voltage = 2f Peak inverse voltage = 2Vm

Bridge Rectifier: All the parameters are same as full wave rectifier except
Peak inverse voltage = Vm Transformer utilization factor = 0.812

Advantage of Bridge Rectifier:

1. The current in both the primary and secondary of the transformer flows for entire
cycle.
2. No center tapping is required in the transformer secondary. Hence it is a cheap
device.
3. The current in the secondary winding of transformer is in opposite direction in two
half cycles. Hence net DC current flow is zero.
4. As two diode currents are in series, in each of the cycle inverse voltage appear
across diode gets shared. Hence the circuit can be used for high voltage
application.

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7
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1. BASIC PROPERTIES OF SIGNALS .. 206-209

2. LTI SYSTEMS . 210-212

3. FOURIER SERIES . 213-214

4. FOURIER TRANSFORM . 215-218

5. DISCRETE TIME SIGNAL SYSTEMS .. 219-221

6. LAPLACE TRANSFORM 222-224

7. Z TRANSFORM . 225-228

8. DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORMS . 229-230

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1. BASIC PROPERTIES OF SIGNALS

Operations on Signals:
Time Shifting: y (t ) x(t )
Shift the signal towards right side by | | when 0 . This is also called as time
delay.
Shift the signal left towards side by | | when 0 . This is also called as time
advance.
Time Reversal y (t) = x (t)
Rotate the signal w.r.t. y-axis. It is mirror image of signal. y (t) = x (t)
Rotate the signal w.r.t. x-axis.
Time Scaling y(t ) x( t )
When 1, compress the signal.
When 1, expand the signal.
3
Eg. y(t) = x(5t + 3) y (t ) x 5 t
5
Steps: 1. First rotate the signal w.r.t. y-axis.
2. Compress the signal by 5 times.
3
3. Shift the signal by unit towards right side.
5

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Standard Signals: Continuous time signals

Impulse signal (Direct Delta Function)
, t 0
(t )
0 , t0
& (t )dt 1

Properties of Impulse Signal

(i) x(t ) (t ) x(0) (t ) (ii) x (t ) (t to ) x (to ) (t to )

1
(iii) [ (t )]
||
(t ) (iv) (t ) dt 1


(v) x (t ) (t t

o ) x (t o ) (vi) x (t ) * (t to ) x (t to )

Unit Step signal:

1, t 0
u (t )
0, t 0

Unit Ramp signal:

r (t ) t u (t )
t , t 0
r (t )
0 , t 0

Parabolic signal:

At 2
x(t ) u(t )
2

At 2
,t0
x(t ) 2
0 , t0

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t2
, t0
unit parabolic signal x(t ) 2
0 t0
,

Unit Pulse signal:

1 1
(t ) u t u t
2 2

Triangular signal:

|t |
1 , | t | a
x(t ) a
0, | t | a

Signum Signal:

1, t 0
x(t ) sgm(t )
1, t 0
sgn(t ) 2u (t ) 1
sgn u (t ) u (t )

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8
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1. ANALOG MODULATION . 232-238

2. PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES . 239-244

3. NOISE . 245-246

4. DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES . 247-248

5. RANDOM PROCESSES ................. 249-250

6. INFORMATION THEORY .. 251-252

7. ANTENNA THEORY .. 253-255

8. RADAR .. 256-257

9. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 258-259

10. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION 260-264

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1. ANALOG MODULATION

Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier signal to
make it suitable for transmission.

Need for Modulation:

1. Size of antenna required for receiving the wave is reduced if signal is transmitted
at high frequency.

2. Many number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously by selecting the

carriers of different frequencies.

3. The interference of noise and other signals can be reduced by changing the
frequency of transmission.

4. Integration of different communication system is possible.

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulated Signal:

AM may be defined as a system in which the maximum amplitude of the carrier

wave is made proportional to the instantaneous value (amplitude) of the modulating
or base band signal.

x m ( t ) Am cos m t
xc ( t ) Ac cos c t

x(t ) Ac [1 Ka xm (t )]cos ct where = KaAm

x (t ) Ac cos c t Ac K a xm (t ) cos c t

where = modulation index

xm (t ) message signal

x (t ) A c cos c t A c cos m t cos c t

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Frequency spectrum of AM wave:

Bandwidth = 2 f m

Frequency band from f c to f c f m is called as upper sideband

Frequency band from f c f m to f c is called as lower sideband
Amax Amin
Amax AC [1 ] Amin AC [1 ]
Amax Amin

Amax maximum amplitude

Amin minimum amplitude

Power Relations in AM wave:

Ac2 2 Ac2
Ptotal = Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB Pcarrier PLSB PUSB
2 8

Ac2 2 Ac2 2 Ac2 2

Ptotal Ptotal 1 Pc
2 8 8 2

Maximum power dissipated in AM wave is PAM= 1.5 Pc for =1 and this is

maximum power that amplifier can handle without distortion.

Efficiency of Amplitude Modulated System:

PSB 2
AM 100% AM 2 100%
Pt 2

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For satisfactory modulation 0 1

Current relations in AM wave:

2 2
Pt 1 Pc I tIC 1 Ic
2 2

Multi-tone Modulation: When carrier is modulated simultaneously by more than

one sinusoidal signal.

Resultant Modulation Index = 12 22 32 ............

Double side Band Suppressed Carrier modulation DSB-SC:

s(t ) Ac cos ct cos mt

modulation index A c carrier amplitude

In DSB-SC the carrier signal is suppressed at the time of modulation. Only side-
bands are transmitted in modulated wave.

2
Bandwidth = 2 f m Transmitted Power Pt Pc
2

Power saving = 66.67% (for = 1)

Single Sideband Modulation (SSB): In this technique, along with modulation

carrier one side band gets suppressed from AM modulated wave.

s (t ) Ac m (t ) cos 2 f c t Ac m (t ) sin 2 f c t

( t ) is Hilbert transform of message signal.

m

2
Bandwidth = f m Transmitter Power Pt PC
4

Power saving 83.3%

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Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation: In this modulation one side band and
vestige of another sideband is transmitted.

It is used for transmission of video signal in television broadcasting.

It is also used for high speed data signal and facsimile.
Vocal signal transmission of T.V. via F.M.
AM Modulators:

For Generation of AM or DSB/Full carrier wave

A. Product Modulator B. Square Law Modulator C. Switching Modulator

For Generation DSB-SC wave

A. Filter method/frequency discrimination method

B. Phase shift method/Phase discrimination method

C. Third method/Weavers method

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9
ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY

CONTENTS

1. COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND VECTOR CALCULUS .. 266-267

2. ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS .. 268-271

3. MAGNETO STATIC FIELDS 272-274

4. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS .. 275-276

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES .. 277-281

6. TRANSMISSION LINE .. 282-285

7. ANTENNAS 286-286

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1. COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND VECTOR

CALCULUS
Vector Calculus:
Gradient: The gradient of scalar V is written as V and result is vector quantity.
V V V
For Cartesian: V a x a y a z
x y z
V 1 V V
For Cylindrical: V a a a z
z
V 1 V 1 V
For Spherical: V a r a a
r r r sin

Divergence: The divergence of vector A is written as .A and result is scalar
quantity.
A x A y A z
For Cartesian: .A
x y z
1 1 A A z
For Cylindrical: .A (A )
z
1 2 1 1 A
For Spherical: .A (r A r ) (sin A )
r r
2
r sin r sin

Curl of vector: The curl of vector A is defined as A and result is vector
quantity.
a x a y a z
For Cartesian:
A
x y z
Ax Ay Az

a r a z
a


For Cylinderical: A
z
A A Az

a r a a
2
r sin r sin r

For Spherical: A
r
Ar rA r sin A

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Laplacian of Scalar: Laplacian of scalar field V is written as V. It is the

divergence of gradient of V. The result is a scalar quantity.
2 V 2 V 2 V
For Cartesian: 2 V 2 2 2
x y z
1 V 1 2 V 2 V
For Cylinderical: 2V
2 2 z 2
1 2 V 1 V 1 2V
For Spherical: 2V
r sin
r 2 r r r 2 sin r 2 sin 2 2
Laplacian of Vector: It is a vector quantity.

2 A (.A) A

Divergence of a curl of vector is always zero . ( A) 0
Curl of gradient of a scalar field is always zero ( V) 0

The vector field is said to be solenoidal or divergence less if . A 0

A vector field is said to be irrotational (or potential) if A 0
A vector field is said to be harmonic if 2 V 0

A ( . A) 2 A

. (A B) B . ( A) A . ( B)

Divergence Theorem: It states that total outward flux of vector field A through

closed surface S is the same as volume integral of the divergence of A .

A.ds . A dv
s v

Stokes Theorem: It states that line integral of a vector field A over a closed path is

equal to surface integral of curl of A.

A . dl ( A) . ds
l s

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10
MEASUREMENTS
&
INSTRUMENTATION
CONTENTS

1. MEASURING INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS . 288-289

2. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS 290-295

3. AC BRIDGES 296-298

4. MEASUREMENT OF POWER & WATTMETERS .. 299-301

5. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE .. 302-302

6. Q-METER .. 303-303

7. TRANSDUCERS 304-306

8. CRO (CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE) 307-308

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1. MEASURING INSTRUMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
Generalized Measuring Instrument: The block diagram of generalized measuring
system may be represented as:

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the variable being measured. It can be improved by recalibration.
Precision: It is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ from
one another.
It is design time characteristic.
High precision does not mean high accuracy. A highly precise instrument may be
inaccurate.
Ex: If reading are 101, 102, 103, 104, 105. Most precise value is 103
Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will
respond. It is improved by re-calibrating the instrument.
Sensitivity: It is ratio of change in output per unit change in input quantity of the
instrument. It is design time characteristic.
Drift: It means deviation in output of the instrument from a derived value for a
particular input.

Reproducibility: It is degree of closeness with which a given value may be measured

repeatedly for a given period of time.

Repeatability: It is degree of closeness with which a given input is repeatably

indicated for a given set of recordings.
Errors:
1. Absolute Error/Static Error/Limiting Error:
A Am AT
A m Measured value of quantity of actual value
A T True value of quantity or nominal value
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A Am AT
2. Relative Error: r
AT AT
A
3. Percent Error: % r 100
AT
Instrument Error is generally given in percent error.

4. Percentage Error at reading x:

Full Scale Reading
% r , x [% r , Full scale]
x

Error due to combination of quantities:

1. Error due to Sum/Difference of quantities
X x1 x2
X x x x x
% r
1 1 2 2
X X x1 X x2
2. Error due to product or quotient of quantities
x1 1
X x1 x 2 x3 Or or
x2 x3 x1 x2 x3
X x x x
1 2 3
X x1 x2 x3
X x x
3. Composite factors X x1n . x2m n 1 m 2
X x1 x2
CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS:

Standards of EMF:
(a) Saturated Weston cell is used for Primary standard of emf.
Its emf is 1.01864 volt, maximum current drawn is 100 A. It contains
CdSO 4 crystal and its internal resistance is 600 to 800 .
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(b) Unsaturated Weston cell is used for secondary standards. Its emf is 1.0180
to 1.0194 volt and does not have CdSO 4 crystal.
Standard of Resistance:
Maganin (Ni + Cu + Mn)
Nickel 4%
Magnese 12% [High Resistivity and low temperature coefficient]
Copper 84%
Inductive effect of resistance can be eliminated, using Bifilar winding.

Standard of Time and Frequency:

Atomic clock is used as primary standard of time and frequency. Quartz, Rubidium
crystal is used as secondary standard of time and frequency. Example: Cesium 133,
hydrogen maser etc.

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11
ELECTICAL MACHINES

CONTENTS

1. TRANSFORMER 310-330

2. DC MACHINE 331-346

3. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 347-364

4. INDUCTION MACHINES . 365-381

5. FRACTIONAL KW MACHINES . 382-392

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1. TRANSFORMER

Definition: A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field
and without the change of frequency.
Construction of Transformer:
Core Type:

1. In core type construction, both the limbs are provided with windings and the core
is surrounded by windings.
2. For a given output and voltage rating, it requires less iron but more copper.
3. Cross-section area of both limbs is equal.
4. These are used for high power applications.
5. These are suited for high voltage, small kVA rating.
For example: 15 kVA, 2200 / 1100 V
6. Cost of insulation is less.

Shell Type:

1. In shell type, only middle limb is provided with winding and the windings are
surrounded by core.
2. Amount of copper required is less.
3. Cross-sectional area of the middle limb is twice to that of outer limbs.
4. These are used for low power applications.
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5. These are suited for large kVA ratings but low voltage.
For Example: 150 kVA, 400/230 V

Principle of Transformer Action:

Figure (i)

A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two

(or more) coupled circuits or coils. According to Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced in a coil if it links to changing flux.
The direction of induced emf is given by Lenzs law which states that emf will
be induced in such a way that it opposes the cause which has produced it.
In transformer electrical energy is transferred due to mutual induction between
primary and secondary winding.

Emf equation of Transformer:

Referring to figure (i), E1 = emf induced in the primary winding
E 2 = emf induced in the secondary winding
and N1 , N 2 are the winding turns.
Let the flux is represented as, m sin t
By Faradays law of electromagnetic induction,
d
Emf induced in primary winding, E1 N1
dt
d
E1 N1 (m sin t ) E1 N1 m cos t
dt
E1 (E1 )m sin(t 90 )
rms value of emf induced in primary winding
(E )
(E1 ) rms 1 m
2
(E1 ) rms 2 f N1 m (i)
d
Similarly, emf induced in secondary winding E2 N2
dt

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E 2 N2 m sin(t 90 )
N m
(E 2 ) rms 2
2
(E 2 ) rms 2 f N 2 m (ii)
E1 E 2
From equation (i) and (ii),
N1 N 2
i.e., voltage per turns are equal in primary and secondary windings.
From figure (i) we have, E1 V1 and E2 V2
V1 E1 N1 I
Hence, a 2
V2 E 2 N 2 I1

Key Points:

1. Emf induced in the windings are radians ahead by the core flux.
2
2. Any change in the secondary current of the transformer causes a change in primary
current so that the flux remains constant.
3. Infinite permeability of the core signifies that no magnetizing current is required
for establishment of flux.

Ideal Transformer:
Properties
(i) Resistance of the windings of transformer is zero.
(ii) Magnetic leakage flux is zero.
(iii) The permeability of the core of transformer is infinite.
(iv) Efficiency is 100%.

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12
POWER SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1. FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM 394-396

2. PER UNIT REPRESENTATION 397-397

3. TRANSMISSION LINE . 398-405

4. TRAVELLING WAVES . 406-406

5. CABLE & INSULATOR 407-409

6. ADMITTANCE & IMPEDENCE MODEL OF NETWORK 410-413

7. LOAD FLOW STUDIES . 414-416

8. ECONOMIC LOAD DISPACTCH . 417-418

9. FAULT ANALYSIS 419-426

10. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY . 427-430

11. SAG AND TENSION .. 431-432

12. CORONA . 433-438

13. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION . 439-442

14. CIRCUIT BREAKER .. 443-444

15. HVDC-HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION . 445-448

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1. FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

Work done = F.d cos

Where F= force applied , d = displacement, = angle between F & d

Energy: It is capacity to do the work.

Unit : watt second 1w s 1Joule 1N m Newton meters

Electrical energy : It is energy that is in charged particles in an electric field.

Electrical energy generally expressed in kilo watt hours (kwh)

1 kwh 3.6 106 J

1 2
Kinetic energy (KE): mv (Jules)
2

Potential Energy (PE): Mgh (Jules)

Thermal Energy: Internal energy present in system by virtue of its temperature.

Unit : Calories 1 Cal 4.186 J

Power: it is time rate of change of energy

dw du
P u = work, w = energy
dt dt

Unit : Watt 1 Watt 1 J / s

Note: Electric motor ratings are expressed in horse power (hp)

1hp = 745.7 W and also 1 metric horse power = 735 Watt.

Electric parameter:

Let v 2V sin t
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i 2I sin(t )

where v = instantaneous value voltage

i = instantaneous value current

V = rms value of voltage

I = rms value of voltage

In Phasor representation

v V 0 , i I

S = P+jQ = VI cos + jVI sin = VI* (for this relation Q will be positive for
lagging VAR)

Where S = complex power or apparent power

P = Active power

Q = Reactive power

For balanced 3 phase system

P 3 | VP || I P | cos P 3 | VL || I L | cos P

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Q 3 | VP || I P | sin P 3 | VL || I L | sin P

where VL = line voltage

VP = phase voltage

VL
Note: in connection VP & IP IL
3

IL
connection VP VL & I P
3

Hyrdo power:

P = gWh(watt)

Where = water density (100 kg/m3)

g = 9.81 m/s2

W = discharge rate (m3/sec)

h= head of water

Tidal power

P = gh2 A/T (watt)

Where h = tidal head

A = area of basin

T = period of tidal cycle

Wind power

P = 0.5 AV3 (watt)

= air density (1201 g/m3 at NTP)

V = Wind speed in (m/s)

A = Swept area by blade (m2)

Load Curve: It is graph between the power demands of the system w.r.t. to time.

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Figure: Typical daily load curve

(i) Base Load: The unvarying loads which occur almost the whole day.
(ii) Peak load: The various peak demands of load over and above the base load.

Designation Capital cost Fuel cost Typical Type of plant

capacity annual load
factor
Base load High Low 65-75 Nuclear,
thermal
Peak load Low High 5-10 Gas based,
small hydro,
pump storage

Operational factors :

Maximum demand
1. Demand Factor =
Connected load

energy consumed is a given period

2. Average load
Hours in that time period

Average demand
3. Load factor
Maximum load

sum of individual max demands

4. Diversity factor
Maximum demand on power station

Average demand
5. Plant Capacity factor
Installed capcity

6. Reserve Capacity = Plant capacity - max. demand

Actual energy produced
7. Plant use factor
Plant capacity hours (the plant has been in operation)

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Note:

1. Load factor can be defined for a period such daily load factor, monthly load
factor, annual load factor etc.
2. Practically load factor is less than 1.
3. Practically diversity factor is greater than 1.
4. Both factors should be high for economical use.

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13
POWER ELECTRONICS

CONTENTS

16. POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES.. 450-461

17. PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS. 462-477

18. INVERTERS 478-490

19. CHOPPERS . 491-496

20. AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER AND

CYCLO-CONVERTERS .. 497-500

21. POWER ELECTRONICS DRIVES ............................... 501-504

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1. POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Definition: Power electronics deals with control and conversion of high power
applications.

Key Points:

1. Power semiconductor devices should be capable to withstand large magnitudes of

power with high efficiency.

2. In power electronics, the devices are utilized as switch while in signal electronics
devices are used as switch and amplifiers.
Four Modes of Switching Action:
1. Forward Blocking Mode

2. Forward Conduction Mode

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3. Reverse Blocking Mode

4. Reverse Conduction Mode

Note: TRIAC supports all 4 modes of switch. So it is used as AC switch.

Power Diode

Heavily doped layer

Lightly doped layer

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VI Characteristic:

Reverse Recovery Characteristics of Power Diode:

Important Points:

1
(1) Q R trr I RM
2

di IRM
(2) [ta trr ]
dt trr

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1
(3) The reverse recovery time (trr ) decides the switching frequency of diode. f
trr

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

VI Characteristic:

IL = Latching current IH = Holding current

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Important Point:
SCR supports three modes of switching i.e. forward blocking, forward conduction
and reverse blocking mode.

Important Terms used with SCR:

1. Latching current (I L ) : It is defined as the minimum value of anode current which
must be reached so that SCR remains on even after the gate signal is removed.

2. Holding Current (I H ) : It is that value of the anode current below which SCR is
turned off. (i.e., it regains its forward blocking capability)

Note: * IL 2.4 IH

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14
ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

CONTENTS

22. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS 506-507

23. ELECTRIC MATERIALS & PROPERTIES . 508-511

24. CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS 512-514

25. MAGNETIC MATERIALS . 515-518

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1. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

1. Simple Cubic (SC):

Distance between adjacent atoms d SC a 2 r

Coordination number = 6
1
No of atoms per unit cell = 8 corners part 1
8
Packing efficiency = 52%
Example Polonium, Fluorspar

2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC):

3
Distance between adjacent atom d BCC 2r a
2
Coordination number = 8
1
No of atoms per unit cell = 8 1 2
8
Packing efficiency = 68%

Example Fe, Cr, Na

3. Face Centered Cubic (FCC):
a
Distance between adjacent atoms d FCC 2r
2
Coordination number = 12
1
No of atoms per unit cell = 8 3 4
8
Packing efficiency = 74%
Example Cu, Silver, Gold

Hexagonal Closed Pack (HCP):

Coordination number = 12
1
No of atoms per unit cell = 12 3 4
12
Packing efficiency = 74%
Example Cd, Mg

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Different types of unit cell

Type of unit cell Volume of unit cell

Cubic a3
Tetragonal a 2c
Orthorhombic abc
Hexagonal 3 3a 2 c
2

Crystallographic Plane and Miller Indices:

Miller indices are used to specify directions and
planes and it could be in lattices or in crystals.

Miller Indices for plane A B C

OA OB OC
h ,k ,
OA OB OC

Example:
1.
OA
h 2
OA
2
OB
k 0

OC
0

( h, k , ) (2, 0, 0)

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2.

OA
h 1
OA

OB
k 1
OB

OC
1
OC

( h, k , ) (1, 1, 1)

3.

OA
h 1
OA
OB
k 0

OC
l 0

(h, k , l ) (1, 0, 0)

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