Lecture - Other Fracture Analysis Techniques

# Chemical Analysis of Fracture Specimen
Chemical analysis of fracture component provides

information
regarding
standard
any
deviation
specifications,
inhomogeneities,
from
the
compositional
impurities,
inclusions,
segregations, also helpful in identifying the nature of

corrosion products, coatings, external debris, and so
on.
Several cases of service failures are known to have
been
caused
by
the
presence
of
deleterious
inclusions from which cracks start in the component

and propagate, leading to fracture.
Certain impurities are known to cause embrittlement
in metals. Segregation of constituent elements
sometimes
provides
an
easy
path
for
crack
propagation.
Hence, identification of these harmful constituents is
very important in failure analysis. A variety of
instruments are available for bulk chemical analysis
and
microchemical
analysis
as
well..
few
features are briefly discussed here.

A- Techniques for average bulk chemical analysis
(accuracy, 2 to 5%)
Spectrophotometry: Applicable to nearly all
elements; accessible range, 0.001 to 50%.
Atomic absorption spectrometry: Applicable to

practically all elements; accessible range, 0.001 to
10%;
Emission
spectroscopy:
Applicable
to
all
elements; accessible range, 0.005 to 10%;

X-ray fluorescence analysis: Normally applicable
to elements heavier than sodium; accessible range,
0.005 to 10%;
B- Techniques for local composition variations
Laser probe microanalysis: Applicable to nearly all
elements;
accessible
range,
0.01
to
100%;
accuracy, semiquantitative; resolution, 20 to 200

m
Electron
probe
microanalysis:
Applicable to
elements heavier than boron; accessible range,

0.001 to 10%; accuracy, 5 to 10%; resolution, 0.2 to
1 m
C- Techniques for surface chemical analysis
Auger electron spectroscopy: Applicable to all
elements except hydrogen and helium; accessible
range, >0.1%; accuracy, 5 to 10%; analysis depth,
10 to 20 A
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: Applicable to
all
elements
except
hydrogen
and
helium;
accessible range, >0.01%; accuracy, qualitative and

semiquantitative; analysis depth, 5 to 25 Ao
# Analysis of Mechanical Properties of fracture

component
One of the important step in any failure analysis.
This process enables the investigator to judge
whether the material with which the component is
made
meets
whether
the
the
strength
component
specifications
was
capable
and
of
withstanding the service stresses.

If the size of the failed component permits,
samples can be taken from the component, and
the conventional mechanical testing can be done
by standard test procedures.
Tensile test is generally the most useful one in
many cases. Other properties such as impact
strength, toughness, and creep rupture provide
clues for the mechanism of failure.
Sometimes, even tests on miniature specimens
would provide vital information.
If the condition of the component does not permit
tensile or other mechanical tests, even a hardness
measurement would help in estimating the tensile
strength.
This method has been adopted in quite a few
failure cases.
Defects due to improper processing or inadequate

heat treatment would result in poor mechanical
properties.
Nondestructive
Evaluation
of
Fracture
Component
Most of the failures are the end result of cracks
originating in the component from flaws that
already existed or that formed during service.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is employed to
detect at subsurface flaws and internal flaws in the
component,
their
type,
size,
orientation,
and
location.
In a failed component, there may still be flaws
similar to the one that was primarily responsible
for the failure. These flaws can be detected by NDE
methods.
Also, flaws in similar components from the same
batch as the failed one can be detected so that
their use can be avoided or restricted.
Various techniques are available for examining a

component for flaws without actually destroying it.
A- Conventional Nondestructive Evaluation

Techniques
Liquid Penetrant Testing. In this method, a
liquid of low surface tension is allowed to penetrate
into surface flaws and a visible indication is
developed. It detects only discontinuities open to
the surface, in metals and ceramics. This can be
based either on a color dye or a fluorescent dye.
5
Magnetic Particle Testing. A magnetic field is

created
in
the
magnetization.
component
Any
surface
by
or
suitable
subsurface
discontinuity can be revealed by magnetic powder

particles that collect wherever the magnetic field is
broken.
Eddy Current Inspection. Eddy currents are
induced in the component by an electrical coil.
Discontinuities in the component are detected as
they alter the path of the induced current. The
method
is
useful
for
detecting
surface
and
subsurface flaws, for sorting dissimilar metals, for

detecting
variations
in
composition
and
microstructure, and for measuring the thickness of

nonconductive coatings.
Radiography
neutrons
using
uses
x-rays,
penetrating
-rays,
and
electromagnetic
radiation or particle radiation. Internal flaws are

detected by the difference in absorption of the
radiation by the various regions of the component.
Flaws in the component are recorded permanently
on a film or examined on a fluorescent screen.
In x-radiography, the size of the flaw can be
estimated by using penetrameters. Gamma rays
have greater penetrating power than do x-rays and
hence can be used for thicker sections. They are
obtained by the radioactive decay of isotopes such
6
as cobalt 60, cesium 137, thulium 170, or iridium

192. Gamma ray equipment is very useful for
fieldwork.
In neutron radiography, thermal neutrons from a
reactor are made to impinge on the component
and the emitted -rays are made to expose a film.
Depth of penetration is much more than in
conventional radiography. Radiographic techniques
are extensively used for the NDE of castings,
weldments, boilers, and pressure vessels.
Ultrasonic
inspection
is
used
for
detecting
surface and subsurface flaws in metals, ceramics,

and polymers. Ultrasonic waves are sent through
the component. From the reflected waves, flaws
such
as
detected
cavities,
with
cracks
their
and
locations
inclusions
are
and
are
size
determined.
B- Special Techniques
In addition to these conventional NDE techniques,
there
are
certain
other
techniques
that
are
employed under special circumstances.

Acoustic Emission.
It is a condition-monitoring technique and is very
useful in predicting failures.
Conventional
UT
detects
existing
flaws
in
components whereas Acoustic emissions are stress

waves produced in components and structures
7
when some form of internal movement of defects

takes place under stress. The movement can be
that of dislocations or propagation of cracks
whereas.
It has been extensively used in the testing of
aircraft,
ground
vehicles,
buildings,
pipelines,
rotating machinery, tanks, pressure vessels, and so

on, as well as in monitoring wear, corrosion,
machining, welding, fluid flow, and so forth.
Computed Tomography (CT). In this technique,

a thin beam of radiation, generally x-rays, is made
to pass through the component and the image of a
thin cross-sectional slice is detected.
The beam, and the detector, which is usually a
linear array of radiation sensors, are in the same
plane as the surface imaged.
The attenuation (weekness) of the radiation is
related to the thickness, density, and composition
of the material. By scanning and collecting the
attenuation data from different angles, the image
of the component is reconstructed by a computer.
The technique can be used for detecting voids,
inclusions, porosity, density variations, cracks, and
machining defects in metals and delaminations in
composites.
The
electric
current
perturbation
method
(ECP) is suitable for nondestructive examination of

surface and subsurface defects in electrically
conducting non-ferromagnetic materials.
When an electric current, either ac or dc, passes
through
component,
magnetic
flux
is
generated. Where there is a flaw, the current flow

is disturbed and the magnetic flux density is
changed.
With a magnetic field sensor, this change in flux

density is detected. By scanning the entire surface,
the position of the flaws such as notches and
cracks is determined. The technique has been
adopted to detect surface flaws in aircraft engine
components.
Acoustic Microscopy. High-frequency ultrasound
in the GHz range is passed through the component
of interest. The transmitted wave is detected by a
rapidly scanning laser beam on the opposite
surface.
Transmission of these waves is interrupted by flaws
present in the material.
The attenuation of the ultrasound differs between
homogeneous regions and regions with flaws.
The resulting image has characteristic light and

dark features.
Variations of this technique include reflection type

imaging by scanning a transducer in a raster
pattern over the sample surface. The method has
been successfully applied to detect flaws in metals,
ceramics,
composites
and
microelectronic
components.
X-ray
diffraction
is
common
method
for
identifying phases in metallic materials, corrosion

products, and surface deposits.
10
Several cases of component failures due to lockedin residual stresses have been encountered in
service.
Residual stresses can readily be determined by xray diffraction method.
Textures in metals that have a bearing on their

mechanical behavior can be determined through
pole figure computation through x-ray diffraction.
11

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# Chemical Analysis of Fracture Specimen

Chemical analysis of fracture component provides

segregations, also helpful in identifying the nature of

inclusions from which cracks start in the component

features are briefly discussed here.

Atomic absorption spectrometry: Applicable to

elements; accessible range, 0.005 to 10%;

accuracy, semiquantitative; resolution, 20 to 200

elements heavier than boron; accessible range,

accessible range, >0.01%; accuracy, qualitative and

# Analysis of Mechanical Properties of fracture

withstanding the service stresses.

Defects due to improper processing or inadequate

Various techniques are available for examining a

A- Conventional Nondestructive Evaluation

Magnetic Particle Testing. A magnetic field is

discontinuity can be revealed by magnetic powder

subsurface flaws, for sorting dissimilar metals, for

microstructure, and for measuring the thickness of

radiation or particle radiation. Internal flaws are

as cobalt 60, cesium 137, thulium 170, or iridium

surface and subsurface flaws in metals, ceramics,

employed under special circumstances.

components whereas Acoustic emissions are stress

when some form of internal movement of defects

rotating machinery, tanks, pressure vessels, and so

Computed Tomography (CT). In this technique,

(ECP) is suitable for nondestructive examination of

generated. Where there is a flaw, the current flow

With a magnetic field sensor, this change in flux

The resulting image has characteristic light and

Variations of this technique include reflection type

identifying phases in metallic materials, corrosion

Textures in metals that have a bearing on their

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