Destructive Testing of Welds

Destructive weld testing, as the name suggests, involves the physical destruction of the completed weld in order to evaluate its characteristics. This method of testing is used frequently for a number of applications. Some of these applications include welding procedure qualification and welder performance qualification testing, sampling inspection of production welds, research inspection, and failure analysis work. A number of destructive weld testing methods are used to determine weld integrity or performance. Typically they involve sectioning and/or breaking the welded component and evaluating various mechanical and/or physical characteristics. We shall briefly examine some of the more common methods of this type of welding inspection. We shall consider the macro etch test, the fillet weld break test, the transverse tension test, and the guided bend test. We shall consider how they are used, and what types of weld characteristics they are designed to determine. We shall examine their advantages over other inspection methods and their limitations. Macro Etch Testing This method of testing typically involves the removal of small samples of the welded joint. These samples are polished across their cross-section and then etched using some type of mild acid mixture, dependent on the base material used. The acid etch provides a clear visual appearance of the internal structure of the weld. Particular interest is often shown at the fusion line, this being the transition between the weld and the base material. Such items as depth of penetration, lack of fusion, inadequate root penetration, internal porosity, cracking and inclusions can be detected during inspection of the etched sample. This type of inspection is obviously a snapshot of the overall weld length quality when used for sampling inspection of production welds. This type of testing is often used extremely successfully to pinpoint welding problems such as crack initiation, when used for failure analyses. Fillet Weld Break Test This type of testing involves breaking a sample fillet weld that is welded on one side only. The sample has load applied to its unwelded side, transverse to the weld and directed to its unwelded side (typically in a press). The load is increased until the weld has failed. The failed sample is then inspected to establish the presence and extent of any welding discontinuities. This test will provide a good indication as to the extent of discontinuities within the entire length of weld tested (normally 6 to 12 inches) rather that a cross-sectional snapspot like the macro etch test. This type of weld inspection can detect such items as lack of fusion, internal porosity and slag inclusions. This testing method is often used in conjunction with the macro etch test. These two testing methods complement each other by providing information on similar characteristics in different detail and in different ways. Transverse Tension Test Since a large proportion of design is based on tensile properties of the welded joint, it is important that the tensile properties of the base metal, the weld metal, the bond between the base and the weld, and the heat-affected zone conform to the design requirements. Tensile strength of the welded joint is obtained by pulling specimens to failure. Tensile strength is determined by dividing the maximum load required during testing by the cross-sectional area. The result will be in units of tension per cross-sectional area. This test is nearly always required as part of the mechanical testing when qualifying welding procedure specifications for groove welds.

Guided Bend Test This is a test method in which a specimen is bent to a specified bend radius. Various types of bend tests are used to evaluate the ductility and soundness of welded joints. Guided bend tests are usually taken transverse to the weld axis and may be bent in plunger type test machines or in wrap-around bend test jigs. Face bend tests are made with the weld face in tension, and root bend tests are made with the weld root in tension. When bend testing thick plates, side bend test specimens are usually cut from the welded joint and bent with the weld cross section in tension. The guided bend test is most commonly used in welding procedure and welder performance qualification tests. This type of testing is particularly good at finding liner fusion defects, which will often open up in the plate surface during the testing procedure.
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Radiographic and Ultrasonic Testing of Welds

Radiographic and ultrasonic weld inspection are the two most common methods of nondestructive testing (NDT) used to detect discontinuities within the internal structure of welds. The obvious advantage of both these methods of testing is their ability to help establish the welds internal integrity without destroying the welded component. We shall briefly examine these two methods of non-destructive testing (NDT). We shall consider how they are used and what types of welding discontinuities they can be expected to find. We shall examine their advantages over other inspection methods and their limitations. Radiographic Testing (RT) This method of weld testing makes use of X-rays, produced by an X-ray tube, or gamma rays, produced by a radioactive isotope. The basic principle of radiographic inspection of welds is the same as that for medical radiography. Penetrating radiation is passed through a solid object, in this case a weld rather that part of the human body, onto a photographic film, resulting in an image of the object's internal structure being deposited on the film. The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its thickness and density. Energy not absorbed by the object will cause exposure of the radiographic film. These areas will be dark when the film is developed. Areas of the film exposed to less energy remain lighter. Therefore, areas of the object where the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as porosity or cracks, will appear as dark outlines on the film. Inclusions of low density, such as slag, will appear as dark areas on the film while inclusions of high density, such as tungsten, will appear as light areas. All discontinuities are detected by viewing shape and variation in density of the processed film. Radiographic testing can provide a permanent film record of weld quality that is relatively easy to interpret by trained personnel. This testing method is usually suited to having access to both sides of the welded joint (with the exception of double wall signal image techniques used on some pipe work). Although this is a slow and expensive method of nondestructive testing, it is a positive method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in the interior of welds. It is essential that qualified personnel conduct radiographic interpretation since false interpretation of radiographs can be expensive and interfere seriously with productivity. There are obvious safety considerations when conducting radiographic testing. X-ray and gamma radiation is invisible to

the naked eye and can have serious heath and safety implications. Only suitably trained and qualified personnel should practice this type of testing. Ultrasonic Testing (UT) This method of testing makes use of mechanical vibrations similar to sound waves but of higher frequency. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the object to be tested. This beam travels through the object with insignificant loss, except when it is intercepted and reflected by a discontinuity. The ultrasonic contact pulse reflection technique is used. This system uses a transducer that changes electrical energy into mechanical energy. The transducer is excited by a high-frequency voltage, which causes a crystal to vibrate mechanically. The crystal probe becomes the source of ultrasonic mechanical vibration. These vibrations are transmitted into the test piece through a coupling fluid, usually a film of oil, called a couplant. When the pulse of ultrasonic waves strikes a discontinuity in the test piece, it is reflected back to its point of origin. Thus the energy returns to the transducer. The transducer now serves as a receiver for the reflected energy. The initial signal or main bang, the returned echoes from the discontinuities, and the echo of the rear surface of the test piece are all displayed by a trace on the screen of a cathode-ray oscilloscope. The detection, location, and evaluation of discontinuities become possible because the velocity of sound through a given material is nearly constant, making distance measurement possible, and the relative amplitude of a reflected pulse is more or less proportional to the size of the reflector. One of the most useful characteristics of ultrasonic testing is its ability to determine the exact position of a discontinuity in a weld. This testing method requires a high level of operator training and competence and is dependant on the establishment and application of suitable testing procedures. This testing method can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials, is often suited for testing thicker sections accessible from one side only, and can often detect finer lines or plainer defects which may not be as readily detected by radiographic testing.
------------Advantages of MIG welding are: High quality welds can be produced much faster Since a flux is not used, there is no chance for the entrapment of slag in the weld metal resulting in high quality welds The gas shield protects the arc so that there is very little loss of alloying elements. Only minor weld spatter is produced MIG welding is versatile and can be used with a wide variety of metals and alloys The MIG process can be operated several ways, including semi and fully automatic

Two Disadvantages are: The MIG welding cannot be used in the vertical or overhead welding positions because of the high heat input and the fluidity of the weld puddle The equipment is complex.

Arc welding is a process that uses an electric arc to join the metals being welded. A distinct advantage of arc welding over gas welding is the concentration of heat. In

gas welding the flame spreads over a large area, sometimes causing heat distortion. The concentration of heat, characteristic of arc welding, is an advantage because less heat spread reduces buckling and warping. This heat concentration also increases the depth of penetration and speeds up the welding operation; therefore, you will find that arc welding is often more practical and economical than gas welding