The Grassland Biome:

The grasslands biome covers roughly one third of South Africa and occurs
mainly across 6 provinces, is therefore the largest of South Africa's 9
biomes. The grassland biome can be separated into 2 different climate
types: temperate inland grasslands, which include mountain as well as
highveld grasslands; and sub-tropical grasslands, found along the coast of
KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. Grasslands are complex ecosystems
and include rivers and wetlands. Grasslands are covered by single layer
grasses that are dependent on rainfall. Since this biome occurs across
South Africa central plateau, it experiences summer rainfall and cold, dry
winters. Unfortunately, the grassland is the least conserved and most
transformed biome in South Africa and it is for this reason that the many
endemic plant and animal species found here are not on the South African
Red List of Threatened species.
Linkage: Threatened Species
Since the grassland biome is the most threatened biome in South Africa, it
is only fitting that the most threated plant and animal species be
highlighted. Both the causes and effects that have landed each species on
the South African Red List have been noted. It is imperative to bring
forward motivations for each species population decline, as without this
the specie may face local extinction. Since South Africa has such a
booming tourism industry, to loose endemic and significant plant and
animal species may render the industry stagnant. This will have negative
effects, not only on the given ecosystems, but the South African economy
as well. By highlighting these species, hopefully efficient management
and monitoring plans may be implemented.

Mammals:
Oribi: Ourebia ourebi
The Oribi is a gracious antelope with a long, slender neck and legs. They have oval ears,
a rufous-brown coat, white under belly and black tail. These antelope have two preorbital glands near their eyes. Only rams bear horns, roughly 80 -180 millimetres. The
Oribi has hindquarters that are higher than their forequarters. When fully mature, rams
can weigh 14 kilogram, with ewes being slightly larger. The Oribi displays a unique
stotting action when alarmed. These antelope are grazers and often browse on forbs.
The Oribi is a seasonal breeder, preferring to mate between November/December. They
have a gestation period of 210 days after which a single lamb is born. Oribis are
territorial and often found in small monogamous groups of a ram with two ewes. In order
to maintain social bonds, an Oribi family will regularly perform a dunging ceremony.

Spotted-Neck Otter: Lutra maculicollis

The Spotted-neck otter has a chocolate to reddish brown waterproof fur, with blotches of
creamy-white markings on its neck and chest. They have fully webbed paws with sharp
claws. The Spotted-Neck otter has small teeth for catching fish rather than the hardy
crustaceans. Their tail is long, flat and hairy. Adults can grow to 70 centimetres and
weigh up to 5 kilograms. The Spotted-neck otter is most active during the day where
they prefer to hunt alone, however when prey is plentiful they can be found in large
social groups of up to 20 individuals. Being non territorial and relatively docile, the
Spotted-neck otter will have a broad home range. Breeding takes place at different times
during the year, where the female will give birth to 1 3 cubs after a 3 month gestation
period. The young are born blind and will remain with the mother for up to a year.
Spotted- neck otters are most threatened by polluted water and human activities that
remove fish populations.

Brown Hyena: Hyaena brunnea

The Brown Hyena has pointed ears and striped legs. They have a dark brown shaggy coat
and white shoulders and neck. An adult hyena will stand 80 centimetres at the shoulder
and weigh roughly 40 kilograms. Their long cream-coloured mane extends from the back
of their neck, right across their shoulder bones. They have a grey head, neck and kegs,
covered with brown and grey bars. The Brown Hyena is an opportunistic carnivore that
has become adapted to a scavenging lifestyle. They have also known to prey on insects,
birds eggs and wild fruits and even kill small animals. They mainly feed on carcasses of
large herbivores killed by other animals. The Brown Hyena has teeth and a jaw adapted
to breaking open the long bones of carcasses to consume the marrow inside. Brown
Hyenas are non-seasonal breeders. Females will give birth to 1 to 4 young at a time, with
a gestation period of around 90 days. Cubs have the same body colouration as adults
when born and will reach full size by 30 months. The behaviour of Brown hyena is such
that they are solitary and nocturnal. They choose to live in small clans consisting of
either a breeding pair and their young or a clan of several mature males and females.
The clan will work together to defends a territory, but will not forage together.

Aves
Secretary Bird: Sagittarius serpentarius

The Secretary bird is a bird of prey with long legs, wings and a tail. They have a crest of
roughly 20 long, quill-looking feathers behind their ears. This predatory bird is dove-grey
in colour, with black on the wings, thighs and tail feathers. They have a short, downcurved bill, backed by an area of bare red skin. They have bare faces and long, shaggy
tail feathers. Secretary birds diet consists of snakes, various reptiles, amphibians,
tortoises, rats and other small mammals. They may also be seen preying on other young
game birds. The secretary bird is monogamous and faithful to their nesting site.
Aggression between the males within a group is seen during the mating seasons. Both
sexes are involved in building the nest. Eggs are laid in May or June and incubated mainly
by the female. She will lay around 2-3 eggs. The eggs hatch after 50 days where young
will be fed by both parents. The Secretary bird is terrestrial and prefers to walk rather
than fly. Their long legs enable them to run at high speeds to escape prey.

African Grass owl: Tyto capensis

The African Grass owl is a medium-sized bird with a large, moon-like face, no ear-tufts
and long legs. They have dark brown backs and spotted gold stomachs. Juveniles are
born with a brown face that turns into white at adulthood. Grass Owls are most similar in
looks to more common Barn Owl. African Grass owls are completely nocturnal and found
alone, in pairs or in family groups after the breeding season. African grass owls rely on
their good vision to locate prey as they fly over and area. They feed on rate, snakes and
frogs by swallowing them whole. Males and females prefer to roost apart during the day.
When they breed, the female will lay up to 4 eggs. She incubates eggs whilst the male
feeds her. The African grass owl populations in the Grassland biome are declining due to
habitat destruction and illegal hunting.

Greater Flamingo: Phoenicopterus roseus

The Greater flamingo has a distinctly long, thin neck and legs, with a colourful plumage
and long downward-bending beak. Not only is it the largest Flamingo, it is also the palest,
with a pale pink plumage, red shoulders, and black tipped wings. They have pink legs,
yellow eyes and pink beak with a black tip. Juveniles are grey-brown when born.
Flamingos owe their colour to the pink shrimplike crusteations they eat. Flamingos are
sociable birds, appearing in large groups (flocks). They are gregarious and communicate
with a goose-like call and various flapping displays. The Greater Flamingo shows various
courtship displays to attract a mate. A female will lay a single egg which both parents will
incubate about a month. In the wild these young will live to approximately 40 years old.

Invertebrates:
Gunnings Rock Scorpion: Hadogenes gunningi
Otherwise known as the rock scorpion, the Gunnings Rock scorpion is endemic to South
Africa. These scorpions have feet adapted with special claws on the tarsus. This adaption
allows the scorpion to grip and climb over its rocky habitat. The Gunnings rock scorpion is
habitat specific, preferring not to migrate and as such are territorial. They have dark
brown bodies with lighter coloured legs. The body and chelae are flattened
dorsoventrally, with their legs and thin tail being flattened laterally. The tail and legs are
similar in thickness, however the legs are weak and rarely. They vary in size from 50 to

210 millimetres in length, and may weigh up to 32 grams. Their tail it their defence
mechanism used to poison its victims. They also have large claws on their forelimb,
adapted for subduing its prey whilst stinging it with their long tail. The Rock scorpion is
threatened due to habitat destruction, urban development and the collection for pets.

Swanepoels Brown Butterfly: Pseudonympha swanepoeli

Swanepoels Brown is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family. It is found in South Africa,
endemic to only the town of Houtbosdorp in the Limpopo Province, the Verloren Vallei,
Mount Sheba and Pilgrims Rest in Mpumalanga. These butterflies have a wingspan of 4650 millimetres for males and 44-48 millimetres for females. They are generally small and
brown in colour with orange areas forming in their wings. The Swanepoels Brown
Butterfly is distinguished by the two pairs of black, round patches on each of its
forewings. This butterfly has a short life span with only one generation per year.

Wolkberg Zulu butterfly: Alaena margaritacea

This critically endangered and localised species occurs in colonies on grassy slopes next
to a forest in the Haenertsburg area. The butterflies are around About 26 millimetres in
size with a short flight period of about 3 weeks during late December to early January,
coinciding with the rainy season. The larvae feed on the cyanobacteria or lichens growing
on rocks. They are dark brown in colour with burnt orange patches in their wings. They
are highly threatened due to a loss of habitat as a result from uncontrolled spread of
alien invasive plants such as pine and wattle.

Amphibians or Reptiles:
The African Giant Bullfrog: Pyxicephalus adspersus
The African bullfrogs natural habitats are dry and moist savanna, grasslands and
intermittent water sources. The Giant bullfrog is the second largest frog in the world with
males weighing 1,4 - 2 kilograms and females weigh half that. This is a unique feature as
most amphibians females are usually larger than males. Males can reach 25 centimetres
while females only reach about 15 centimetres. Males also have more powerful limbs and
larger skulls than other frogs and may exhibit parental care for their tadpoles. Adult frogs
are green to dark green above and pale cream below, with greyish blotches. They also
have diagnostic orange spots on their forelimbs, and males can be distinguished from
females by their yellow colouration on their throats. The African bullfrog is carnivorous,
eating insects, small rodents, reptiles, small birds and other amphibians. It is also a
cannibal species and aggressive when provoked. The African bullfrog male calls out
during the rainy season. The female will lays between 3,000 to 4,000 eggs at one time,
guarded and protected by the male frog.

Armadillo girdled lizard: Cordylus cataphractus

This lizard is heavily armoured and is able to roll itself into an almost impregnable ball by
biting and holding onto its tail when threatened. When in this position, its armoured,
spiky body is presented to the potential predator. This defence mechanism ensures that
soft belly is protected. Girdled lizards are stocky with dirty yellowish-brown to straw
colour bodies. They have a yellow throat that is blotched with dark brown. They have a
ringed tail, covered with large spines which can be shed in periods of danger and later
regenerated. Armadillo lizards are diurnal and sociable, often found in groups of up to 30
individuals sharing a rock. They are slow runners and rely on safety in numbers when out

in the open. The armadillo girdled lizard feeds mainly on insects, termites, millipedes,
scorpions and plant material. Mating takes place in spring, where the female will give
birth to one young in April. This species is listed as vulnerable in the grassland biome
areas.

African spurred tortoise: Centrochelys sulcata

The African spurred tortoise is the largest tortoise of the African mainland. They have an
overall thick golden to yellow-brown skin and a brownish carapace, giving it good
camouflage is deserts, dunes, savannas or grasslands. Their carapace is broad and oval
with prominent serrations at the front and back margins. In addition the carapace has
conspicuous growth rings on each scute, which will eventually become marked with age.
They have large overlapping scales on their forelimbs and two or three large conical
spurs on their hind limbs. Adults can reach a maximum of 90 centimetres and weigh up
to 110 kilograms. These tortoises are mainly active during the rainy season at dusk and
dawn, where they are seen foraging for succulent plants and annual grasses. Like most
tortoises, they bask in the sun during the day and return to their burrows at night. The
African spurred tortoise mates from June through to March where 4-5 nests may be dug
before the female decides on the right one. The female will lay between 15 to 30 eggs
deposited deep in the damp, cool sand.

Woody Vegetation: Trees/Shrubs

Wild Yam: Dioscorea strydomiana
The Wild Yam is a shrub growing up to 1 meter tall. It has a large, rough above ground
tuber. The Wild Yam is branched, herbaceous specie with stems that grow annually from
the surface of the tuber, and die during the dry seasons. Unique to this specie is that its
stems are not twining. They have elliptic leaves arranged on their stems. Wild Yams are
dioecious, meaning the male and female inflorescences are on separate plants. Both
sexes have small flowers (<10 millimetres in diameter), with six white coloured tepals.
The wild yam flowers in late spring to early summer where the dry fruit capsules are seen
splitting open near the tips to release large seeds. This is a very slow-growing species
with almost no change in tuber size over a period of five years. These plants are Critically
Endangered as they are often cut and used for their medicinal properties. Wild yams are
found growing on Grasslands where frequent fires help this plant to germinate. They are
also reliant on cross pollination, although their pollinators are unknown.

The camel thorn: Acacia erioloba

The camel thorn can range from a 2 meter spiny shrub to a 16 meter robust tree. They
have shiny reddish brown stems when they are young, becoming grey to blackish brown
and are deeply furrowed as they grow older. The Camel thorn tree has pairs of virtually
erect, whitish or brown spines, which have swollen bases at the bases of the leaves.
When fully developed, spines can reach 60 millimetres long. They have twice divided
leaves in pairs of 2 to 5 pinnae per leaf, and up to and 8 to 18 pairs of leaflets for each
pinna. Camel thorn trees have a distinctive underside vein, with bright yellow ball-like
flowers appearing in late winter through to summer. With its competitive nature, Camel
thorn trees can displace preferred vegetation. The pods produced by these trees are
fodder for grazing animals that disperse the seeds by depositing dung on the ground
surface. The Camel thorn tree is also used as a medicinal resource in many cultures.

Real Yellowwood: Podocarpus latifolius

South Africas national tree, the Real Yellowwood is most valued for timber due to its hard
wood being used for furniture, panelling. As a result this specie has been over exploited
and is protected due to its endangered status. Real yellowwood can grow up to 40 meters
in height with the base of the trunk reaching 3 meters in diameter. Their yellow wood and
khaki-coloured bark is their most distinguishing feature. Real Yellowwoods have small
crowns often covered with grey lichens. Male and female trees each possess cones that
are white, light green or pink in colour. Seeds develop on the female podocarpium. They
are round and grey/blue in colour, where they will turn purple once they are matured.
These Yellowwoods have glossy green, strap-shaped leaves, about 25-40 millimetres
long, reaching up to 100 millimetres on mature trees. When the berry-like seeds ripen,
pigeons, monkeys, bush pigs and sometimes by people enjoy feeding on them.

Non-Woody Vegetation: Grasses/Weeds/Flowers

Calla Lilly: Zantedeschia

Calla Lilly plants are deciduous perennials, 1 meter high. They are adapted to survive the
dry season through rhizomes or tubers. The leaves of the Calla Lilly are arrow-shaped and
plain green with distinguishable white spots. Their inflorescence is a spathe upon which
many small flowers cluster, with females above and males below. These spathes are
funnel-shaped with colours ranging from white, cream and yellow, to pink or red. Some
Calla Lilies may also possess dark purple marking at the base inside, which turn green
when fruit are ripe. The Calla Lilly is under threat due to their restricted habitat in
grasslands, limited population and attractive spathes. Some species are even illegally
removed for horticultural purposes. Flowers bloom between November and December
where they are most likely to be dug up. The Calla Lilly relies on their tubers that are
buried in crevices of rocks. This is an adaption to keep the plant cool during the dry
season. Calla Lillys rely on cross pollination from various beetle species for their
survival. Their tubers are also known in African cultures to possess medicinal properties.

Fez Aloe: Aloe peglerae

This small, stem less aloe is found to occur in small groups. Their leaves are greyishgreen and tend to curve inward. New leaves have whitish spines and older leaves reddish
brown spines. The Fez Aloe flowers in winter where it will bear a single flower stalk. The
bulbs of the flowers are dull red with purplish stamens protruding from the flower tube.
The Fez Aloe is pollinated by birds, bees and wind. They are endemic to South Africa, and
occur only in the Gauteng and North-West province. It is an endangered species due to
over collection in the wild by plant collectors as well as habitat destruction. Like most
other aloes, the Fez aloe is also susceptible to aloe cancer and aloe rust.

South African Geranium: Pelargonium sidoides

South African Geranium forms a rosette with crowded leaves. It is easily distinguished
from other species due its blackish, rather than pink petals. This flower has long scented
leaves that are heart-shaped and velvety. Their distinctively dark, reddish-purple flowers
are present almost throughout the year. The rostrum of their seed capsule resembles the
bill of a stork, hence its name. The South African Geranium prefers to grow in the short
grassland along with the occasional shrubs and trees. It is adapted to surviving in a stony
soil varying from sand to clay-loam, shale or basalt. This Geranium is able to survive veld
fire owing to its thickened underground root-like branches. The South African Geranium
has important medicinal purposes utilised in some African cultures.

The Savanna Biome:

The Savanna Biome is the largest Biome in South Africa. It occupies 46%
of its area, and more than one-third of South Africa. The Savanna is welldeveloped over the lowveld and Kalahari region and is the prevailing
vegetation in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Savannas are
categorised by their grassy ground layer and a distinct upper layer of
woody plants. The climatic condition are such that the biome species
experience hot, wet summers and cool, dry winters. Frost is also common
in winter. Vegetation grows on red/black, red/yellow or grey sandy clay
soils. Otherwise known as the bushveld, grasses are mainly found with
regular fires preventing trees from dominating, unlike that of the

grassland biome. Herbaceous and woody plants are able to withstand fire.
Big game species such as kudu and Springbok, lion, buffalo and elephant
are prevalent in this biome. Interestingly, the savannah biome has been
said to have evolved eons ago from the grassland biome.
Linkage: Genetically similar species
After learning that the savanna biome may have in fact evolved from the
grassland biome eons ago, it seems relevant that the genetic similarity of
species occurring here be examined. Determining the genetic similarity of
species will bring to light the features that are distinguishable, as well as
the features that may have evolved as the species adapted to different
environmental conditions. Genetics are important in conservation they
can determine which species may or may not coexist, as well as genetic
drift. The results of genetic similarity may also make predictions as to
which species are better suited to a changing environment and which
species will experience local extinction.

Mammals:
Banded Mongoose: Mungos mungo
The Banded mongoose is a small carnivore 30 to 45 centimetres, weighing 1.5 to 2.25
kilograms. These diurnal mammals look similar to small weasels or cats with several
distinguishable dark brown to black horizontal bars across the back to the tail. They have
a large head, small ears, short, muscular limbs and a long tail roughly 15 to
30centimetres long. They have teeth adapted to crushing rather than slicing and an

intact upper lip. The Banded mongoose has strong non-retractable claws that allow them
to dig in the soil to search for food as well as to make various types of dens for shelter
including termite mounds. Their diet consists of small vertebrates some invertebrates
and fallen fruit. They are also predatory, stealing reptile and bird eggs from nests.
Banded mongooses of the savanna are very social, living in packs up to 50 individuals
that continuously chatter throughout the day. Known only to this species, all females in
the pack can breed. Before mating, these mongooses court each other where after a
fertilized female will birth 2-6 pups after a 60-70 day gestation period. Banded
mongooses work together in a group to fend off predators, first and foremost protecting
their young and elderly. These mongooses will not stay in one habitat for more than a
week; they eat, sleep and travel together, relying heavily on safety in numbers.
Interestingly, Banded Mongoose form interspecies relations with baboons when foraging
for greater protection.

The Dwarf Mongoose: Helogale parvula

The Dwarf Mongoose is the smallest African mongoose weighing only 200 and 350
grams. They live in groups of 2 - 20 individuals and they consist of a dominant mating
pair with offspring and sub-ordinate males and females. The dominant female is the pack
leader while the male protects the den by observing his surroundings for potential
threats. Dwarf Mongoose has a body length between 18 to 28 centimetres and a tail
length between 14 to 19 centimetres with a life expectancy of up to 8 years in the wild.
Their fur is generally speckled brown to greyish with the tail and lower legs being darker,
and the ventral surfaces slightly paler. Similar to the Banded mongoose, their muzzle is
short and pointed; their legs are short with long non-retractable claws on their front feet.
Unlike the Banded Mongoose, when threatened they do not band together, they send out
high pitched warning cries. They only band together in number when young are being
preyed on. The Dwarf Mongoose has a small home range which may consist of many
dens. They mark their territories with secretions from their anal sent glands. Dwarf
mongoose breed 2-3 times a year during the rainy season. Unlike the Banded mongoose,
only the dominant female may breed and all female members of the den care for the
young. Dwarf mongoose can be tamed and are often kept by humans as house pets.

White-Tailed Mongoose: Ichneumia albicauda

The white-tailed mongoose is the only species in the genus Ichneumia, and the largest of
all mongooses. This mongoose has a varied habitat with plenty vegetation. The large
White-tailed mongoose weights between 4 and 5 kilograms (males and female do not
vary much in size). They are 100-120 centimetres long, standing 25 centimetres high
with a tail length up to 50 centimetres (thats nearly 40% of its body length). The large
ears that are low set on its narrow head. The white-tailed mongoose has yellowish to
tawny fur, a tapering white-tipped tail and black fore and hind legs. They have a distinct
hump appearance as their hind legs are longer than their front legs. Unlike the Banded
and Dwarf mongoose, they do not stand on their hind feet. White-tailed mongooses are
nocturnal and live in termite mounds or tree hollows marked with sent. Males are
territorial and territories do not overlap with other male territories. Females can live in
small groups, however they do not interact. During mating season, these mongooses
make barking noises to communicate with one another. Litters are born from a breeding
pair between February and May. Like most mongoose, their diet consists of insects, eggs,
small mammals, some snakes and fallen fruit. Occasionally, this mongoose will attack
domestic poultry.

Aves:
Saddle-billed Stork: Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis
The saddle-billed stork is a large wading bird and resident breeder in the sub-Saharan
African savanna. They are 150centimetres tall, with a larger wingspan of 2.4 to 2.7
meters. The larger and heavier male can weigh between 5.17.5 kilograms, and the
female between 5 and 7 kilograms. The Saddle-billed stork is the tallest of the stork
family as it has extremely long legs. Storks have a diagnostically long bill. The Saddle

billed storks bill is roughly 27.3 to 36 centimetres long. The difference in iris colour is
what distinguishes sexes. Females have yellow irises whilst the male has brown irises and
dangling yellow wattles. Both male and female have the same colour plumage, except
females show more white in their primary feathers during flight. The head, neck, back,
wings, and tail are black, whilst the rest of their bodies and primary flight feathers are
white. Juvenile storks are of a browner grey plumage. They are names saddle because
of their black banded red bill and diagnostic yellow shield. Distinguishable from other
stork species, Saddle-billed storks have a bare red patch of skin on their chest that
darkens during breeding season. The neck of this species droops and bobs during flight
as it is non-retractable and rather heavy. The Saddle-billed Stork prefers to breeds near
water sources. It builds large nests in a tree where it will lay 1-2 white eggs weighing
about 146 grams each. These storks do not form breeding colonies, and are usually
solitary. Eggs are incubated for 3035 days, and stay in the nest for up to 100 days. The
Saddle-billed Stork feeds mainly on fish, frogs and crabs, as well as on small birds and
reptiles.

The Wolly-necked stork: Ciconia episcopus

The Woolly-necked Stork, like the Saddle-billed stork, is a large wading bird in the stork
family Ciconiidae. It breeds in Africa, and is found in abundance near water source in the
savanna. This stork is large, typically growing up to 85 centimetres. Their bodies are all
black, except for its characteristic black skull cap, woolly white neck and white lower
belly. The upper body parts of the Wolly-Necked Stork are glossed dark green, and the
breast and belly have a purple hue. The juveniles are simply duller versions of the adult.
Their broad wings help it to soar as well as move between thermal currents of hot air for
long distances. Like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched as it is non-retractable.
The Woolly-necked Stork is a silent bird; however mutual bill-clattering is observed when
adults meet at the nest. The large stick nest is built high in a tree, sheltered from most
predators. The oviparous females lay between 2-5 eggs. The Wolly-necked stork uses its
long legs to silently and slowly stalk its prey. Prey consists of a staple stork diet: frogs,
lizards and large insects. The Woolly-necked Stork is protected under the Agreement on
the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA).

The Marabou Stork: Leptoptilos crumeniferus

The Marabou Stork prefers to reside in both wet and arid habitats. Like most storks, the
Marabou is gregarious and a colonial breeder. The Marabou stork is deemed ugly, owing
to its pink balding head and wedge shaped bill. This bird is an elegant in flight with its
large grey-black wing extending 3 meters across helping it to soar. Unlike most storks,
the Marabou stork flies with the neck retracted, making it distinguishable during flight.
The Marabou is recognizable due to its size, bare head and neck as well as its black back
and white under arts. This stork grows 1.5 meters tall and can weigh up to 9 kilograms.
Males and females cannot be distinguished as they both have huge bills, a pink sack on
their throat, a neck ruff, and black legs and wings. Like most storks, Marabou storks build
their nests high in the tree in which two or three eggs are laid. Eggs hatch during the dry
season when food supplies are plenty as water evaporates from the pools. Young birds
are browner and have smaller bills than adults until they reach maturity at 4 years of
age. The difference with this stork it that it is a frequent scavenger, and will often feed
with vultures. It eats small mammals, reptiles and other similar prey.

Invertebrates:
Garden Locust: Acanthacris ruficornisen

The garden locust, with its characteristic large body length (up to 65 milimeters in
length) is a commonly encountered species throughout South Africa. Easily identifiable
with a midline cream stripe that occurs on the thorax and wings as well as the welldeveloped red and white spines; this particular species is a common entity in many
South Africa gardens with high species numbers occurring in almost all of South Africas
biomes. This particular species feeds predominantly on the leaves, buds and flowers of
trees although it is not uncommon to observe individuals of the species feeding on
grasses. Adults of the species are most prevalent during the autumn months during
which time, up to 120 eggs are normally laid in freshly turned soil. Nymphs hatch in
October when temperatures around South Africa begin to increase. This particular
species is easily distinguishable by the crackling sound made by the wings; an all too
familiar occurrence in South Africa. An interesting fact relating to individuals of the
species involves the pain that they can cause when picked up. Strong hind legs coupled
with the present spines have the ability to hurt a human being.

Tree Locust: Anacridium moestum

Less common than the tree cricket, this larger yet slender cricket is a common occurring
species in shrubs or trees that frequent scattered acacia veld lands. An array of colours
distinguishes this species, with mottled reddish or brown bodies serving as the most
apparent and observable trait. Individuals of the species are known to swarm on
occasion, making the species a problematic and persistent pest. The species is known to
frequently damage crops and individuals seem to have a particular preference for fruit
trees in Free State. Four related species in the genus exists making confusion between
species an all too apparent reality. As previously mentioned, the species has a particular
preference for Acacia species and as such, large population numbers are prevalent in
areas abundant in Acacia species.

Desert Locust: Schistocera gregaria

An equally large locust species, the desert locust is particularly interesting in that it
exists in two forms. The first involves the yellowish swarming phase and the second
involves a white solitary phase. The Garden Locust, as previously mentioned, has a
characteristic single cream stripe that occurs on the thorax and wings of individuals of
the species. The Desert Locust has three of these cream stripes and this, coupled with
the characteristic vertical lines that exist on the species eyes, make individuals an easily
identifiable entity. Although swarming in the species is a rare occurrence, North Africa is
commonly exposed to large scale swarming by this particular species making it an all too
prevalent pest in the region. In Free State, farmers have experienced regular problems
with the species due to their large preference for wheat crops. This has prompted
farmers to implement a large amount of eradication methods to prevent the species from
permanently damaging crops in the region. The species has a particular preference for
warmer, humid areas but appears to be relatively absent in damper, forest areas.

Amphibians/Reptiles:
Black-necked Spitting Cobra: Naja nigricollis
The Black-necked Spitting Cobra is a nocturnal medium sized snake, 1.2 2 meters in
length. They are venomous and have a distinct head sharp due to two large venom
glands found on each side of the head. The Black-necked Spitting Cobra is polymorphic
and has two main colour phases that vary depending on their geography. They are
generally olive brown to black back with a yellow to red belly and have a broad and dark
throat band. Juvenile snakes are grey, with a black head and neck. This coloration
persists until the snake reaches 1 meter long. Typical of Cobras, it has two sharp, thin
fangs that it uses to spray its venom. This species of cobra is nocturnal and more
aquatically adapted than any other cobra specie. Although it spends much of its time on
the ground, the Black-necked spitting cobra can easily climb into bushes and trees. Their
diet consists of varied toads (preferred item), birds, eggs, other snakes, lizards and
occasionally rodents. Females are oviparous and lay 8-20 eggs between April and May.
The Black-necked Spitting Cobra is quick and aggressive and has been known to spit
venom up to 3m, aiming accurately at the eyes of its victim.

Mozambique Spitting Cobra: Naja mossambica

Adults Mozambique Spitting Cobras grow between 1 and 1.2 metres with a maximum of
1,5 metres being recorded. These snakes are relatively small snake with a blunted head
and smooth scales. Like the Black-necked Spitting Cobra, their colours vary from a pinky
grey colour to dark olive. They have black edged scales above and a pinkish colour
below. Generally they are identified by their dark cross bands on their throat.
Mozambique spitting cobras are found in Savanna and bushveld, often in abandoned
termite mounds, rodent holes or around human habitation. The oviparous female
Mozambique Spitting Cobra can lay up to 22 eggs in summer. Juveniles are mainly diurnal
where adults are mainly nocturnal, preferring to stay on the ground rather than in the
trees. Mozambique spitting cobras diet consists of toads as well as other snakes, lizards,
young birds, rodents and grasshoppers species. The Mozambique spitting Cobra has
potent venom that is both cytotoxic and neurotoxic, causing partial blindness and skin
loss when emitted from their two forward pointing fangs. These snakes spit are capable
of spitting venom without raising their hoods from any position aiming for the upper
body. Lastly, these Cobras are able to play dead when threatened.

Rinkhals: Hemachatus haemachatus

The Rinkhals is a dull grey, grey brown or black species that has distinctive white bars between 1 and 3 but usually 2- on its neck. Their scales are kneaded, which along with
being viviparous are the predominant features that do not get them classified as true
cobras. Even though they are not true cobras, they share many genetic characteristics
with true cobras, such as its forward facing fangs which allow it to spit. The ventral scales
of adults are normally dark grey to light grey, where as juveniles are white. They also

have characteristic bandings such like those of true cobras. Their main means of defence
is hooding and then spitting their venom. Unlike the Mozambique Spitting cobra, this
species can only spit from a hooded (raised) position. If picked up it may or may not bite.
Bites are not common but can be potentially lethal. The diet is varied and like true cobras
they have a preference for toads, especially as juveniles, but rodents are also frequently
taken.

Woody Vegetation: Trees/Shrubs

Port Jackson Willow: Acacia Saligna
The Port Jackson is a small, dense, spreading tree with a short trunk and a weeping habit.
It grows up to 8 metres tall and has phyllodes rather than true leaves. The Phyllodes are
roughly 20 centimetres long. These phyllodes secrete a sugar like fluid from glands at its
base, attracting various ants, which are believed to reduce the numbers of leaf-eating
insects. The Port Jackson blooms yellow flowers in early spring and late winter. These
flowers appear in in groups of 6- 10 bright yellow spherical flower heads. The fruit of this
Willow are legumes, while their seeds are long and black in colour. Acting as a natural
colonizer, the Port Jackson tends to grow wherever soil has been disturbed, as its
dispersed seed are bought to the surface. These plants are successful germinators as
their seeds germinate rapidly; they are extremely vigorous when young, often growing
over a metre per year. The Acacia saligna is important as it can be used for multiple
purposes, such as tanning, vegetation, animal fodder, mine site rehabilitation, firewood,
and even as a decorative plant. They are also used as windbreaks or soil stabilisers.
Unfortunately this plant has out-competed many fynbos plant species

The Common Hook-thorn: Acacia Caffra

This beautiful tree can reach up to 14 meters and has an irregular, spreading crown.
Where in some regions it may just remain a shrub. This tree has drooping foliage which is
bright green and feathery looking. The Hook-thorn has patchy distributions, and is seen
in abundance in the savannah biome. Hook-thorns are capable of tolerating a low soil pH
as well as fire and frost. Being deciduous, it is one of the first to shoot in spring, having
new leaves that are soft and fresh green. Its flower spikes are large, creamy white and
carry a sweet scent. They appear from September to November with the main flowering
occurring in October. Flower spikes carry on them narrow, straight, brown seed pods. The
wood of the Hook-thorn is dense and hard, yet beautifully grained. The Acacia Caffra is
used for fencing posts and tanning. Its rootwood is highly valued by Xhosa women for
tobacco pipes. It carries medicinal properties and is considered a lucky tree in the African
culture.

The Black wattle: Acacia mearnsii

This shapeless tree grows 15 meters in height. Unlike other Acacia species it is an
unarmed, evergreen tree that has shallow ridged branches. All parts of the tree are finely
hairy. The Black Wattle has smooth, grey bark at its base. Its upper parts become black
and fissured where it splits to give a resinous gum. The Black Wattle has dark, olivegreen leaves that are bipinnate. Each part of the compound leaf is diminutively small,
generally less than 4 millimetres long, and covered in fine hairs. The Black Wattle flowers
are cream-coloured or pale yellow. Their seed pods are straight or twisted dark brown
when ripe and up to 10centimetres long with 3 to 12 joints between the seeds. These
small seeds that are not dispersed actively however may re-sprout from basal shoots

after a fire. This plant is important as it is pioneer plant it quickly binds the erosion-prone
soil as well as fixes the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.

Non-Woody Vegetation: Grasses/Weeds/Flowers

Fine Thatching Grass: Hyparrhenia filipendula
Fine thatching grass is mostly found in bushveld savannah regions, however it is also
found on open grasslands. This grass can develop on all types of soil, however its
maximal growth is observed in damp areas or areas with a low rainfall. Fine Thatching
Grass is a perennial bunchgrass that grows 2 meters tall. It grows between November
and April where it is utilised by all tall-grass feeders. This grass has a pair of raceme that
has 1-2 long, thin, brown awns. These racemes are light in colour and are usually taller
than surrounding grasses. Fine thatching grass is important as it offers palatable grazing
early in the season, as its palatability decreases as it matures. In mixed Savanna
grasslands the Fine thatching grass can produce 6.8 grams of dry matter and 0.56 grams
of protein per square meter per month per centimetre of rainfall, making it a valuable
fodder plant for wild and grazing animals.

Yellow Thatching grass: Hyparrhenia Hirta

Yellow Thatching grass is a perennial with tufts up to 3 meters high. They have erect
clums that are unbranched, yellow and partly covered by a green sheath. Their leaf
blades can reach 30 centimetres long and when dead; resemble purple or red-brown
hues. The inflorescence of the Hyparrhenia Hirta is a narrow, stiff purplish-red panicle.
The Panicle is compound with 2 pairs of 2- 3 centimetres long racemes. Like Fine
Thatching grass, Yellow Thatching grass is readily grazed in the early stages of growth as

is becomes woody and less palatable when it reaches maturity. Yellow Thatching grass is
very useful as hay in its early stages and may yield 25 t/ha green matter for cultivation.
Mature plants are used for matting, thatching or reed-work. Yellow Thatching grass is
often found growing on disturbed lands, open deciduous bushland, savannahs, velds,
fields margins and roadsides.

Jaragua Grass: Hyparrhenia rufa

Jaragua grass is generally perennial, however sometimes may grow as an annual. They
form dense tufts of stems from a short underground rhizome. The stems range in size
from 30 centimetres to 3.5 meters tall with a banded appearance. The leaves on the
stems are sparse and grazing is known to increases leaf production. The Jaragua leaves
have panicles up to 80 centimetres long, with many short, yellowish to red racemes. The
racemes are all subtended by a narrow, red coloured spathe, just a few centimetres long.
Jaragua produces rough, hairy seeds that are dispersed in the fur of animals,by the wind,
and on vehicles and machinery in contact with the grass. Native to flooded grasslands,
they are drought resistant and may be used to naturalise disturbed habitats. This grass is
mainly used as fodder for grazing, thatching, hay and straw, and occasionally planted to
prevent erosion on degraded soils.

The Fynbos Biome:

The fynbos biome is synonomos with the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) and has two
distinct vegetation types, mainly Fynbos and Renosterveld. It is the smallest of
the six Floral Kingdoms in the world contained within a single country. It is
characteried by its high richness as well as its high endemicity of plant species.
The Cape Floral Kingdom thus compares with some of the richest floras
worldwide. Distressingly, three-quarters of all plants in the South African Red
Data Book occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom. The Fynbos biome experiances
winter rainfall and hot summers, synonomous with that of the Western Cape. The
Fynbos is famous for the annual Protea, Erica and Reed displays. The fynbos
vegetation relies heavily on frequent fires for effective plant growth. The main
threat to this biome is the impeeding anthropogenic pressures as well as
encroaching invasive plant species.

Linkage: Media Appearances

Whether famous of infamous, animals appear in the media daily. Appearances in

the media are to a degree socially constructed and have the power to impact a
large audience. People are either alerted to an animals dangers such as
encounters with Leopards or Cape cobras, or to its importance for conservation,
for example the declining population of the honey bee. It is therefore imperative
to dissect the appropriate fynbos species likely to be encountered by the average
person.

Mammals:
The Cape Leopard: Panthera pardus pardus
The Cape leopard, a rarely encountered predatory species of the Western Cape, has been
a widely discussed and hotly debated topic with animal-farmer conflict bringing the
existence of this species into disrepute. The Cape Leopard is distinguishable in that both
the males and females of the species are almost half the mass of the African Savanna
leopards; males weighing up to 35 kilograms and females weighing up to 21 kilograms.
Cape leopards have massive territories that can equate up to 600 square kilometres in
size. Mostly nocturnal, Cape leopards live a solitary life with rare cases existing when
sub-adult cubs spend a longer amount of time with their mothers. Although smaller than
the African Savanna leopard, Cape leopards are equally successful predators. They
favour Klipspringer and Daisies, killing them swiftly and stealthily using stalking
mechanisms. The prey is then dragged up into trees, under bushes or into crevices where
the leopard may feast on the carcass for a few days after. With only 1000 Cape Leopards
remaining, their conservation status is a massive priority as they are regarded as an
umbrella species. The once unprotected species was culled for depleting livestock

numbers on farms as well as from their coats; however Cape Leopards are now protected
and are important for controlling Cape Baboon numbers, seed dispersal and education.

The Chacentimetresa/Cape Baboon: Papio ursinus

The Chacentimetresa or Cape baboon is the largest and most social members of the
monkey family. They have a dog-like face, pronounced brow ridges, long arms and short
dextrous digits. They live in troops of unto 200 individuals with males forming an
unstable dominance hierarchy. Females remain in their natal groups and form strong
hierarchies that transcend generations. They grow up to 120 centimetres and have a tail
length of 45 to 84 centimetres long. Females weight ranges from 12 kilograms to 17
kilograms, where males weigh 21kilograms to 44kilograms. Females reach sexual
maturity around 5 years old and males 2 years after. Cape Baboons breed throughout the
year depending on resource availability. Females give birth to one young after her
gestation period of 6 months. Both males and females can live up to 30 years old in a
stable family dynamic. Cape baboons have a course dark brown to grey coat and spend
most of their day preening each other; this reinforces their position in the troop. Cape
Baboons bark in order to communicate danger threats or aggression.They have large
sharp canines and are largely opportunistic omnivores, spending most of their day
foraging and retreating into the trees at night. Because these animals are important for
plant and seed dispersal and reproduction, their diversity needs to be monitored and
conserved to protect fynbos abundance.

The Cape Mountain Zebra: Equus zebra zebra

Being the smallest of the zebra family, Cape mountain zebra are distinguished by the
Dewlap on their throat, broader stripes on their hindquarters, and narrow stripes forming

a grid-iron pattern on their rump. Their legs are stripped down to their fast growing
hooves and their under-parts are white. With a shoulder height of about 1.16-1.28 m and
weight of 230-260 kilograms, Equus zebra zebra are highly adapted to life on a rough and
rugged terrain as well as open areas. Herds between 4 to 12 individuals are found
grazing among the fynbos vegetation, however will revert to browsing when resources
are limited. Unique to Cape mountain zebra, they form mixed-sex bachelor herds
consisting of young mares and stallions. Females also exhibit a diagnostic breeding
behaviour, they display aggression using visual and auditory cues to communicate and
assert their social status. Their reproductive rate is slow due because of their 12 month
gestation period. Foals are born throughout the year mainly during the rainy season
when resources are more abundant. Cape Zebra are important for seed dispersal.

Aves:
The orange Breasted Sunbird: Nectarinia violacea
Endemic to the fynbos biome of the Western and Eastern Cape, this small passerine
sunbird prefers dense stands of Protea and Erica rich in nectar, insects and spiders.
These birds communicate using a variety of twangy calls at various pitches. Males and
females differ in appearance; however they both have long decurved bills with brushtipped tubular tongues, synonymous with sunbirds. Their bill, feet, legs wing and tail
feathers are black, and their small eyes are dark brown. Males have a higher aesthetic
value than females displaying colours of dark metallic green, metallic violet, metallic
orange and yellow. Females are plain olive green/yellow in colour. Males grow to 17
centimetres and females 13 centimetres and their long bills are used to suck nectar from
flowers in heath during the month of May. These sunbirds are monogamous and breed
continuously between February to November. The female is solely responsible for
building the small, oval top entrance nest in just 15 to 18 days. The female lays 1-2 eggs
and incubates them for 13 to 16 days where after offspring become fully independent.
These curiously tame birds are ecologically resilient, acting as key pollinators as well as
multi-million rand symbols of the avitourism industry.

The Cape Sugarbird: Promerops cafer

Promerops cafer is one of 6 bird species endemic to the Fynbos biome. The Cape
Sugarbird, smaller than the laughing dove, is grey-brown in colour with a distinguishable
spot of yellow under its tail. Males have a very long tail and are between 34- 44
centimetres when fully grown. The shorter-tailed, shorter-billed, and paler breasted
female grows to 25-29 centimetres long. A diagnostic characteristic of this bird is the
sound it makes when it flies. During flight, males main flight feathers beat in such a way
as to attract the attention of females. This bird is a specialist nectar feeder when it
comes to feeding off Proteaceae. Its long, sharp beak is used to reach the nectar of a
variety of species of Protea with its long brush-tipped tongue. Like the Orange breasted
Sunbird, the Cape sugar bird will also feed on insects and spiders. The Sugarbird has
adapted to feeding off Protea heads in the presence of strong winds by using its strong
sharp claws. The breeding season for the Cape Sugarbird is winter when there are ample
food supplies and lower incidences of predation. The Cape Sugarbird acts as a key
pollinator or Protea and Erica species through their feeding habits and migration
corridors.

The Fork-tailed Drongo: Dicrurus adsimilis

Infamous for its ability to mimic various vocal warning cues of other bird species, the
Fork-tailed drongo is a small passerine bird, widespread in distribution. Their habitats
range from woodlands, savanna, forests, grassland and fynbos. They are also seen in
urban areas and areas with encounters with humans are frequent. Fork tailed Drongos
are insectivores, aggressive and fearless in nature, given their small size, and will attack
much larger species, including birds of prey if their nest or young are threatened. Males
and Females are similar in appearance. Males are mainly glossy black, although the
wings are duller, with a large-headed and forked tail. The female is similar but less glossy.
The male and female bill is black and heavy, and their eyes are red. Male and female
Fork-tailed Drongo can reach 25 centimetres long. These Drongos are monogamous with
females laying 2-4 eggs in a cup shaped nest positioned in a high fork in a tree. This
short legged bird fly catches or takes prey from the ground in order to feed and is
attracted to bush fires.

Invertebrates:
The Cape Honey Bee: Apis mellifera capensis
The Cape Honey bee is a sub-specie of the Western honey bee occurring naturally in the
Cape Floristic Region (Fynbos). Cape honey bees are specialist foragers and pollinators.
These bees are distinguishable based on their morphological differences to other bee
species, namely by the ability of worker bees to produce female offspring, the highly
developed ovaries in Cape laying-workers, and small, queenless swarms. The Cape
Honey bee has its characteristic stripe down its abdomen, however is much darker in
color compared to other honey bees. They have 5 eyes and nearly 7000 lenses. Their
electrostatically charged hairs on their pollen buckets attract pollen to aid in pollination,
honey production and hive food provision. Lastly, their long tongue is airtight and tube
like to soak up nectar and reverse feed offspring. The hive is a structural hierarchy with
the Queen bee responsible for laying of eggs in comb cells. nurse worker bees care for

the eggs in their laveral stage as it transitions/metamorphoses from a pupae to an adult

worker bee. They communicate via a series of specialized dance moves. Interestingly,
the Cape Honey bee is the only Honey bee species that can lay diploid, female eggs, by
means of thelytoky. The Cape honeybee plays an important role in human lives as honey
harvesting and to provide a pollination service to pollinator-dependent crops.

The Argentine Ant: Linepithema humile

The Argentine Ant is a tiny, shiny dark brown to black ball of fury. Known as a tramp
species it has become a successful invader of the fynbos biome, eliminating other ant
species critical for seed dispersal of fynbos vegetation. These ants measure only 3
millimetres and for a prodigious polygamous colony consisting of many larger queens.
This allows the ant to outbreed and ensure genetic diversity making them successful
invader species incapable of seed dispersal. Distinguishable to the argentine ant is its
body hairs on its segmented body as well as it large eyes. Linepithema humile have very
few standing hairs only on its third gastric segment and roughly 90 ommatidia forming its
eye. Ants in the Western Cape have lost their natural sense of aggression against other
Argentine Ant colonies. This allows small colonies to combine to form giant
supercolonies, which can dominate the ecosystem. The Argentine ant forages at night
on nectar, small insects and seeds. Queens are solely responsible for reproduction with
each queen laying between 100- 350 eggs a day depending on the nest conditions.
Despite reducing seed dispersal, Argentine ants also complete with various insects for
nectar and do to pollinate the flowers they visit, and form a symbiotic relationship with
plant pests like aphids capable of transmitting plant diseases.

The Brenton Blue Butterfly: Orachrysops niobe

The rare and endangered Brenton Blue Butterfly was first discovered in 1858. It was
thought to be entirely endemic to the region until 1977 when Dr Jonathan Ball discovered
the species in Natures Valley. The species became extinct in the area as more and more
houses were built and the overall human population increased drastically. Currently, the
only remaining colony of the species exists in Brenton-on-Sea. The species, belonging to
the Lycaenidae family are an incredibly attractive species of butterfly that few ever have
the ability of witnessing. Males and females are relatively similar in size with males have
a wingspan of between 24 and 38 millimetres and females having a wingspan of between
22 and 42 millimetres. Mating occurs twice annually; between October and November
and between February and March. Larvae of the species feed on the leaves of Indigofera
erecta with more developed larvae feeding on the rootstock of this plant species.
Currently regarded as critically endangered, various campaigns have been created to
ensure that complete extinction of the species does not result. One of these, the Brenton
Blue Trust, aims to bring NGOs and and government organisations together in an
attempt to preserve the future of this species.

Amphibians or Reptiles:
The Western leopard toad : Amietophrynus pantherinus
The Western leopard toad is a large attractive frog. Its rough skin is covered in red-brown
patches on a striking yellow backilogramsround, distinct for each individual. This 140
millimetres frog has a pale yellow stripe down its back and a cream underbelly and
reddish head. It has 2 distinctive, red parotoid glands behind its 2 small black eyes. They
are endemic to the fynbos biome, found along the coastal lowlands, no more than 10km
inland. Western leopard toads also have a number of indistinct glands running along the
underside of the forearm as well as behind the jaw that are smaller and not joined into a
ridge. The advertisement call is distinct, low and pulsed, much like a soft roar. Western
leopard toads are explosive breeders. They mate in spring in short bursts of about 4 to 5
nights at a time. Smaller males clasp onto the back of the larger female to fertilise her.
Females lay about 25,000 eggs. Eggs are laid in long, gelatinous strings, and hatch into
relatively small, dark, bottom-dwelling tadpoles. Feeding on algae, these tadpoles begin
metamorphosis after approximately 10 12 weeks into adult frogs. Western Leopard Toad

is classified according to the IUCN Red List as an endangered species, due to its
restricted distribution and fragmented habitat.

The Cape dwarf chameleon: Bradypodion pumilum

The Cape dwarf chameleon is the largest of the dwarf chameleon species, growing up to
15 centimetres. The Cape dwarf chameleon has a variable colouring. They are most
commonly a leaf-green colour with a broad orange stripe along each side of the body and
orange markings on the head. Males have a disproportionately longer tail than female
species. The Cape dwarf chameleon has a crest with many small nodules running along
the back and the front of the tail, while a more prominent crest hanging from their throat.
Like most chameleons, Cape Dwarf chameleons have a tongue that is twice the length of
its body. These chameleons have irregular movements and the ability to change colour.
These mechanisms are the little creatures natural camouflage as it blends in with the
uneven movement of leaves blowing in the wind. Camouflage allows them this
chameleon to stalk its prey unseen, as well as protecting it from its own predators. Other
defence mechanisms include aggression and a warning hiss. Cape Dwarf Chameleons are
oviparous. There are roughly 5 12 young in a litter. The young are about 40 mm long,
and they arrive in a sticky bag the mother fixes on a twig. Once released from their bags
they immediately independent replicates of adults, mute brown in colour.

The Cape Cobra: Naja nive

The infamous Cape Cobra is a moderately sized, highly venomous cobra, endemic to
South Africa. Cape Cobras vary in coloration. Colours range from yellow through golden
brown to dark brown and even black with a varying degree of black or pale stippling and
blotches. Their coloration is linked to their spatial orientation. Mature Cobras reach 1.6
meters where males are always longer than females. The Cape Cobra is a diurnal feeding
generalist, foraging during the day. They prey on a number of different species and
carrion. Their predators consist of birds of prey, honey badgers and various species of
mongoose. Cape Cobras are oviparous, choosing to mate between September and
October. It is during this time that these snakes are most aggressive. Females lay 8-20
eggs in a wet location during mid-summer. Hatchlings measure 34-40 centimeters and
are completely independent from birth. When threatened, Cape Cobras raise their fore
body off the ground, spread a broad hood and hiss loudly. This is an important
characteristic behavior of the Cobra species, and when the snake strikes their venom
effects respiratory system, nervous system, and the heart.

Woody Vegetation: Trees/Shrubs

Rooibos: Aspalathus linearis
Wild rooibos is an erect to spreading shrub, growing up to 2 meters tall. It is a broom-like
member of the legume family. Directly translated wild red bush is resilient to drought
and pests and has the ability to re-sprout after a fire. Cultivated rooibos on the other
hand is less resilient and are reseeding after fire. Their young branches are often red
(hence its name) and leaves are green and needle-like, 15-60 millimetres long and up to
about 1 millimetres thick. Rooibos does not have stalks and stipules and may be densely
clustered. These shrubs prefer a winter rainfall distribution such as that of the fynbos
biome. Flowers bloom between spring and early summer into small yellow flowers that
are solitary or arranged in dense groups at the tips of branches. The fruit is a small lanceshaped pod usually containing one or two hard seeds. Both wild and cultivated rooibos
have ecological, social and economic benefits. The most well-known social and economic
benefit is that of rooibos tea which has no colorants, additives or preservatives and is
free of caffeine. Rooibos tea harvesting creates jobs and provides a platform for trade
and revenue generation.

The King Protea: Protea cynaroides

King Proteas is South Africas national flower. Why? Because of its massive, bowl shaped
inflorescences. The flower head of the King Protea can get to 30 centimetres, on its
outside it has many stiff, pointed and narrow petals, that give it the appearance of a cup.
The bottom half of the petals start out cream colored or yellow, turning into bright pink or
velvet red on the top half. Inside the cup is a mass of white stamens about 10centimetres
long which all bend towards the centre. The leaves thick, stiff and round leaves of the
King Protea look like flat spoons which grow alternately along the several stems of the
plant allowing to plant to store moisture. Because this perennial plant lives in nutrient
poor soils, it produces only a few nutrient rich seeds which are protected by a fire proof
cone. This cone dries out after a fire, allowing the Protea to reseed after a fire. King
Proteas seeds are also dispersed by wind or consumed/killed by various animal species.
King Proteas are valued for their decorative qualities. They dry very well and are
commonly used as focal pieces in flower arrangements. It is said that Protea leaves are
also used to make tea. Proteas live in a fragile environment. Of the 370 Protea species,
about 120 of them are listed as endangered. There are very few wild Proteas anymore,
most of them are now cultivated in greenhouses or nurseries.

The Cape Aloe: Aloe Ferox

Also known as Cape Aloe or Bitter Aloe, Aloe Ferox is a succulent shrub with a wide
distribution and as a result, a wide habitat range. It is seen in large number on rocky hill
slopes, grassy fynbos and the edges of the karoo. Aloe ferox has optimal growth in a drytropical climate plentiful in open areas. The soil must be sandy-loamy with a good
drainage system. The physical appearance of these shrubs range based on their locality
conditions, yet generally they are 3 meters tall with their long, thick and fleshy leaves
arranged in rosettes. The leaves have reddish-brown teeth on its margins with smaller
spines on the upper and lower surfaces. It is for this reason ferox means fierce in Latin.
The Aloe Ferox blooms between May to June in coastal areas and from July until
November in inland regions into orange or red, occasionally white, that stand between
0.61m and 1.22 m above the leaves. It reproduces via pollination mechanisms of various
species such as birds and honey bees who are attracted to the nectar of the aloes
flowers. Aloe Ferox is has many uses, mainly as a: Purgative, medicinal ointment, herbal
tea, cosmetic ingredient.7

Non-Woody Vegetation: Grasses/Weeds/Flowers

The Capeweed: Arctotheca calendula
Capeweed, otherwise known as Cape Dandelion, is a stem less, prostate, spawning
annual herb that germinates between autumn and winter. Arctotheca calendula is
widespread along the coast of the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape and Natal. This
perennial herb stands 25 centimetres high and has 2 different sets of leaves. The first
leaves are paired, 10-20 millimetres long with a short petiole. They are spear shaped with
a round tip and have scalloped edges. These leaves are green on top with a few hairs and
white underneath with a dense mat of furry hairs. Its main leaves form a dense rosette
with broad deeply lobed, succulent leaves 30-250 millimetres. It is woolly on its surface;
however the underside of this herb is covered with white fluffy hairs. This dandelion has

hairless, club-shaped cotyledons that eventually house lonely daisy-like flower heads.
The flower heads are up to 6 centimetres wide and bright yellow in colour, with blackish
purple central disc florets that are frequently pollinated by butterflies. The seeds that are
produced are covered in pink/brown fluffy, woolly hairs. The Cape weed is competitive
and grows best in sun with a moderate supply of water. This plant is a versatile ground
cover that can be used in a garden for holding soil and for a colourful display. However,
this weed is infamous for causing nitric poisoning to livestock and scoring to sheep.

The Devils claw: Harpagophytum procumbens

Devil's claw is a protected plant in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia meaning it is
today illegal to dig it up and harvest it without a permit. It is used in both western and
traditional medicine, treating everything from arthritis and rheumatism to cold sores and
blisters. This geophytic life form is prostrate and sprawling with a stout and perennial
rootstock that has a group of secondary storage tubers arising from it. Harpagos has
trailing annual stems that bear opposite leaves, irregularly 3-5-lobed and greyish green
because they are covered in tiny whitish mucilage cells. These cells cut down water loss.
The flowers look like trumpets with colours ranging dark velvety red or purple to pink.
The flowers tube base and mouth are yellowish; all yellow, all purple or white. Diagnostic
to this herb is its spiny fruits. These fruit are woody, oval and flattened capsules,
protected by 2 central spines and 2 lateral rows of 12 - 16 horny arms bearing hooked
spines. Devils claw seeds are roughly oblong and dark brown or black. Preferring to
flower mainly from about November to April (summer) fruits develop in January. Bees and
crawling insects act as pollinators. Due to the spiny nature of the fruit, they are effective
at dispersing by sticking to the fur of animals.

Zol: Cannabis Sativa

You may call it zol or grass, maybe even splyf, whatever the name there is no
confusion when it is called dagga. Native to Asia and naturalised in South Africa, Dagga
is the only annual renewable resource known to contribute to the worlds paper and
textiles industry, meet the world's transportation, industrial and home energy needs,
while at the same time reducing pollution, rebuilding soil structure, and cleaning the
atmosphere. This is over and above the proven medical benefits associated with this
herb. Cannabis sativa herbs stand 4 meters high with minutely hairy stems consisting of
green and ribbed hollow internodes. Dagga leaves are a diagnostic character: the 5
leaved herb. Leaves are compound and alternate with 5-7 leaflets tapered at each end.
The leaf stalk is up to 50 millimetres long standing erect. Both male and female flowers
are tiny, green and yellow in colour, yet are borne on different plants. Flowers of the
female plant are arranged in racemes that produced many seeds. The male plants rather
shed their pollen and their seeds do not ripen. Seeds are spotted, 4 millimetres in
diameter, smooth with netted veins. Dagga seeds are dispersed by wind and water.

The Wetland Biome:

Wetlands are areas where terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems meet. Here,
the water table is at or near the surface of the ground. This results in the
land being temporarily or permanently covered with shallow water. The
depth of the water table is not fixed and will change from year to year and
season to season, depending on the amount of rainfall and volume of
groundwater used. The water in wetlands can be fresh or brackish, this
determines the ecosystems that form around a wetland ecosystem. The
Western regions of South Africa, has dry wetlands during summer and
water will only be present after rain. The eastern part of the country is
wetter with more permanent rivers and wetlands. There are many types of
wetlands such as temporary and permanent vleis, salt marshes and
estuaries. Flora found in the wetland biome are mainly water-loving
plants, whilst the fauna will range between aquatic and terrestrial species,
all using the water for survival. Each year, several thousand birds migrate
from the Northern Hemisphere to spend the summer feeding in South
Africas wetlands. This is one of the reasons that wetlands need to be

conserved. Since South Africa is a semi-arid country, wetland ecosystems

are under pressure from growing populations, increased demands of
industry and agriculture, and the impeding threat of climate change.
Linkage: Species directly dependent on water for survival.
Since water is a limited resource in South Africa, it is important to determine the reliance
of both plant and animals and this critical resource. Wetlands provide water, and sustain
a flourishing specie cascade, highly specific and dependent on the resources occurring
there. Wetlands provide habitats encoded with water essential for breeding, protection,
food, and shelter to sustain various flora and fauna. If water sources were to become
depleted, ecosystem will cease to exist. It is for this reason, wetlands need constant
conservation and management to ensure water will never become limiting for periods
longer than the natural dry seasons.
Mammals:
The Hippopotamus: Hippopotamus amphibius
This semi-aquatic river horse is the third largest living land mammal, after the elephant
and the rhinoceros. Males can weigh up to 3200 kilograms and female cows, roughly
2400 kilograms. This amphibious mammal moves underwater by trotting coming to the
surface to breath. Their barrel shaped body is grey in colour with a pink under belly. A
hippopotamus' nostrils are situated on the top of its head; this allows it to still breathe
when almost totally submerged underwater. The hippopotamus is herbivorous and
prefers to graze at night, consuming up to 68 kilograms of grass. Since this animal is
dependent on water, when on land their skin is moistened by an oily, pink substance that
protects it from getting sunburnt. Hippopotamuses are social animal, however display
aggression when threatened. They have long, sharp incisors and tusk-like canines which
punctures the skin of their victims. After roughly 240 day of incubation, cows give birth at
peak rainfall to only one young. Its main predator is people who kill the animal for food,
its hide and its teeth.

The African elephant: Loxodonta Africana

This majestic creature is the largest living land mammal. They can weigh between, 2 and
6,4 tons depending on the sex. The skull of the African elephant accounts for 25% of its
body mass, hence its good memory. The upper lip and nose of these grey giants extends
to form the trunk. They have 4 toes on their forefeet and three on their hind feet. Being
herbivores their diet consists primarily of grasses, leaves, bark and roots. They are able
to consume up to 225 kilograms therefore roam vast distances daily in search of food.
The heard relies on a social hierarchical structure with only one matriarch (usually the
oldest and largest female in the herd). These herds can vary from between two to 100
individuals. African elephants use sounds, unable to be heard by the human ear, in order
to communicate over long distances. They need to consume large amounts of water each
day, and in the dry season, may be seen digging holes in dry river beds in search of
water.

Waterbuck: Kobus ellipsiprymnus

The water buck is a shaggy-haired antelope, with a coarse coat ranging in colour from
grey-brown to reddish, with darker legs. They are noted for their association with water
and strong musky scent. This sent is an oily secretion from a gland found just above
their tails. The secretion allows them to locate other waterbuck species as well as
prevents them from being killed when hunted by large predators. The markings on their
face are white around the nose, mouth, above the eyes and on the throat. They have
short, rounded ears that are white on the inside and black around the edges and tips.
The water buck is easily distinguished by the obvious broad, white ring or patch that
encircles the rump. Males have long, heavily-ridged horns that can reach up to 99
centimetres, where female cows do not. These grazing herbivores drink unusually large
amounts of water, hence they are never found far from water sources. The 300
kilogram males are territorial, using combat to establish their dominance. Females and
their young are normally found in herds up to thirty individuals, all moving freely
through male territories. Females give birth to a single calf after an 8 month gestation
period where they can live for up to 18 years of age.

Aves
The Fish Eagle or Haliaeetus vocifer
Preferring to perch on high branches its distinguishable plumage and evocative cry make
it one of the most well-known African birds of prey. They are large birds with females
weighing between 3,2 and 3,6 kilograms and males between 2 and 2,5 kilograms. They
have black, white and brown feathers, a white head and yellow face. African Fish eagles
are efficient hunters and feed mainly on fish. They also are known to prey on other birds
in flight or steal prey from other birds (carrion). Its call is so distinctive, it is known as the
voice of Africa. African fish eagles are monogamous and choose to build twiggy nests
high in waterside trees, with a good view of the rivers or water source. Females will only
lay 1-3 eggs after a short gestation period, where young that are fortunate enough to
survive a year will live for up to 24 years in the wild.

Blue Crane: Anthropoides paradiseus

This elegant bird is national bird of South Africa. It is pale blue in colour and have small
crane with a large head and thick neck. Their beautiful elongated wing feathers, known
as tertials are often mistaken for tail feathers. The Blue crane does not have the typical
bare red skin on its face, instead it has head feathers that become erect when excited or
during aggressive encounters. Typical of cranes though, the Blue Crane produces loud
honking calls. These omnivores feed on vegetation, insects and some small vertebrates,
preferring to hunt above ground resources. Courtship involves a dance and various
calls. The monogamous breeding pair build platform reed nests in wetlands were the
female will lay usually 2 eggs per clutch. Blue Cranes are also migratory birds, choosing
to move to lower elevations in winter after their chicks are born and able to fly. Blue
Cranes are currently listed as Vulnerable due to collisions with power lines and habitat
destruction.

Pied kingfisher: Ceryle rudis

The Pied Kingfisher is famous as it is the largest bird capable of hovering in still air as
well as the only Kingfisher species with a black and white plumage. Pied Kingfishers are
white-spotted with black upper parts and white under parts. They also have distinct
broad band of black streaks on their upper-breast and a narrow black bar just below.
They have white eyebrows with a black eye band that stretches to the back of their
necks. Lastly, they have a white throat and collar as well as a white patch on the wingcoverts. They have a black rump, brown irises and thin, weak black legs. Male and
females are distinguishable by their breast bands, with the female having one
incomplete band and the male having 2 complete bands. The Pied kingfisher hovers
above a water body looking for fish to prey on. They do this by holding their body
almost vertical, angling their head and bill downwards, and beating their wings very
fast. These birds are known to emit high pitched call when in flight and when perched,
and soft calls during courtship. A breeding pair will nest upon a sandbank in which they
can construct a tunnel to lay their eggs. The female will lay between 1-7 eggs, and
relies on cooperative breeding mechanisms to care for and protect her young. Not
threatened by extinction, the Pied Kingfisher is seen in abundance in the Saint Lucia
Wetland.

Invertebrates
Water Strider: Gerris remigis
The water strider has the ability to maintain buoyancy on water surfaces and as such is
commonly seen running across the surface of water. They live on water sources where
the water is slow running. The under-parts of their bodies are covered with waterrepellent hairs. These 5 millimetres long mosquito like creatures have long, dark, narrow
bodies, with some species possessing winds. Their longer middle legs act as paddles,
enabling the bug to move across the water surface, whilst their hind legs steer them and
act as brakes. They use their short front legs to catch prey such as other small insects
that fall on the water's surface. Water striders are sensitive to motion and vibrations on
the water's surface and uses this adaption to locate prey. They feed by pushing their
mouths into their prey and sucking it dry. During breeding season the Water strider
communicates by emitting ripples on the waters edge. Females lay their many eggs on
the waters edge where they will hatch to become nymphs. Water striders are important
to humans as they help control mosquito populations

The Water boatman: Corixa punctate

The Water Boatman is an extremely abundant invertebrate that inhabits fresh or standing
water like ponds or lakes. It is names depicts, the Water boatman has a flat grey, boatshaped body, roughly 15 millimetres long with long back legs that resemble oars. They
feed primarily on algae and tiny aquatic organisms, and may indulge in mosquito larvae.
Like the Water Strider, this feature is extremely important in controlling mosquito

populations. They are also an important prey source for larger aquatic species. Being
lighter than water, these invertebrates can stay buoyant. Another unique adaption to
water is its ability to breathe from air stored around its body and under its wings.

Backswimmer: Notonectidae
Famous for their ability to swim on their backs, Backswimmers uses their long, oar-like
legs for propulsion and its oval-shaped head and an elongated body for stability and
guidance. They are roughly 15 millimetres long and are a good example of
countershading. From below they are light coloured, and from above they appear dark.
This feature allows them to blend in with both the colour of the sky as well as the
sediment below. They prey on insects, small tadpoles, and fishes. They feed by sucking
the body fluids of their prey through its strong beak. The backswimmer deposits its eggs
either on or in the plant tissue of pond vegetation. Backswimmers are known to bite
humans; their bite feels much the same as a bee sting.

Amphibians/Reptiles:
The Water monitor: Varamus salvator
The Water monitor reaches about 1, 5 to 2 metres in length and weighs about 19, 9
kilograms. This makes it the second heaviest lizard after the Komodo dragon. It is
carnivorous and preys on just about anything, including fish, frogs, rodents, birds and the
rotting flesh (carrion) from other predators. The Water monitor finds its prey by smell (in

much the same way as a snake). It is an aggressive reptile that leads a solitary life. It
uses its jaws and its tails when fighting. This reptile is not considered endangered
although they are hunted for their meat and their skins.

Nile crocodile: Crocodylus niloticus

The Nile crocodile is an aquatic predator with a streamlined body, a powerful tail, webbed
back feet, and powerful jaws. Their eyes, ears and nostrils are on the top of their heads
to allow them to see, small and breath whilst remaining submerged underwater. An
important adaptive feature is the special valve at the back of the throat which allows
them to open their mouth and catch prey underwater. They also have a good sense of
smell and excellent night vision. This crocodile has sensory pits in its scales along the
side of the jaw, allowing them to detect movement/vibrations underwater. The 4 to 6
meter large adult Nile is grey-olive colour, with a yellowish belly, weighing between 400900 kilograms. Juveniles are greenish or dark olive-brown, possessing a black cross-band
on their tail and body. These ambush carnivores are sociable reptiles and can be seen
basking together in the sun. They have a strict hierarchical structure extending to their
mating habits. Males bellow to attract females. Females will lay an average of 50 eggs
during the dry season. She lays these eggs in a hole in the damp sand, and once
hatched, the babies are carried in the mouth of the mother to the water where they will
become almost immediately independent.

The Green Turtle: Chelonia mydas

The green turtle is one of the largest and most widespread of all five marine turtles in
South Africa. They have oval carapace that vary in colour from olive to brown, grey to
black with dark blotches. As its name suggests, its green colour comes from their fat and
connective tissues. There are two subspecies of Green turtle; the smaller Pacific green
turtle (Chelonia mydas agassizii) and its black coloured cousin the Atlantic green turtle
(C. m. mydas). These turtles have a permanent pale yellow or orange under shell
(plastron). Males are smaller than females only weighing on average 190 kilograms.
Green turtles are distinguishable by their single pair of scales in front of the eyes, as well
as their serrated bottom jaw. Hatchlings are 5 centimetres and black in colour, they also
have a special egg tooth which they use to break out of the egg. Green turtles take up
to 40 years to reach reproductive maturity, the longest of any sea turtle.

Woody Vegetation: Trees/Shrubs

The Quinine Tree: Rauvolfia caffra
The Quinine Tree is an evergreen tree that grows to about 30 metres tall. It has a fast
growth rate of approximately 1,5 metres per annum provided there is an ample supply of
ground water. Its tall and erect stem is bare, and its bark is grey to brown. The Quinine
Tree has simple leaves arranged in whorls of 36, at the ends of the branchlets. They are
about 120280 millimetres long, 3060 millimetres broad, and taper at both ends. The
tree occurs on river banks and in swamp forests in east, central and southern Africa.
Small white flowers bloom between May to October. They are sweet-smelling flowers,
occurring in sprays at the ends of the branches. The flowers attract butterflies and other
insects which aids in pollination.

The Sycamore fig: Ficus sycomorus

The Sycamore fig is also known as the Fig mulberry as its leaves resemble those of the
Mulberry tree. The leaves are heart-shaped and are about 14 centimetres long by 10
centimetres wide, arranged spirally around the twig. The fruit is an edible fig about 2-3
centimetres in diameter. These figs are eaten by mammals including Capuchin monkeys,
Langurs and Mangabeys as well as by some birds, including barbets, pigeons, hornbills,
fig parrots and bulbuls. The plant can grow up to 20 meters tall and 6 meters wide with a
greenish yellow bark. Unique to this fig tree is that it relies on the symbiotic wasp;
Ceratosolen arabicus to reproduce sexually.

Grey or white Mangrove: Avicennia marina

Grey mangroves can grow to 13 meters tall with it unique arrangement of gnarled
branches. Its diagnostic feature is that of its smooth white bark. The Grey mangrove has
thick leaves 5-8 centimetres long, green on the surface and grey below. They have aerial
roots (pneumatophores) some 20 centimeters long which allow the plant to absorb
oxygen. These roots also anchor the plant. The flowers range from white to a golden
yellow colour. These flowers are small and occur in cluster of 3-5. Its fruit produces a
large fleshy seed, which germinated on the tree. The grey mangroves growth will
decrease in saline conditions and to adapt to this they secrete salt from their leaves.
Grey mangrove is a highly variable tree that contains many ecotypes and forms. This

mangrove acts as a pioneer specie in muddy soil conditions with a PH value of 6.5 to 8,
and cannot tolerate shade.

Non-Woody Vegetation: Grasses/Weeds/Flowers

The common Reed: Phragmites australis
The common reed is native to Eurasia and Africa; however it is now widespread
throughout the world. The plant forms dense reed beds that can be up to one square
kilometre or more. Phragmites australis prefers to grow in damp ground up to one metre
deep and is found in the upper edges of estuaries and on other wetlands. They have long
leaves, 15-20 centimetres, and are light brown in colour. The leaves produce flowers in
late summer. The flowers are a dark purple colour with sharp pointed spikelets. Reeds are
halophytes, especially common in alkaline habitats, and it also tolerates brackish water.
It can be depleted by extended grazing from various grazers and browsers. The stems
grow to between two and six metres long. This plant is used in traditional African cultures
for weaving mats and carrying nets.

Kariba weed: Salvinia molesta

The Kariba weed is an invasive aquatic fern. It is a free floating in a water body and does
not attach to the soil. They have 0.54 centimetres long fronds that are broad and bristly.

These fronds provide a waterproof covering in the water body. Each fronds produces, in
pairs, a third modified root-like frond that hangs in the water. This invader has small flat
leaves within a bunch of large, crowded, folded leaves. Under the best conditions plants
can form a mat over the water surface some 60 centimetres thick. These mats prevent
recreational activities on water bodies such as lakes or dams in the wetland regions of
South Africa. The mats can be used to extract nutrients and pollutants from the water, as
well as satisfactory mulch when dry. This plant has rapid asexual growth and
reproduction enabling it to spread quickly. They also release infertile spores incapable of
offspring production.

Water hyacinth: Eichhornia crassipes

Like the Kariba weed, the Hyacinth is a free floating aquatic herb. They have broad, thick,
glossy, ovate leaves and can rise as much a one meter above the water. The green
leaves are 1020 centimetres, attached to a long, spongy and bulbous stalk. They have
freely hanging roots that are purple-black in colour. Its erect stalk houses a single spike
with 8-15 attractive flowers. Flowers are lavender to pink in colour with six petals. When
not in bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frog's-bit. Capable of doubling their
growth in two weeks, the water hyacinth reproduces by runners or stolons, which
eventually form daughter plants. Each daughter plant will produce several thousand
seeds each year, which can remain viable for up to 28 years.