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ChemistryRevisionNotesIGCSE

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ChemistryRevisionNotesIGCSE
1.1.IGCSECompleteChemistryNotesRefinedandclearedbyKmQ!:DBy:AbdullaAlZaabi
2.2.Unit1:StatesofmatterEverythingismadeofparticles.Particlesinsolidarenotfreetomove
around.Liquidsandgasescan.Asparticlesmovetheycollidewitheachotherandbounceoffinall
directions.Thisiscalledrandommotion.In2substances,whenmixed,particlesbounceoffinall
directionswhentheycollide.Thismixingprocessiscalleddiffusion.Itsalsothemovementof
particleswithoutaforce.Thesmallestparticlethatcannotbebrokendownbychemicalmeansiscalled
anatom.Insomesubstances,particlesarejustsingleatoms.Forexamplethegasargon,foundinair,
ismadeupofsingleargonatoms.Inmanysubstances,particlesconsistof2atomsjoinedtogether.
Thesearecalledmolecules.Inothersubstances,particlesconsistofatomsorgroupsofatomsthat
carryacharge.Theseparticlesarecalledions.SolidsliquidsandgasesSolidProperties:Definite
shapeandvolumeNormallyhardandrigidLargeforcerequiredtochangeshapeHighDensity
IncompressibleModel:CloselypackedOccupyminimumspaceRegularpatternVibrateinfixed
positionNotfreetomoveLiquidProperties:Definitevolumebutnoshape.HighDensityNot
compressibleModel:OccurinclusterswithmoleculesslightlyfurtherapartcomparedtosolidsFree
tomoveaboutwithinaconfinedvessel
3.3.GasProperties:NoFixedvolumeandnofixedshapeLowdensityCompressibleModel:Very
farapartTravelathighspeedIndependentandrandommotionsNegligibleforcesofattraction
betweenthemDiffusioninGasesGasesdiffuseindifferentrates.Thoseratesdependontheirfactors:
1.Thelowerthemassofitsparticlesthefasteragaswilldiffuse.MassoftheparticlesWhy?Because
thelighterthemolecules...thefasteritwilltravel(obviously...)2.Thehigherthetemperature,thefaster
agaswilldiffuse.ThetemperatureWhy?BecauseparticlesgainenergyastheyareheatedMixtures,
Solutions,andSolventsMixture:Containsmoretheonesubstance.Theyarejustmixedtogetherand
notchemicallycombined.Example:Sandandwater.Solution:Itiswhenasoluteandasolventmix.
Thesolutedissolvesinthesolventmakingasolution.Example:sugar(solute)dissolvesinwater
(solvent)makingasolutionofsugarandwater.Thesolubilityofeverysubstanceisdifferent.Tohelpa
solutedissolveyoucould:StiritRisethetemperatureIfyouaddexcessamountofsugarinasmall
amountofwater...itwontdissolveasthereisnospaceforit.Thesolutionbecomessaturated.Solvent:
AsubstancethatallowssolutestodissolveinExample:Water,Ethanol
4.4.PuresubstancesandimpuritiesApuresubstanceisasubstancethathasnoparticlesofanyother
substancemixedwithit.Anunwantedsubstance,mixedwithawantedsubstance,iscalledanimpurity.
Tocheckifasubstanceispure,youhavetocheckitsmeltingandboilingpoints.Apuresubstancehas
adefinite,sharp,meltingpoint.Whenasubstanceisimpure,themeltingpointfallsanditsboiling
pointrises.Sothemoreimpuritypresent,thewiderandbiggerthechangeinmeltingandboilingpoint.
Separationmethods:FilterSolidfromliquidCentrifugeSolid
fromliquidEvaporationSolidfromitssolutionCrystallizationSolidfromits
solutionDistillationSolventfromasolutionFractionaldistillationLiquidfrom
eachotherChromatographyDifferentsubstancesfromasolutionSeparationmethods1.
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FilteringExample:Amixtureofchalkandwater...1.Afilterpaperisplacedinafunnel,thefunnel
placedonaflask.2.Themixtureispouredonthefilterpaper.Thechalk(theresidue)willremainin
thefilterpaperandthewater(thefiltrate)willfalldownintheflask.2.CentrifugingThismethodis
usedtoseparatesmallamountsofsolidandliquid.Insideacentrifuge(itsamachine),testtubesare
spunveryfastsothesolidgetsflungtothebottom.3.EvaporationThismethodisusedtoseparatea
solutioninwhichthesolidisdissolvedintheliquid.1.Thesolutionisheatedsothattheliquid
evaporatesandthesolidremainsinthebottomoftheevaporatingdish.
5.5.4.CrystallizationThismethodissimilartoevaporationbutherethesolidformscrystalsthenthe
crystalsarelefttodry.Separatingamixtureoftwosolids1.Thiscanbedonebydissolvingoneinan
appropriatesolvent.2.Thenfilteringoneandextractingtheotherfromthesolutionbyevaporation.5.
Simpledistillation1.Theimpureliquidisheated.2.Itboils,andsteamrisesintothecondenser.3.The
impuritiesareleftbehind.4.Thecondenseriscoldsothesteamcondensestothepureliquidandit
dropsoutonthebeaker.6.Fractionaldistillation1.Themixtureisheated.2.Thewantedsubstance
boilsandevaporates(someoftheunwantedliquidwillevaporatetoo)andrisesupthecolumn.3.The
substancewillcondenseonthebeadsinthecolumncausingthemtoheat.4.Whenthebeadsreacha
certaintemperaturewhenthewantedliquidwontcondenseanymore(Thatstheboilingpoint)itwill
risewhiletheunwantedliquidwillcondenseanddrop.Thewantedliquidwillmakeitswaythrough
thecondenserwhereitwillcondenseanddropdowninthebeaker.
6.6.7.ChromatographyThismethodisusedtoseparateamixtureofsubstances.Forexampleyoucan
useittofindhowmanycolouredsubstancesthereareinblackink.Steps:1.Droptheblackinkonto
thecenterofafilterpaperandallowittodry.2.Dropwaterontotheinkspot,onedropatatime.3.
Supposetherearethreerings:yellow,redandblue.Thisshowstheinkcontains3colouredsubstances.
Thesubstancestravelacrossthepaperatdifferentrates.Thatswhytheyseparateintorings.Thefilter
papershowingtheseparatesubstancesiscalledachromatogram.Thismethodworksbecausedifferent
substancestravelatdifferentspeedsbecausetheyhavedifferentlevelsofattractiontoit.Usesof
chromatography:SeparatemixturesofsubstancesPurifyasubstancebyseparatingtheimpurities
fromitIdentifyasubstance
7.7.Unit2:TheAtomAtomsarethesmallestparticles.Eachatomconsistsofanucleusandacloudof
particlescalledelectronsthatwhizzaroundthenucleus.Anelementisasubstancethatcontainsonly
onekindofatom.Theperiodictableisthemap/addressbookforelementswhereeachelementis
givenasymbol(E.g.Kforpotassium).Thegroupofelementsthathavesimilarpropertiesareputina
numberedcolumn.Forexample,ifyouknowhowoneelementingroup1behaves,youcaneasily
guesshowtheothersinthesamegroupwillbehave.Therowsarecalledperiods.Thezigzagline
separatesmetalsfromnonmetals,withthenonmetalsontheright.Somostelementsaremetals.A
compoundcontainsatomsofdifferentelementsjoinedtogetherwheretheatomsarechemically
combined.Forexamplecarbondioxideisacompoundofcarbonandoxygen(1carbonand2oxygen
molecules).Thesymbolforcompoundismadefromthesymbolsoftheelementsinit.Sotheformula
forcarbondioxideisCO2.IsotopesandRadioactivityYoucanidentifyanatombythenumberof
protonsinit.Forexample,onlysodiumatomshave11protons.Isotopesareatomsofthesame
element,withdifferentnumbersofneutrons.Someisotopesareradioactive.Thatmeansitsnucleusis
unstable,soonerorlatertheatomsbreaksdownordecays,givingoutradiationintheformofraysand
tinyparticles,aswellaslargeamountofenergy.Likecarbon14,anumberofotherelementshave
radioisotopesthatoccurnaturallyandeventuallydecays.Buttheothertwoisotopesofcarbon(like
mostnaturalisotopes)arenonradioactive.Youcanknowwhenradioisotopesdecaybylookingat
therehalflifeRadiationaffectshumansasitmaycausesthemradiationsicknessbutradiationalsohas
someuses..
8.8.Usesofradiation:1.CheckforleaksinpipesThisisdonebyaddingaradioisotopetotheoilorgas.
Ataleak,theradiationisdetectedusinganinstrument.Radioisotopesusedinthiswayarecalled
tracers.(industry)2.incancertreatmentRadioisotopescancausecancerbutyetalsocancureit.Using
radiotherapytheradioisotopewilldecayandgiveoutraysthatcankillcancercells.Theserayswillbe
aimedexactlyatthecancercells.(Medical)3.TofindtheageofoldremainsAtinypercentageofa
livingthingcontainscarbon14atoms.Whenlivingthingdiesitnolongertakesinnewcarbonatoms.
Butexistingcarbon14atomdecayovertimewecanmeasurethefaintradiationfromthem.How
electronsarearrangedTheelectronsinanatomcirclefastaroundthenucleus,atdifferentlevelsfrom
it.Theseenergylevelsarecallerelectronshells.Thefurthertheshellisfromthenucleus,thehigher
theenergylevel.Eachshellcanholdalimitednumberofelectrons.Firstshellcanholdupto2
electronsSecondshellcanholdupto8electronsThethirdshellcanalsoholdupto8electrons
Electronicconfigurationmeansthearrangementofelectronsinanatom.Example:Argonhasthe
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electronicconfiguration:2,8,8Magnesiumhastheelectronicconfiguration:2,8,2Importantpoints:
Theshellsfillinorder,fromlowestenergyleveltohighestenergylevelAlltheelementsinagroup
havethesamenumberofelectronsintheiroutershells.ThesearecalledValencyelectrons.The
groupnumberisthesamenumberofoutershellelectronsTheperiodnumbershowshowmanyshells
thereare.Ifanelementpossesafulloutershell,theelementbecomeunreactive
9.9.Unit3:AtomscombiningMostelementsformcompoundsbecausetheywantafulloutershelland
toachievethattheymustreactwithotheratoms.Forexample,sodiumhasjustoneelectroninitsouter
shell.Itcanobtainafulloutershellbylosingthiselectrontoantheratomsandbythatitbecomesa
sodiumion.Nowbecausesodiumlostaelectron...itnowhas10electronsbut11protons...soithasa1
positivecharge.Anionisachargedparticle.Itischargedbecauseithasanunequalnumberofprotons
andelectrons.TheionicbondExample:Sodiumandchlorinereacttogethersodiumgivesitselectron
tochlorine.Nowbothelementshaveafulloutershell,butwithacharge.Nowtheyareions.Sodium
nowhas10electronsbut11protonssoithasapositivecharge.Chlorinenowhas18electronsbut17
protonssoithasanegativecharge.Thetwoionshaveoppositecharges,sotheyattracteachother.The
forceofattractionbetweenthemisstrong.Itiscalledanionicbond.Whensodiumreactswith
chlorine,billionsandbillionsofsodiumandchlorineionsformandtheyattracteachother.Butthe
ionsdontstayinpairs.Theyclustertogethersothateachionissurroundedby6ionsofopposite
charges.Thepatterngrowsuntilagiantstructureofionsisformed.Theoverallchargeofthestructure
is0since1positivechargeand1negativechargeneutralizeeachother.Theionicbondingisonly
betweenmetalsandnonmetals.Importantnotes:HydrogenandthemetalsformpositiveionsNon
metalsformnegativeions,andtheirnamesendinGroup4and5donotusuallyformionsbecause
theywouldhavetoloseorgainseveralelectronsandthattakestoomuchenergyideGroup0
elementsdonotformionstheyalreadyhavefulloutershellsSomeofthetransitionmetalsform
morethanoneion.Someionscanbeformedfromgroupsofjoinedatoms.Thesearecalled
compoundions.
10.10.Propertiesofioniccompound1.Ioniccompoundshavehighmeltingandboilingpoints.Thisis
becauseionicbondsareverystrong,soittakesalotofheatenergytobreakupthelattice.2.Ionic
compoundsareusuallysolubleinwater.Thewatermoleculescanattracttheionsawayfromthelattice.
Theionscanthenmovefreely,surroundedbywatermolecules.3.Ioniccompoundscanconduct
electricitywhentheyaremeltedordissolved.Whenmeltedthelatticebreaksupandtheionsarefree
tomove.Sincetheyarecharged,thismeanstheycanconductelectricity.Thesolutionsofionic
compoundsconductelectricitytoobecausetheyarealsofreetomove.ThecovalentbondGivingand
losinganelectronisnottheonlywaytogainfulloutershellssinceatomscanalsoshareelectrons.
Covalentbondingisfornonmetalsonlysinceonlynonmetalsneedtogainelectrons.Amoleculeisa
groupofatomsheldtogetherbycovalentbonds.Whenapairofelectronsisshared,itiscalledasingle
covalentbond,orjustsinglebond.When2pairsofelectronsareshared,itiscalledadoublecovalent
bond,orjustdoublebond.When3pairsofelectronsareshared,itiscalledatriplecovalentbond,or
justtriplebond.CovalentcompoundsAcovalentcompoundiswhenatomsofdifferentelementsshare
electronswitheachother.Themoleculesinacovalentcompoundisntflatbecauseeachelectronrepel
eachotherandtrytogetasfarapartfromeachother.
11.11.MolecularsubstancesMostmolecularsubstancesaregasesorliquidsatroomtemperature.
Molecularsolidsareheldinalatticebuttheforcesbetweenthemoleculesareweak.Allmolecular
solidshavesimilarstructure.Themoleculesareheldinregularpatterninalattice.Sothesolidsare
crystalline.Whenyoucooldownamolecularliquidorgasthemoleculesloseenergysotheystart
movingslowlyandatthefreezingpoint,theyformalattice(agoodexamplewouldbeice)Properties
ofcovalentbonding1.CovalentcompoundshavelowmeltingandboilingpointThisisbecausethe
forcesbetweenthemoleculesareweak.2.TheydonotconductelectricityThisisbecausemolecules
arenotcharged,sotheycannotconduct,evenwhenmeltedGiantcovalentstructuresAgiantcovalent
structure,ormacromoleculesaremadeofbillionsofatomsbondedtogetherinacovalentstructure.
DiamondagiantcovalentstructureDiamondismadeofcarbonatomsheldinastronglattice.Each
carbonatomformsacovalentbondtofourothers.Eventuallybillionsofcarbonatomsbondtogetherto
formacrystalofdiamond.Diamondproperties:1.Itisveryhardbecauseeachatomisheldbyfour
strongbonds.2.Ithasaveryhighmeltingpointbecauseofthestrongbonds.3.Itcantconduct
electricitybecausetherearenofreeelectronstocarrythecharge.Silicaissimilartodiamond.
12.12.GraphiteaverydifferentgiantstructureLikediamondgraphiteismadeonlyofcarbonatoms.So
diamondisandgraphiteareallotropesGraphite,unlikediamond,isoneofthesoftestsolidsonearth.
ofcarbon(meanstheyaretwoformsofthesameelement)Ingraphite,eachcarbonatomformsa
covalentbondtothreeothers.Thisgivesringsofsixatoms.Graphiteproperties:1.Issoftandslippery
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becausethesheetscanslideovereachother2.Isagoodconductorofelectricitybecauseeachcarbon
atomhasfourouterelectronandgraphitebonds3onlysothefourthelectronisfreetomovecarryinga
charge.SubstancePropertiesUsesDiamondHardestknownsubstanceanddoesnotconductSparkles
whencutIntoolsfordrillingandcuttingForjewellerySilicaHard,canscratchthingsHard,letslight
throughHighmeltingpointInsandpaperFormakingglassandlensesInbricksforliningfurnaces
GraphiteSoftandslipperySoftanddarkincolorConductelectricityAsalubricantforenginesFor
pencillead(mixedwithclay)Forelectrodes,andconnectingbrushesingenerators.
13.13.PropertiesofDiamond:HardsubstanceHighMP/BPCantconductelectricityPropertiesof
Graphite:SoftandslipperyGoodConductorPropertiesofSilica:HighBP/MPHardComparing
BondsDifferencesinSTRUCTURECovalentIonicMolecularionicShareselectronsExchange
electronsSimplemoleculesGiantlatticesNonmetalonlyMetalsandnonmetalsDifferencesin
PROPERTIESDissolvesinorganicliquid(notwater)DissolvesinwaterLowBoilingandmelting
pointHighboilingandmeltingpointDoesnoconductelectricityConductselectricity
14.14.MetallicbondingMetalsformgiantstructuresinwhichelectronsintheoutershellsofthemetal
atomsarefreetomove.Themetallicbondistheforceofattractionbetweenthesefreeelectronsand
metalions.Metallicbondsarestrong,sometalscanmaintainaregularstructureandusuallyhavehigh
meltingandboilingpoints.Propertiesofmetals:1.Thisisbecauseittakesalotofheatenergytobreak
upthelattice.Metalshavehighmeltingpoints2.Metalsaremalleableandductile.Malleable:They
canbebentandpressedintoshapes.DuctileThisisbecausethelayerscanslidewithoutthemetallic
bondbreaking,becausetheelectronsarefreetomovetoo.:Theycanbedrawnoutintowires.3.
Thatsbecausethefreeelectronstakeinheatenergy,whichmakesthemmovefasterandtheyquickly
transfertheheatthroughthemetalstructure.Metalsaregoodconductorsofheat4.Thisisbecausethe
freeelectronscanmovethroughthelatticecarryingthecharge.Metalsaregoodconductorsof
electricity
15.15.Unit4:ThePeriodicTableTheperiodictableisalistofalltheelements,inorderofincreasing
atomicnumberThecolumnsarecalled.groupsTherowsarecalled.periods.Thegroupnumbertells
youhowmanyelectronsthereareintheoutershelloftheatoms.GroupsTheoutershellelectronsare
alsocalledvalencyelectronsAllelementsinagrouphavesimilarproperties.andtheirnumbershows
howtheelementsbehave.Group0elementshaveafulloutershell.Thismakesthemunreactive.
Someofthegroupshavespecialnames:Group1ThealkalimetalsGroup2Thealkalineearth
metalsGroup7ThehalogensGroup0ThenoblegasesTheperiodnumbergivesinformationabout
thenumberofelectronshellsthatareavailableinthatperiod.PeriodsHydrogensitsaloneinthetable
becauseitstheonlyelementwithoneelectronshell.Hydrogen
16.16.Theelementsineachnumberedgroupshowstrendsintheirproperties.Forexampleasyougo
downgroup1,theelementsbecomemorereactiveorasyougodowngroup7theelementsbecome
lessreactiveandsoon.TrendsintheperiodictableGroup1:ThealkalimetalsTheirphysical
properties:1.Likeallmetals,theyaregoodconductorsofheatandelectricity.2.Theyaresofterthan
mostothermetalsandtheyhavelowdensity.3.Theyhavelowmeltingandboilingpoints,compared
tomostmetals.Theirchemicalproperties:1.Allalkalimetalsreactvigorouslywithwater,releasing
hydrogengasandforminghydroxides.Thehydroxidesgivealkalinesolutions.2.Theyreactwithnon
metals.Withchlorinetheyreacttomakechloridesandwithoxygentheymakeoxides.Theyformionic
compoundsinwhichthemetalionhasachargeof1+.Thecompoundsarewhitesolids,whichdissolve
inwatertogiveacolorlesssolution.ThetrendinphysicalpropertiesLithiumSodiumPotassium
RubidiumCaesiumWhytheyhavesimilarproperties?Becauseatomswiththesamenumberof
valencyelectronsreactinasimilarway.SoftnessIncreasesDensityIncreasesMeltingpointsdecrease
Boilingpointsdecreases
17.17.Asyougodownthegroupreactivityincrease.Why?Becausetheatomsgetlargerdownthegroup
becausetheyaddelectronshells.Group7:ThehalogensAnonmetalgroup.Formcoloredgases.
ArepoisonousArebrittleandcrumblyintheirsolidform,anddonotconductelectricity.Form
diatomicmolecules(meanstheyexistas2atoms)TrendsintheirphysicalpropertiesFluorineChlorine
BromineiodineTrendsintheirchemicalpropertiesReactivityincreasesasyougoupgroup7.Why?
Becausethesmallertheatom,theeasieritistoattracttheelectronsothemorereactivetheelement
willbe.Whyaretheysoreactive?Becausetheiratomsareonlyoneelectronshortofafullshell.Size
andmassofatomincreasesDensityincreasesMeltingandboilingpointsincrease
18.18.Group0:ThenoblegasesAnonmetalgroupContainscolorlessgases,whichoccurnaturallyin
airMonatomictheyexistassingleatomsUnreactivebecausetheyhaveafulloutershell.Trends
intheirphysicalpropertiesHeliumNeonArgonKryptonXenonUsesofnoblegasesNoblegasesare
unreactive,makingthemsafetouse.Theyalsoglowwhencurrentispassedthroughthematlow
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pressure.GasUseHeliumUsedtofillballoonsandairships,becauseitismuchlighterthanairand
willnotcatchfireNeonUsedinadvertisingsigns.Itglowsred,butthecolorcanbechangedby
mixingitwithothergases.ArgonUsedasafillerinordinarytungstenlightbulbs.(oxygenwould
makethetungstenfilamentburnaway)Usedtoprotectmetalsthatarebeingwelded.Itwontreact
withthehotmetals(unlikeoxygen)KryptonUsedinlasers.Forexampleforeyesurgeryandincar
headlampsXenonUsedinlighthouselamps,lightsforhospitalsoperatingtheatres,andcar
headlamps.SizeandmassofatomincreasesDensityofgasincreasesboilingpointsincrease
19.19.ThetransitionelementsThetransitionelementsaretheblockof30elementsinthemiddleofthe
periodictable.Theyareallmetals.TheirphysicalpropertiesHard,toughandstrongHighmelting
points(mercuryisanexception)MalleableandductileGoodconductorsofheatandelectricity
HighdensityTheirchemicalproperties1.Theyaremuchlessreactivethanthemetalsofgroup1.2.
Theyshownocleartrendinreactivity,unlikethemetalsofgroup1.3.Mosttransitionmetalsform
coloredcompounds4.Mostcanformionswithdifferentcharges(theyhavevariablevalency)5.They
canformmorethanonecompoundwithanotherelement6.Mosttransitionmetalscanformcomplex
ionsUsesoftransitionmetalsThehardstrongtransitionmetalsareusedinstructuresuchasbridges,
buildings,carsetc.Manytransitionmetalsareusedinmakingalloys.Transitionmetalsareusedas
conductorsofheatandelectricity.Manytransitionmetalsandtheircompoundsactascatalysts
20.20.Unit6:ChemicalequationsPhysicalandchemicalchangeAsubstancecanbechangedbyheating
it,addingwatertoit,mixinganothersubstancewithit,andsoon.Thechangethattakesplacewillbe
eitherchemicalchangeoraphysicalChemicalchangechange.Inachemicalchange,anewchemical
substanceisproduced.ThedifferencebetweenamixtureandacompoundMixture:2substancesare
mixedtogetherbutnotchemicallybonded.Compound:2substancesarechemicallybondedtogether
ThesignsofachemicalchangeAchemicalchangeisusuallycalledachemicalreaction.Youcantell
whenachemicalreactionhastakenplacebythesesigns:1.Onceormorenewchemicalsubstancesare
formedThenewsubstanceusuallylooksdifferentfromthestartingsubstances.2.Energyistakeninor
givenoutduringthereaction.AchangethatgivesoutheatenergyiscalledAchangethattakesinheat
energyiscalledexothermic3.Thechangeisusuallydifficulttoreverse.endothermicThismeansit
willbehardtogetbacktherawmaterialsofthereaction.PhysicalchangeIfnonewchemical
substanceisformed,achangeisaphysicalchange.EquationsforchemicalreactionsThereaction
betweencarbonandoxygen.Whentheyreacttogether,theyformcarbondioxide.Carbonandoxygen
arethereactants.Carbondioxideistheproductofthereaction.
21.21.+ Orinashorterway,usingsymbolsandnumberslikethis:C+O COThisshortwayto
describethereactioniscalledachemicalequation.Thereactionbetweenhydrogenandoxygen:And
theequationis:2H+O 2HOOntheleftsameasontheright,so:AddingstatesymbolsYoucan
showthestateofthereactantsandproductsbyaddingstatesymbolstotheequation:Addingstate
symbols(s)forsolid(l)forliquid(g)forgas(aq)foraqueoussolution(solutioninwater)OC
OOOC1atomofcarbon1moleculeofoxygen1moleculeofcarbondioxideHHHHOOHHOH
HO+ 2moleculesofhydrogen1moleculesofoxygen2moleculesofwaterOntheleft:4hydrogen
atoms2OxygenatomsOntheright:4hydrogenatoms2Oxygenatoms
22.22.Unit8:AcidsandalkalisYoucantellifsomethingisacid,byitseffectonAcidslitmusLitmusisa
purpledye.Itcanbeusedasasolution,oronpaper..AcidsturnlitmusredYoucantellifsomethingis
alkali,byitseffectonAlkalislitmus.AlkaliturnlitmusblueLitmusiscalledanIndicatorsindicator,
becauseitindicateswhethersomethingisanacidoranalkali.Manysubstancesarenotacidsoralkalis.
TheyareNeutralsubstancesneutral.Exampleispurewater.Youcansayhowacidicoralkalinea
solutionisusingascaleofnumberscalledThepHscalepHscale.Thenumbersgofrom0to14:On
thisscale:AnacidicsolutionhasapHnumberlessthan7AnalkalinesolutionhasapHnumber
greaterthan7AneutralsolutionhasapHnumberofexactly7Acidicsolutionscontainhydrogenions,
thiswhatmakesthemacidicAcidsproducehydrogenions
23.23.ThedifferencebetweenstrongandweakacidsInsolutionofstrongacids,allmoleculesbecome
ions.Insolutionofweakacids,onlysomedo.Thehighertheconcentrationofhydrogenions,the
lowerthepH,thestrongertheacid.Alkalinesolutionscontainhydroxideions,thisiswhatmakesthem
alkaline.AlkalisproducehydroxideionsInsolutionofstrongalkali,itcontainsmorehydroxideions.
ThedifferencebetweenastrongalkaliandweakalkaliInsolutionofweakalkali,itcontainsless
hydroxideions.Thehighertheconcentrationofhydroxideions,thehigherthepH.Totellifthe
solutionisaweakorstrongacid.Youcanalsomeasurethereconductivity.Astrongacidwillshow
highconductivityandlowpH.Aweakaciddoesnotconductwell,andhasahigherpH.Foralkalis,a
strongalkaliwillshowhighconductivityandhighpH.Aweakacidwillshowlowconductivityand
lowpH.ReactionofacidswithmetalsWhenanacidreactswithametal,hydrogenisdisplaced,
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leavingasaltinsolution.Itsaredoxreaction.ReactionofacidswithbasesBases1.Withalkalisarea
groupofcompoundthatreactswithacids,andneutralizethem,givingasaltandwater.Basesinclude
alkalis,andinsolublemetaloxides,hydroxidesandcarbonates.Acid+alkali salt+water2.With
metaloxidesAcid+metaloxide salt+water3.WithcarbonatesAcid+metalcarbonate salt+
water+carbondioxide
24.24.1.Neutralizingacids,givingsaltandwater.Withcarbonatescarbondioxideisproducetoo.
Reactionsofbases2.Allthealkalis(exceptammonia)willreactwithammoniumcompounds,giving
ammoniaout.Anionicequationshowsonlytheionsthatactuallytakepartinareaction.Itleavesout
therest.Theionicequation1.Firstwritedownalltheionspresentintheequation2.Nowcrossout
anyionsthatappear,unchanged,onbothsidesoftheequation3.Whatsleftistheionicequationfor
thereactionAcidsdonateitsprotonstobasesandbasesacceptthem.ProtondonorsandacceptorsFor
example:Magnesiumoxideisainsolublebase.TheaciddonatesitsH+protonsandtheoxygenfrom
magnesiumoxidereactwithittomakewatermolecules.MostcropsgrowbestwhenthepHofthesoil
isnear7.Ifsoilistooacidicortooalkaline,cropsgrowbadlyornotatall.AcidityinsoilUsually
acidityistheproblem.Why?Becauseofalotofvegetationrottinginitorbecausetoomuchfertilizer
wasusedinthepast.Toreducetheacidity,thesoilistreatedwithabaselikelimestoneorquicklimeor
slakedlime.Acidrainiscausedbyfactories,powerstations,homeswhoburnfossilfuelstomake
electricity.Thewastegasesfromallthesereactionsincludesulphurdioxide,andoxidesofnitrogen.
Theygointotheairandreactwithairandwatertoproducesulphuricacidandnitricacidwhichare
strongacids.Acidrain
25.25.MakingsaltsYoucanmakesaltsbyreactingmetals,insolublebases,orsolublebaseswithacids.
Withmetals:Example:1.AddthezinctothesulphuricacidinabeakerItwillstarttodissolveand
hydrogenbubblesaregivenoff.Stopswhenalltheacidisusedup.2.Excesszincisremovedby
filtering.Thisleavesaaqueoussolutionofzincsulphate.3.Thesolutionisheatedtoevaporatesome
water.Thenitislefttocoolandcrystalsofzincsulphatestarttoform.Withinsolublebase:Itsthe
samemethodastheoneabovebut,themetalwontreactwiththeacid.Soyoumuststartwithametal
oxide.Withanalkali(solublebase):1.Putthealkaliintoaflaskandaddsomedropsofindicator2.
Addtheacidfromaburette,justalittleatatime.Swirltheflasktohelptheacidandalkalimix.3.
Whentheindicatorturnsgreenstopaddingacid.4.Calculatehowmuchacidwasused.5.Carryout
theexperimentagainwithouttheindicatorandaddsameamountofacidthatwasusedbefore.Thisis
becausetheindicatorwillmakethesaltimpure.6.Heatthesolutionfromtheflaskandcrystalswill
starttoform.
26.26.MakinginsolublesaltsbyprecipitationNotallsaltsaresoluble.Insolublesaltscanbemadeby
PreparingbariumsulphateprecipitationBariumsulphateisainsolublesalt.Youcanmakeitbymixing
solutionsofbariumchlorideandmagnesiumsulphate.1.Makeupsolutionsofbariumchlorideand
magnesiumsulphate.2.Mixthem.Awhiteprecipitateofbariumsulphateformsatonce.3.Filterthe
mixture.Theprecipitateistrappedinthefilterpaper.4.Rinsetheprecipitatebyrunningdistilledwater
throughit.5.ThenplaceitinawarmoventodryToprecipitateaninsolublesalt,youmustmixa
solutionthatcontainsitspositiveionswithonethatcontainsitsnegativeions.SolubleInsolubleAll
sodium,potassium,andammoniumsaltsAllnitratesChloridesExceptsilverandleadchloride
SluphatesExceptcalcium,bariumandleadsulphateSodium,potassium,andammonium
carbonatesButallothercarbonatesareinsoluble.
27.27.Unit10:Howfastreactionsare?SomereactionareRatesofreactionfastandsomeareslow.Rate
isameasureofhowfastorslowsomethingis.Whatisrate?Rateisameasureofthechangethat
happensinasingleunitoftime.Tofindrateofareaction,youshouldmeasure:Theamountofa
reactantusedupperunitoftimeOrTheamountofaproductproducedperunitoftimeWhenyou
reactmagnesiumandhydrochloricacid,itproduceshydrogengas.Tomeasuretherateofthisreaction
thismethodissetup:AreactionthatproducesagasUsingthisyoucanmeasuretheamountof
hydrogenproducedinaperiodoftime.Stopclock
28.28.CollisionsForachemicalreactiontooccur,thereactantparticlesmustcollide.Butcollisionswith
toolittleenergydonotproduceareaction.Theparticlesmusthaveenoughenergyforthecollisionto
besuccessfulinproducingareaction.Therateofreactiondependsontherateofsuccessfulcollisions
betweenreactantparticles.Themoresuccessfulcollisionsthereare,thefastertherateofreaction.
ChangingthetemperatureIfthetemperatureisincreased:thereactantparticlesmovemorequickly
theyhavemoreenergytheparticlescollidemoreoften,andmoreofthecollisionsresultinareaction
therateofreactionincreasesChangingtheconcentrationorpressureIftheconcentrationofa
dissolvedreactantisincreased,orthepressureofareactinggasisincreased:thereactantparticles
becomemorecrowdedthereisagreaterchanceoftheparticlescollidingtherateofreaction
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increasesChangingthesurfaceareaIfasolidreactantisbrokenintosmallpiecesorgroundintoa
powder:itssurfaceareaincreasesmoreparticlesareexposedtotheotherreactanttherearemore
collisionstherateofreactionincreasesTheeffectoflightSomechemicalreactionsobtaintheenergy
fromlight.Theyarecalledphotochemicalreactions.Forexample:1.Silverbromideispaleyellow,but
darkensonexposuretolightbecausethelightcausesittodecomposetosilver:Light
29.29.2AgBr 2Ag+Br2.Plantsusecarbondioxidefromtheairtomakesugarcalledglucose,ina
reactioncalledphotosynthesis.Thisusestheenergyinsunlight.Thegreensubstancechlorophyllin
leavesspeedsupthereaction:6CO+6HO C6H12O6+6OCarbondioxide+water glucose+
oxygenInboththesereaction,thestrongerthelight,themoreenergyitprovidessothefasterthe
reactiongoes.EffectofcatalystsAcatalystisasubstancethatcanincreasetherateofareaction.The
catalystitselfremainsunchangedattheendofthereactionitcatalyses.Onlyaverysmallamountof
catalystisneededtoincreasetherateofreactionbetweenlargeamountsofreactants.Acatalystworks
byloweringtheactivationenergyforthereaction.Enzymes:biologicalcatalystsEnzymesareproteins
thatactascatalysts.Sotheyareoftencalledbiologicalcatalysts.HowenzymesworkFirsttheenzyme
andthereactantmoleculefittogetherlikejigsawpieces.Thereactantmoleculehastobetheright
shape.Theenzymebreaksdownthemoleculetosmallerpiecesandsoon.Importantnotes:An
enzymeworksbestinconditionsthatmatchthoseinthelivingcellsitcamefrom.Thismeansmost
enzymesworkbestinthetemperaturerange2545CIfthetemperatureistoohigh,anenzymeloses
itsshapeanditbecomesdenatured.AnenzymealsoworksbestinaparticularpHrange.Usesof
enzymes1.Inmakingethanol2.Inmakingbread3.InbiologicaldetergentsLightchlorophyll
30.30.Unit12:ThebehaviorofmetalsMostelementsaremetals.Propertiesofmetals:1.Theyarestrong.
2.Theyaremalleable3.Theyareductile4.Theyaresonorous(Theymakearingingnoisewhenyou
strikethem)5.Theyareshinywhenpolished6.Theyaregoodconductorsofelectricityandheat7.
Theyhavehighmeltingandboilingpoints(theyareallsolidatroomtemperature,exceptmercury)8.
Theyhavehighdensity(theyareheavy)9.Theyreactwithoxygentoformoxides10.Whenthey
react,metalsformpositiveions.Thelasttwopropertiesarechemicalproperties,theothersarephysical
properties.MetalsreactivityAreactiveelementhasastrongdrivetobecomeacompound.Soitreacts
readilywithotherelementsandcompounds.Ifametalismorereactivethananothermetal,thenit
displacesitandtakesitplace.Forexample:Whenametalisheatedwithaoxideofalessreactive
metal,itactsasareducingagent.Thereactionalwaysgivesoutheatitisexothermic.(reducing
agent:asubstancewhichbringsaboutthereductionofanothersubstance.)Ametalwillalways
displacealessreactivemetalfromsolutionsofitscompounds.
31.31.ThereactivityseriesPotassium,KSodium,NaCalcium,CaMagnesium,MgAluminum,Al
CarbonZinc,ZnIron,FeLead,PbHydrogenCopper,CuSilver,AgGold,AuThingstoremember
aboutthereactivityseriesThereactivityseriesisalistofmetalsinorderoftheirdrivetoform
positiveions.Themorereactivethemetal,themoreeasilyitgivesupelectronstoformpositiveions.
Ametalwillreactwithacompoundofalessreactivemetal(forexampleanoxide)bypushingtheless
reactivemetaloutofthecompoundandtakingitsplace,asions.Themorereactivethemetal,the
morestableitscompoundsare.Themorereactivethemetal,themoredifficultitistoextractitfrom
ores.Thelessreactivethemetal,thelessitlikestoformcompound.IncreasingReactivityMost
reactiveLeastReactiveMetalsabovetheredline:Theydisplacehydrogenfromacids,andhydrogen
cantreducetheiroxides.Metalsabovetheblueline:Carboncantreducetheiroxides.
32.32.ThestabilityofsomemetalcompoundsManycompoundsbreakdowneasilyonheating.Inother
words,theyundergothermaldecomposition.(Thermaldecompositionisthebreakdownofacompound
byheatingit)1.CarbonatesMostdecomposetooxideandcarbondioxide,onheating.Butthe
carbonatesofpotassiumandsodiumdonotdecompose.Strongheatingisneededtobreakdown
calciumcarbonateandthereactionisreversible.Thefurtherdowntheseries,themoreeasilythe
othercarbonatesbreakdown.ForexampleCopper(II)carbonatebreaksdownveryeasily,likethis:
CuCO(s) CuO(s)+CO(g)2.HydroxidesMostdecomposetooxideandwateronheating,like
this:Zn(OH)(s) ZnO(s)+HO(l)Butthehydroxideofpotassiumandsodiumdonotdecompose.
Thefurtherdowntheseries,themoreeasilytheothersbreakdown.3.NitratesAlldecomposeon
heatingbutnotallthesameproducts.Potassiumandsodiumnitratesbreakdowntonitrites,
releasingonlyoxygen,likethis:2NaNO(s) 2NaNO(s)+O(g)Butthenitratesoftheother
metalsbreakdownfurthertooxides,releasingthebrowngasnitrogendioxideaswellasoxygen:
2Pb(NO) 2bO(s)+4NO(g)+O(g)Thefurtherdowntheseries,themoreeasilytheybreak
down
33.33.UsesofreactivityseriesThethermiteprocessThesacrificialprotectionofironGalvanizing
Makingcells(batteries)
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34.34.Unit13:MakinguseofmetalsMetalOresSodium=rocksaltAluminum=bauxiteIron=hematite
ExtractionMethodofextractionPotassium,KSodium,NaCalcium,CaMagnesium,MgAluminum,
AlCarbonZinc,ZnIron,FeLead,PbHydrogenCopper,CuSilver,AgGold,AuLeastReactive
IncreasingReactivityMostreactiveOresmoredifficulttodecomposeMethodofextractionmore
difficultMethodofextractionmoreexpensiveElectrolysisHeatingwithareducingagent(carbonor
carbonmonoxideOccurnaturallyaselements.Sonochemicalreactionisneeded.Onlyseparation
fromimpurities
35.35.ExtractionofzincfromzincblendeZincblendeismainlyzincsulphide,ZnS.Firstitisroastedin
air,givingzincoxide:Zincsulphide+Oxygen Zincoxide+Sulphurdioxide2ZnS(s)3O2ZnO(s)
2SOThentheoxideisreducedinoneofthetwowaysbelow:1.Usingcarbonmonoxide.Thisis
carriedinafurnace:Zincoxide+Carbonmonoxide Zinc+CarbondioxideZnO(s)CO(g)Zn(s)
CO(g)Thefinalmixturecontainszincandaslagofimpurities.Thezincisseparatedfromitby
fractionaldistillation.(Itboilsat907C)2.UsingelectrolysisExtractionofironTheblastfurnace
36.36.ThereactionsintheblastfurnaceStage1:ThecokeburnsgivingoffheatTheblastofhotairstarts
thecokeburning.Itreactswiththeoxygenintheair,givingcarbondioxide:Carbon+Oxygen
CarbondioxideC(s)O(g)COExplanation:Itsacombustionreactionwhichmeansitsaredox
reaction.Thecarbonisoxidizedtocarbondioxide.Theblastofairprovidestheoxygenforthe
reaction.Thereactionisexothermicitgivesoffheat,whichhelpstoheatthefurnace.Stage2:
CarbonmonoxideismadeThecarbondioxidereactswithmorecoke,givingcarbonmonoxide:Carbon
+Carbondioxide CarbonmonoxideC(s)CO(g)2CO(g)Explanation:Inthisredoxreaction,the
carbondioxidelosesoxygen.Itisreduced.Thereactionisendothermicittakesinheatfromthe
furnace.Thisisgoodbecausestage3needsalowertemperature.Stage3:Theiron(III)oxideis
reducedThisiswheretheactualextractionoccurs.Carbonmonoxidereactswiththeironoregiving
liquidiron:Iron(III)oxide+Carbonmonoxide Iron+CarbondioxideFeO(s)3CO(g)2Fe(l)
3CO(g)Theirontricklestothebottomofthefurnace.Explanation:Inthisredoxreaction,carbon
monoxideactsasthereducingagent.Itreducestheiron(III)oxidetothemetal.Atthesametimethe
carbonmonoxideisoxidizedtocarbondioxide.
37.37.Whatisthelimestonefor?Thelimestonereactswiththesand(silica)intheore,toformcalcium
silicateorslag.Limestone+Silica Calciumsilicate+CarbondioxideCaCO(s)SiO(s)CaSiO(s)
CO(g)Theslagrunsdownthefurnaceandfloatsontheiron.Explanation:Thepurposeofthis
reactionistoremoveimpuritiesfromthemolteniron.Silicaisanacidicoxide.Itsreactionwith
limestoneisneutralization(becauselimestoneisabase),givingcalciumsilicate,asalt.Thewaste
gasesThesearecarbondioxideandnitrogen.Theycomeoutatthetopofthefurnace.Explanation:
Thecarbondioxideisfromthereductionreactioninstage3.Thenitrogenisfromtheairblast.Ithas
nottakenpartinthereactionssohasnotbeenchanged.Themoltenironistappedfromthebottom.Itis
impurewithcarbonasthemainimpurity.Someisrunintomouldstogivecastiron.Thisishardbut
brittle.Butmostoftheironisturnedintosteel.
38.38.Usesofsomemetals
39.39.SteelandotheralloysAnalloyisamixtureofmetalsthatchangestherepropertiesorincrease
them.Turingametalintoanalloyincreasesitsrangeofuses.Pureironistoosoftandstretcheseasily
andrusts.Whencarbon(0.5%)ismixedwithit,theresultismildsteel.Thisishardandstrong.Uses
ofmildsteel(MUSTKNOW):buildings,ships,carbodiesandmachineryWhennickelandchromium
aremixedwithiron,theresultisstainlesssteel.Thisishardandrustproof.Usesofstainlesssteel
(MUSTKNOW):carparts,kitchensinksandcutlery.MakingsteelsThisishowsteelsaremade:1.
First,unwantedimpuritiesareremovedfromtheiron.Themoltenironfromtheblastfurnaceispoured
intoanoxygenfurnace.Calciumoxideisadded,andajetofoxygenisturnedon.Thecalciumoxide
neutralizesanyacidicimpurities,formingaslagthatisskimmedoff.Theoxygenreactswiththeothers
burningthemaway.2.ThenotherelementsmaybeaddedThisismeasuredoutcarefully,togivesteels
withtherequiredproperties.
40.40.CorrosionCorrosioniswhenametalisattackedbyair,water,orothersubstancesinits
surroundings,themetalissaidtocorrode.Themorereactiveametalis,themorereadilyitcorrodes.
Whatdoesrustinginvolve?Rustingneedsbothairandwater,asthesetestsshow
41.41.Howtopreventrusting1.Coatthemetalwithsomethingtokeepoutairandmoisture.Youcould
use:PaintGreasePlasticsAnothermetal.Forexample:Zinc:bydippingironintomoltenzinc.
Thisiscalledgalvanizing.Tin:depositedonthesteelbyelectrolysis,inaprocesscalledtinplating.
Chromium:coatingwithchromium.Thechromiumisdepositedbyelectrolysis.2.Usesacrificial
protectionThisiswhenamorereactivemetalisattachedtothemetalanditcorrodesinsteadofthe
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steel.Thisiscalledsacrificialprotection.Doesaluminumcorrode?No,becauseacoatofaluminum
oxideformsonthealuminumwhichactsasasealpreventingcorrosion.
42.42.Unit14:AirandwaterAirisamixtureofgases.Thesecanbeseparatedbyfractiondistillation.
Thisworksbecausethegasesinairhavedifferentboilingpoints.Usesofoxygen1.InhospitalsPeople
withbreathingproblemsaregivenoxygenthroughoxygentankscoveringthenoseandmouth,they
alsouseoxygentents.2.WeldingmetalsAmixtureofoxygenandethanolisusedinoxyacetylenes
torchesforthatareusedinweldingmetals.
43.43.AirpollutantsWaystoreducepollutionUselessfossilfuelsSwitchtocleansourcesofpower
TrytofindwaystostoreCOandnotletitescapetotheatmosphere
44.44.CatalyticconvertersAexhaustpipeisapipewherewastegasesaredisposedoff.Init,harmful
gasesarepresent:WaterUsesofwater:Athomefordrinking,cooking,washingthingsandflushing
toiletwasteaway.Onfarmsitisneededasadrinkforanimals,andtowatercrops.Inindustry,they
useitasasolvent,andtowashthings,andtokeephotreactiontankscool.Powerstationsuseitto
makesteam.Thesteamthendrivestheturbinesthatgenerateelectricity.
45.45.PurifyingwaterChemicaltestsforwater1.Itturnswhiteanhydrouscopper(II)sulphateblue.2.It
turnsbluecobaltchloridepaperpink.
46.46.Unit17:OrganicchemistryOrganicchemistryisabranchofchemistryconnectedwithcompounds
ofhydrogenandcarbon(hydrocarbons).HydrocarbonsItisaclasscontainingonlyhydrogenand
carbonbondedtogethercovalently.Theycanformverylongchains,andcanformchainslinkedbyone
doublebondortriplebond.HydrocarbonsaredevidedintotwogroupsAlkanesCC&AlkenesC=C
NamingoforganicsubstancesAlkanesGeneralmolecularformula=CnH2n+2Thealkanesarea
homologusserieswhichmeansthatallofthecompoundhavethesamefunctionalgroupsame
generalformulasamechemicalpropertiesshowagradualchangeinchemicalpropertiesKhalid
mafeezeb1C>meth3C>prop5C>pent7C>hept2C>eth4C>but6C>hex8C>hex
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ChemistryRevisionNotesIGCSE

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