Third Revised Edition : 2008 Electronics & Mictoprocessr ay A. D. PG ES ee =< Technical Publications Pune™Chapter-| Semiconductor and Reciifiers (1-4) to (1 - 122 Chapter-2 Bipolar Juncton Transistors 2-1) t0(2-50 Chapter-3_ Field Effect Transistors 3-1) to (3-32 Chapter-4__ SCR, DIAC, TRIAC, UJT & Switching Transistors (4-1) to (4-38) Chapter-5 Concept of Feedback 5 = 1) to (5-8) Chapter-6 Binary Number System 6 - 1) to (6 -66) Chapter? Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra T= 1) to (7 -42) Chapter-8 Combinational and Sequential Circuits (8- 1) to (8-56) Chapter-9 AlD and D/A Conversion 9 = 1) to (9 - 26) Chapter-10 _ 8085 Microprocessor (10 - 1) o (10 - 88) Chapter-11__ Interfacing & Applications of Microprocessor (14-1) to (14 -70) Solved Question Papers (P-1) to (P - 10) Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of Anna University [Applicable to the students admitted from the Academic year 2006 - 2007 onwards] | Semester-IV [Mechanical] Electronics & Microprocessors | © Strength of Materials = Probability and Statistics (4)Electronics and Microprocessors ISBN 978-81-8431-316-1 ‘Al rights reserved with Technical Publications. No pat ofthis book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any informetion storage and retrieval system without price permission in writing, from Techrical Publications, Pune Published by : #1, Amit Residency, 41, Shariwar Peth, Pure - 411030, Indi Printer ‘Alen DTPrnes Seno. 10/3,Sinhagad Road, Pe - 411 041Preface Thanks to the professors, students and authors of vorious technical books and articles for their overwhelming response to our books, published os per syllabi of the various technical universities. Looking ot the feedback and the response we received, we ore very pleased io release this book Electronics and Microprocessors which is useful to understand the fundamental concepts of semiconductors, transistors, rectifiers, digital electronics and 8085 microprocessor. The explanction of various complex electronic concepts ore explained in a plain, lucid and simple everyday language, which is the feature of the book Contents and Organisation The chapter 1 exploins the basic semiconductor theory covering the detail discussion of energy bands, classification of materials based on energy band theory, intrinsic semiconductors, extrinsic semiconductors, PN junction diode and zener diode ond their characteristics. It also explains halfwave, fullwave and bridge rectifiers and the concept of voltage regulation. The chapter 2 introduces the bipolar junction transistor. It explains transistor operation, input and output VI characteristics of BIT in CB, CE ond CC configurations. It elso explains biasing circuits and class A, B and C amplifiers. The chapter 3 is devoted to field effect transistors. It explains basic construction, the operation of JFET, characteristics and various parameters of JFET. It also introduces the amplifier configurations of JFET. The chapter 4 includes the discussion of various power devices such as SCR, DIAC, TRIAC ‘and UJT including their construction, porameters, operation, choracieristics ond applications The chapter 5 explains the concept of feedback and negative feedback applications in temperature and motor speed control. The chapter 6 is devoted to digital electronics. It discusses binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems, and how to convert from decimal fo binary, octal and hexadecimal and vice versa The chapter 7 introduces binary logic symbols and truth table for different gates, basic theorems and properties of Boolean algebra. The chapter 8 is devoted to combinctional and sequenticl circuits. It explains half adder, full adder, filp-flops, registers and counters. The chopter 9 exolains analog to digital ond digital to onclog conversion techniques.The chapter 10 is devoted to 8085 microprocessor. It begins with the explanation of the block diagram of microcomputer. It then explains architecture, pin configuration, instruction set, addressing modes ond simple programs using assembly language of 8085 The chapter 11 explains the basic concepts of interfacing memory and |/O devices. It also explains applications of microprocessor such as temperature control, steppe? motor control and traffic light control. Acknowledgement — We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book o reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by ‘our whole family, We are specially grateful to the great teacher Prof. A.V. Bakshi for his time to time, much needed, valuable guidance. Without the full support and cheerful encouragement of Mr. Uday Bakshi, the book would not have been completed in time Finally, we wish to thonk the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who hove taken immense pain to get the quality printing in time. Any suggestions for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and appreciated. Authors Aut Godse Deepali Godse Dedicated to Oux Davents jas OE RE ARE1.2.3 Ionization 41:4 1.3 The Energy-Band Theory ... 1.3.1 The eV, Unit of Energy 1.4 Classification of Materials Based on Energy Band Theory... 14.1 Conductors 1.4.2 Insulators 4-7 14.3 Semiconductors .......... eee 1-7 1.5.1. Crystal Structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor ................+ rs 4.5.2 Charge Carriers in Intrinsic Semiconductors .............0eese esse seen eee 1-10 45.3 Conduction by Electrons and Holes... 2. cess 3 Ltn 1.5.4 Conduction in nrinsic Semiconductors 2c scecscececesececeseeeesseeees 12 1.5.5 Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor.................. aac 1-13 41 ype of nip ES ecrsancrwerra neroeeresenemnnaeNnmniremstiey1.7 n-Type Semiconductor ... 1.7.1 Conduction in n-Type Semiconductor ...........ssssseereeeeeeseseeee 1.8 p-Type Semiconductor .. 1.8.1 Conduction in p-Type Semiconductor 1.9 Eneray Band Diagrams for Semiconductors .. 1.9.1 Energy Band Diagram for Intrinsic Semiconductor.............+ "1.92 Energy Band Diagram for Extrinsic Semiconductor 1.411 Effect of Light on Semiconductor ... aa anes miniciceht otk 1.12.4 Drift Currant 4.20 1.13 Mobility of Charged Particle .. 1.14 Current Density and Conductivity ... aD anil ; 1.16 Conductivity of a Semiconductor ... 4.47 Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor 1.47.1 Temperature Dependence of n, ando, 1.18 Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductor ..... 1.184 Conductivity ofn Type Materidl. ow 1.18.2 Conductivity of p Type Matarial. 2. ee 1.20 Equation of Charge Neutrality .. 1.24 Diffusion in Sem ti : fis 1.21.4 Diffusion Current Density. .. . ‘1.21.2 Total Current Density Due to Drift and Diffusion eects 1M Copyrighted material1.22 Einstein's Relationship .... 1.22.1 Voltage Equivalent of Temperature 1.23 Excess Carriers ost seessetseeessessntesssnnnns 1-44 125i"heonhinti ea 1.24 Potential Variation in a Continuously Graded Semiconductor ......... 1- 46 1.24.1 Expression for the Potential Difference... sess TdT 1.25 PN Junction. 1-49 1.25.1 Unbiased p-n Junction 2... ssuwuruaesseaunenee (0 41.25.1.1 Formation of Depletion Region : 4-50 41.25.1.2 Baier Potential or Junction Voltage Ee 1-82 1.25.2 The p-n Junction Diode... 2 eerie. vaca’ TSH 1.25.2.1Biasing of p-n Junction Diode 4-54 1.25.3 Forward Biasing of p-n Junction Diode . ee ee 1.25.3.1 Operation of Forward BiasedDiode. =... eae 1-55 1.25.3.2 Effect on the Depletion Region 1-56 1.25.3.3 Effect of the Barier Potential 1-56 1.25.4 Reverse Biasing of p-n Junction Diode wees x 1.25.4.1 Operation of Reverse Biased Diode = z wa 1-57 1.25.4.2 Breakdown in Reverse Biased 1-58 1.25.5 The Volt-Ampere (V-l) Characteristics of aDiode 0... 189 1.25.5.1 Forward Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode... 180 1.25.5.2 Reverse Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode... ‘ Bey ge . 1-61 1.25.5.3 Complete V-| Characteristics of a Diode. . oi Hes Be a 1-63 1.25.5.4 V-I Characteristics of Typical Ge end Si Diodes Seg er 1B, 1.25.6 Applications of Diode. . . 4-64 9:06 Zener Dinde vies ase eee | = BB 1.27.3 Comparison of Breakdown Mechanisms. ............. Ra1.27.4 Comparison of Zener Diode and p-n Junction Diode ......... duexousess aed $68 4.27.5 Application of Zener Diode. 1.28 Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers ...sstssietsstssssnsssnsssad = 70 1.28.1 Half Wave Rectifier 1-74 1.28.1.1 Operation ofthe Circuit... .. Bee ew ey 4-71 1.28.12 Average DC Load Current (Ibe)... ss = mes @ mies ow 1-73 1.28.1.3 Average DC Load Voltage (Enc). . . .. . . - - ewes ea ye 1-73 1.28.14 RMS. Value of Load Current (Ins)... . # ew se x oon TM 1.28.15 D.C. Power Output(Poo) =... a . 1-74 1.28.16 A.C. Power Input (Pac)... . . sees 41-75 1.28.17 Rectifier Eficiency(). . 1.1... see sirana eg, 4.28.1.8 Ripple Facior (y) ee ee 1-76 2519 load Curent oss os ete 2 Pe i ev ee 1-77 1.28.1.10 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)... ... +... 1... 1-77 1.28.1.11 Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F.).... .. . . . . 4 1-78 1.28.1.12 Voltage Regulation... . . . ce eye ee 1-79 1.28.1.13 Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier Circuit. 41-82 1.28.1.14 Effect of Barrier Potential. . . . 4-82 1.28.2 Full Wave Rectifier 1-85 1.28.2. Operation ofthe Cirult 4-85 1.28.23 Average DC Load Current pe). se es 1-88 1.28.24 Average DC Load Voltage (Eoo). . ss se eee 1-88 1.28.25 RMS Load Curent (las)... ss. 1-89 1.28.26 DC Power Output (Poo)... 1-89 1.28.27 AC Power nput (Pa). ie vee se ee ee 1-90 1.28.28 Rectifier Eficiency(n)....... . s sane as ea 1-90 1.28.29 Ripple Facor(y). eee 1-91 1.28.2.10 Load Current fi) oo 2 we 4-91 1.28.2.11 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)... ss. ee 1-92 1.28.2.42 Transformer Utilization Factor (LU.F.). 2... 1-931.28.2.13 Voltage Regulation... . . cee wi 1294 1.28.2.14 Comparison of Full Wave and Half Wave Circuit 1-95 203 Bie ROI oe cos en re ween rey cere eae ee 1-97 1.28.3.1 Operation of the Circuit Tor RRR 21-98 1.28,3.2 Expressions for Various Parameters... ss sss 1-99 1.28.3.3 Advantages of Bridge Rectifier rout. . 2... . 1-100 1.28.34 Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier 4-104 1.28.4 Comparison of Rectifier Circuits ..... 1.29 Voltage Regulation... 1.29.1 Factors affecting Load Voltage and hence the Regulation . . . 1-106 1.29.2 Types of Voltage Regulators... 21-106 1.29.2.1 Shunt Voltage Regulator... fu ere wee 2 4-107 1.29.2.2 Series Voltage Regulator... ree 4-107 1.29.2.3 Comparison of Shunt and Series Regulators... ss 4-108 1.29.2.4 Comparison of Rectifier and Regulator . . 4-109 1.29.3 Zener Diode as a Shunt Regulator . 1-110 1.29.3.1 Regulalion with Varying Input Vollage 2 3 J tit 1.29.3.2 Regulation with Varyingload. eos 1114 1.29.3.3 Design of Zener Regulator Under Both Conditions. view TOMS see Chapter-2 Bipolar Junction Transistors 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BUT) 4.2 Unbiased Transistor 2.2 Working of NPN and PNP Transistor. 22.1 Working of NPN Taneitlel 2-02 ce res rere ert 2-5 2.2.2 Working of PNP Transistor 2-6 2.2.3 Transistor Currents 27 COS2.3 BJT Configurations .. 2-9 2aif Conia BEE DOMIPGBIET le rune davies vanes sbieiel 2-9 Sacer ase : - 2.3.1.2 Experimental set-up for Plating CB Characteristis. 2.3.2 Common-Emitter Configuration... 2.4 Leakage Current... 2.5 Transistor Biasing 25.1 Need for Biasing . 7 25.2 The DC Load Line and Operating Point 25.3 Solection of Oporating Point. 25.4 Biasing Circuits... .. a sma we i fendi ig 2.5.4.3 Voltage Divider Bias ot Emitter Bias or Self Bias 2.6 Class A, B, and C Amplifiers 26.1 Class A Amplifiers... 26.2 Class B Amplifiers 2.6.3 Class C Amplifiers... 26.4 Class AB Amplifiers... . | 26.5 Comparison of Amplifier Classes... Aire .2..2-49 3.2.1 Construction of n-channel JFET and Symbol. ...............0......0....6.....3-3 3.2.2 Construction of p-channel JFET and Symbol... 2.0... 0.2.6 6e eee ee eee ce cence ee 3-4 Copyrighted mate3.3 Unbiased JFET 3.4 Operation of JFET .. 3.5 JFET V-| Characteristics 3.6.4 Amplification Factor...............5 3.7 Biasing Circuits for JFET 37.4 Eixed-bias Circuit 3.7.2 Voltage Divider Bias Circuit........ ee ee .o1.3+ 18 2.23 Self Bias Circuit 3.8 JFET Amplifier Configurations 3.8.1 JFET as an Amplifier . 38.2 Common Source Amplifier 3.8.2 Common Drain Amplifier... 3.8.3 Common Gate Amplifier....... 3.9 Comparison of BJT and FET .. 4.1 Introduction 4-4 4.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)... ese 4-1 424Consiruction ge 42.2 Operation of SCR esses sees ee eee ee ei 4-3 EE LEE EEE ELE OLDE LEE NE ELE LED DTE DELI ESTELLE4.2.3 Characteristics of SCR ... . 4.2.4 Two Transistor Analogy 4.3.4. Basic Operation . . 4.3.2 Characteristics 4.4 Triac 4.4.4 Working of Triac s ure 4.4.3 Applications of Triac 4.4.4 Comparison of SCR and Triac. 4.5 Unijunction Transistor (UJT).. 4 pa anti on 4.52 Equivalent Circuit of UT 4.53 Intrinsic Stand Off Ratio( n) 4.54 Principle of Operation. 4574 Operation... je be 45.72 Condition for Turn ON and Tum OFF 4-35 4.6 Switching Transistors... : a Copyrighted materialChapter-5 ConceptofFeedback 5.2 Negative feedback in Process Control System 5.3 Negative Feedback in Amplifier .. 5.3.1 Ways of Introducing Negative Feedback in Amplifiers ......... a 5.3.2 Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifiers... .......cceessecceceeeseeseseeees §.3.3 Advantages of Negative Feedback eis " 5-4 5.4 Application - Temperature Control System.. 5.4.1 ON-OFF Temperature Control System .. . 5.4.2 Temperature Control System with PID Control . 5.5 Application - Motor Speed Control .. Review Question: 6.2 Decimal Number System ... 6.3 Binary Number System... 6.4 Octal Number System...... 6.5 Hexadecimal Number System... 6.6 Counting in Radix (Base) r... 6.7 Number Base Conversions. BA 6.7.1 Binary to Octal Conversion ........ . 6-6 G7.2. Octal 10 BINGTY CONVO. 6s eves ts cree er sere rseneses ern rs rennees 6-7 6.7.3 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion 6.7.4 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion 4.7.5 Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion 6.7.6 Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion ses sos. 6-8 6.7.7 Converting any Radix to Decimal .......0... ss... e ceeeeeeeeee ee 9 6.7.8 Conversion of Decimal Numbers to any RadixNumber...... serena seen eA I A Te6.7.8.1 Successive Division for Integer Part Conversion. ©... ee ‘6.1.8.2 Successive Multiplication for Fractonal Part Conversion. 6.8 Complement Representation of Negative Numbers... 6.8.1 1's Complement Representation... 6.8.2 2's Complement Representation vs... 6.8.3 1's Complement Subtraction 6.8.4 2's Complement Subtraction 6.9 Signed Binary Numbers 6.10 Binary Arithmetic. 6.11 Hexadecimal Arithmetic .... 6.12 Binary Codes 6.12.4 Classification of Binary Codes ........cscsesseeee : 6.122 BCD (842-1) 6.12.21 BCD Adaiton 6.12.2.2 BCD Subtraction 6.23.1 2-4-2 Code. 6-38 6.1232 Other Codes 6.29 6.124 Exooss-3 Code 6229 6.12.41 Encess-3 Addition... ame 6-40 6.12.42 Excess-3 Subtraction. . 6-41 6.12.5 Gray Code seeee 6-44 6.12.51 Advantage of Gray Code. 6-45 6.12.52 Gray-to-BinaryComerson ss 1 “ 6-45 6.12.5.3 Binary to Gray Conversion _. 6.12.72 EBCDIC 2 SE ee Hae eee BHD 6.12.7.3 Hollerith Code. Copyrighted materialSolved Example: 7.1 Logic Gates. 744 Inverter: NOT Gate... 2... 7.1.2 AND Gate 7.1.6 The Exclusive-OR Gate............ Ui aenwmmneaT 8 7.1.7 Universal Gates... . (715 z 7-4 2-17 7.1.8 Conversion of AND/ORINOT Logic to NAND/NOR Logic... 720° 7.2 Boolean Algebra .... 7.2.1 Rules in Boolean Algebra ............ a aaa 7-3 7.2.2 Lame Of Bolen QOS... nose seen cennenteaneeee ones eenenasseneenens 7-28 7.2.3 Additional Rules in Boolean Algebra... ..... 1... eee ee eee TO 1.2.4 Theorems in Boolean Algebra...........2. see 7-31 PES Eualin Senilitalion sesessly cswewessassvesavescaveauneavevereed 7-33 Review Questions ..8.3.2 The Gated SR Latch ..... BSS THOGHRI DAD cers ee BSD 8.4 Flip-Flops... 8.4.1 Clocked JK Flip-Flop 00.0 oo coco eee ee eee eeeeeeee cece Bott 84.2 Clocked SR Flip-Flop... se Tiere BUY 84.37 Flip-Flop... HbnivePi bat Bcrenweaad sth BOND 84.4 Positive Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flops... 2. esses eee eee 8218 84.5 Negative Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop ......... 8-16 8.4.6 Master-Slave SR Flip-Flop... ve BIT "84,7 MasterSlave JK Fip-FOp cece cevecieeseveeceeceeeeceeneeseecese 8218 8.4.8 Flip-Flop Conversions... 1... . . 8.48.1 SR Flip-Flop to D FlipFlop 8-20 8.4.8.2 SR Flip-Flop to JK Flip-Flop 8-21 8.4.8.3 SR Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop 8-22 8.48.4 JK Flip-Flop toT Flip-Flop... 1... as eo 8.485 JK Flip-Flop toD flipflops... beard 8.486 D FlipFlop toT Fip-Fop . . z a 1. 8-24 8.48.7 T Flip-Flop toD Fip-Fop. .. . ss... sss ee pe. 8225 8.5 Registers... 85.1 Buffer Register... cee eee eens 85.2 Shift Registers 85.3 Universal Shi Register... 85.4 Applications of Shift Registers...........sssssees 8.5.4.1 Delayline, 2... 8.5.4.2 Serial-to-Parallel Converter 8-36 8.5.4.3 Paralel-to-Serial Converter 8-36 8.544 Shift Register Counters... . . ae: - 8-36 8.6 Counter 8-37 8.6.1 Binary Asynchronous / Ripple Counters ........................... see 8-37 86.2 Asynchronous / Ripple Down Counter... sess 8-39 Copyrighted material8.6.3 Synchronous Binary Up Counters... 2.6... cee se cece eee tsetse eee ee 8-40 8.6.4 Synchronous Binary Down and Up/Down Counters .............- nei 8-43 8.6.5 Synchronous Vs Asynchronous Counters..........:...::eseeeee ee 8-44 8.6.6 Counters Based on ShiftRegisters ......... 8-46 86.6.1 Ring Counter... soe ee Hy . 8-46 86.6.2 The Johnson Counter or Twisted Ring Counter. . 8-47 8.7 Counter Applications... 8.7.1 Digital Clock... ......... 8.7.2 Frequency Counter... . peepee 28-51 9.2 D/A Converter: 9-2 9.2.1. Performance Parameters/Specifications of DAC ................55 anmansaRAS 9.2.2 Basic Conversion Techniques. ...........0c sce eee creer eee eee ener eee cree G6 9.3.2 Basic Conversion Techniques ..........6..006 Chapter-40 8088 Microprocessor” 10.1 Block diagram of Microcomputer .... 90.44 Meee ed 10.1.2 Software 10.2 Features of 8085A .... TOSTRING iG erin men 10.3.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)... . x aes espsestiiaiea 10-13 10.2.3 Instruction Decoder 10-13 eS10.3.4 Address Buffer... 10.3.7 Interrupt Control. 10-14 ee aH ; 10.3.9 Timing and Control Circuitry... 3 : 10-14 10.4 Pin configurations of 8085... 7 10.4.1 Power Supply and Frequency Signals. ........ 0.0. 00ceeeeees ceases eeeenee 10-16 10.4.2 Data Bus and Address Bus 10.4.3 Control and Status Signals 40.4.4 Interupt Signals ............0060eceeeeee ee 40-17 10.4.5 Serial /O Signals... . 10.4.6 DMA Signal 10.4.7 Reset Signals .. 10.5 Addressing Modes 10.6.1 Data Transfer Group 10.6.2 Arithmetic Group... . NORD GINS, 001022 scrpsercmreenrassimasssene ss 10.6.4 Logic Group. 0.6.5 Rotts GOOUD Epo ee errr reader reer ee meee NY 11.1 Introduction 414.2 Basic Interfacing Concepts... WIN CK GRE. ccsisicncracsccas cinmarienaeann naman eR DE 14.2.2 Demuttiplexing AD, - AD, ..W235 Reset CHU cs casereereaenieweneeene ‘rnwecmaae 11.2.4 Generation of Control Signals ea guia aaa 11-4 25 Beg DWM 255i pieCaniaiicaiiencannt nee 11.2.6 Typical Configuration... 11.3 Memory Structure and its Requirements . 11.4 Basic Concepts in Memory Interfacing .... 41.4.4 Interfacing Examples... En M14 41.5 Interfacing:of Input and Ouput Devices... 11.5.1 Basic Interfacing Concepts ..... 11.5.2 1/0 Interfacing Techniques 11.5.2.1 1/0 Mapped JO 14. le “i M1: 11.5.2.3 interfacing Input and Output Devices wih Examples... 11-26 14.5.2.4Memory Mapped... s sonnet 2. 11-30 411.5.2.5 Comparison Between IO mapped I/O and Memory mapped YO. 11-92 11.6 Introduction to Programmable Peripheral Interface - 8255... TUBA Reatienis of BOGGS 11.6.2 Pin Diagram. ...... 00.064 1.6.3.2 Control Logic iia EX Be @ eee ew es ee ety x SD 11 trols ers a. 1297 11.6.4 Operation Modes npg SED 114.6.4.1 Bit Set-Reset (BSR) Mode 1-37 11.6.2 For lO Mode 11.7 Applications. 14.7.1 Traffic Light Control11.7.2 Temperature Control System 11.7.3 Steeper Motor Control. 11.8 More About Keyboard Interfacing... 11.8.1 Key Debounce Using Hardware 11.8.2 Key Debouncing Using Software... 6... eee ecccceeveeveee 11.8.3 Simple Keyboard Interface 11.8.4 Matrix Keyboard Interface 11.9 Display Interfacing .. 11.9.1 LED Displays... 11.9.2 Interfacing LED Displays Quine 41-69Semiconductors and Rectifiers 1.1 Introduction The materials such as copper, aluminium etc. are good conductors of electricity. While the materials such as wood, glass, mica etc. are very bad conductors of electricity and are called insulators. There is another class of materials, whose conductivity ie. ability to carry electricity, lies between that of conductors and insulators. Such materials are called semiconductors. Germanium (Ge) and Silicon ($i) are two well known semiconductor materials. To understand how diodes, transistors, thyristors and integrated circuits work, it is necessary to know the basic physics behind the behaviour of semiconductor materials Initial part of the chapter revises the structure of an atom and energy levels in atoms. This leads to the energy band theory, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. In the last part of the chapter, we shall see how the properties of these semiconductor materials can be improved by a technique of doping, which leads to the concept of p-n junction. 1.2 The Structure of Matter ‘The matter which occupies the space may be solid, liquid or gaseous. The molecules and atoms, of which all the substances are composed, are not at all elements but are themselves made up of simpler entities. We know this because, we, up to certain extent, are successful in breaking atoms and studying the resulting products. For instance, such particles of atom are obtained by causing ultraviolet light to fall on cold metal surfaces, such particles are spontaneously ejected from the radioactive elements. So such particles are obtained from many different substances under widely varying conditions. In fact, according to the modem electron theory, matter is composed of the three fundamental particles, which are invisible to bare eyes. These are the neutron, the proton and the electron. The proton is positively charged and the electron is negatively charged. The neutron is uncharged ie. electrically neutral in nature possessing no charge. ‘The mass of neutron and proton is same while the electron is very light, almost 1/1840" the mass of neutron. The following table gives the information about these three particles. (1-4)Electronics & Microprocessors 1-2 Semiconductors and Rectifiers Fundamental particle Nature of charge Mass in kg Neutron No charge 1675 10-27 Proton Positive 1672-10-27 Electron Negative 9107%10-" Table 1.1 There is no difference between an electron of copper and an electron-of aluminium or an electron of any other element. Similarly the neutrons and protons of various atoms are characteristicwise identical in nature. Then why do various elements behave differently ? This is because of the difference in the arrangement of electrons, protons and neutrons of which each atom is composed. Let us see the structure of an atom. 1.2.1 Structure of an Atom ‘The atoms have a planetary type of structure, according to classical Bohr Model. All the protons and neutrons are bound together at the centre of an atom, which is called Nucleus. While all the electrons are moving round the nucleus. So nucleus can be thought of as a central sun, about which electrons revolve in a particular fashion like the planets. In a normal atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. As neutron is electrically neutral, an atom as a whole is electrically neutral. The number of protons in an atom is called as its atomic number. While the atomic weight is approximately equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. ‘The electrons which are revolving round the nucleus, do not move in the same orbit. The electrons are arranged in the different orbits or shells at fixed distances from the nucleus. Each shell can contain a fixed number of electrons. In general, a shell can contain a maximum of 2n? electrons where n is the number of the shell. The first shell can occupy maximum of two electrons (2x12) while the second shell can occupy maximum of eight electrons (2x 22) and so on. Each shell has an energy level associated with it. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the stronger are the forces that bind it to the nucleus. So the first shell which is closest to the nucleus is always under the tremendous force of attraction. While the sheil which is farthest from the nucleus is under very weak force of attraction. The electrons revolving in the last shell i. farthest from the nucleus are very loosely bound to the nucleus. Such electrons in the outermost shell are responsible for the electrical and chemical characteristics of an atom. Key Point: The outermost shell is called tie valence shell and the electrons in this shell are called valence electrons.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-3 Semiconductors and Rectifiers The exception to the '2n?' rule stated above is that the outermost shell in an atom cannot accommodate more .than eight electrons. The valence electrons revolving in the outermost shell are said to be having highest energy level. The amount of energy required to extract the valence electron from the outer shell is very less. Key Point: Each shell has energy level associated with it. Closer the shell to the nucleus, more tightly it is bound to the nucleus and possesses lower energy level. Thus energy level of shell one is lowermost while the energy level of valence shell is highest. More energy level indicates that the electrons of that shell are loosely bound to the nucleus. Hence valence electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus as having highest energy level. The concept of energy level is shown in the Fig. 1.1 Energy level increases from first shell to valence shell as the distance from the nucieus ae EI aren Nucteus @) i Lowest energy level” 4/Shell 2 Valence shell highest energy level Fig. 1.1 Concept of energy level When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light or due to high atmospheric temperature, the energy levels of the electrons are raised. When such an additional energy is imparted to the electrons, the electrons move to the next orbit which is farther from the nucleus. If such an energy is imparted to a valence electron, it tries to jump to the next orbit. But as a valence electron is in the outermost orbit, actually it gets completely removed from the force of attraction of the nucleus. Key Points: 1) An electron which is not subjected to the force of attraction of the nucleus is called a free electron. Such free electrons are basically responsible to the flow of current. 2) More the number of free electrons, better is the conductivity of the metal. 1.2.2 Structure of Semiconductor Materials ‘The semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si have four electrons in their valence shell ie. outermost shell. The Fig. 1.2 shows atomic structure of the semiconductor materials, germanium and silicon.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-4 Semiconductors and Rectifiers Germanium atom Silicon atom Valence shell Valence electron Nucleus Each has 4 electrons in its outermost i.e. valence shell Fig. 1.2 Atomic structure of germanium and silicon atoms The germanium has a nucleus with 32 protons. The electrons are distributed as 2 electrons in the first orbit, 8 in the second orbit, and 18 in the third. The remaining, four electrons are in the outer or valence orbit. follows : The silicon has nucleus with 14 protons and 14 electrons. As shown in Fig. 1.2 the first orbit contains 2 and the second orbit contains 8 electrons. The remaining four electrons are in the outermost orbit. Key Poi When there are four electrons in the ouiermost orbit, the semiconductor material is referred to as pure or intrinsic semiconductor. 1.2.3 Ionization If an electron is extracted from the outermost shell of an atom then the overall negative charge of that atom decreases as it looses negative charge in the form of an electron. But the number of protons remains same hence positive charge remains same. So aiom as a whole looses its electrical neutral nature and becomes positively charged. Such an atom is called positive ion. Similarly by any means if an electrically neutral atom gains an additional electron then it becomes negatively charged and called negative ion. Thus by loosing or gaining electrons, an atom gets converted into a charged ion. This process of loosing or gaining an electron, which converts electrically neutral atom to a charged ion is called ionization. 1.3 The Energy-Band Theory We have seen that every shell is associated with an energy level. An electron orbiting very close to the nucleus in the first shell is very much tightly bound to the nucleus and possesses only a small amount of energy. Hence first shell has lowest energy level. Greater the distance of an electron from the nucleus, the greater is its energy. Hence the energy level of the outermost shell is highest. Due to such high energy, the valence electrons in the outermost shell can be easily extracted out and hence such electrons take part in chemical reactions and in bonding the atoms together. Now this discussion is related to the electrons and shells of one isolated atom only.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-5 Semiconductors and Rectifiers In solids, atoms are brought close together. In such a case, outer shell electrons are shared by more than one atom. So these electrons come under the influence of forces from other atoms too. The valence electrons are shared by forming a bond with the valence electrons of an adjacent atom. Such bonds are called covalent bonds. Thus the valence electrons are not free under normal conditions, as they are shared by the adjacent atoms Now the valence electrons possess highest energy level. When such electrons form the covalent bonds, due to the coupling between the valence electrons, the energy levels associated with the valence electrons merge into each other. This merging forms an energy band. Similarly the energy levels of various electrons present in the first orbit, second orbit etc. also merge to form the various energy bands. So instead of the presence of widely separated energy levels as that of the isolated atoms, the closely spaced energy levels are present in a solid, which are called energy bands. Out of all the energy bands, three bands are most important to understand the behaviour of solids. These bands are, 1] Valence band, 2] Conduction band, 3] Forbidden band or gap Key Point: The energy band formed due to merging of energy levels associated with the valence electrons i.e. electrons in the last shell, is called valence band. As mentioned earlier in normal condition, valence electrons form the covalent bonds and are not free. But when certain energy is imparted to them, they become free. Key Point: The energy band formed due to merging of energy levels associated with the free electrons is called conduction band. Under normal condition, the conduction band is empty and once energy is imparted, the valence electrons jump from valence band te conduction band and become free. While jumping from valence band to conduction band, the electrons have to cross an energy gap. Key Point: The energy gap which is present separating the conduction band and the valence band is called forbidden band or forbidden gap. The energy imparted to the electrons must be greater than the energy associated with the forbidden gap, to extract the electrons from valence band and transfer them to conduction band. The energy associated to forbidden band is denoted as Ec. Key Point: The electrons cannot exist in the forbidden gap. The graphical representation of the energy bands in a solid is called energy band diagram. Such an energy band diagram for a solid silicon is shown in the Fig. 1.3.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-6 Semiconductors and Rectifiers The electrons in the various orbits revolving around the nucleus occupy Conduction the various bands including fully or band Forbidden Pattly occupied valence band. The Valence energy gap conduction band which is normally band) (Eg) empty carries the electrons which get 2” band [ELE drifted ffom the valence band. These Fe electrons present in the conduction a band are free electrons and they drift Edge of the nucleus about in the spaces between the atoms Energy For any given type of material the forbidden energy gap may be large, small or nonexistent. The classification of materials as insulators, conductors or semiconductors is mainly dependent on the widths of the forbidden energy gap. Let us see the classification of materials as insulators, conductors and semiconductors based on energy band diagram. Before that let us see the unit in which energy associated with the bards is measured. Fig. 1.3 Energy band diagram 1.3.1 The eV, Unit of Energy The enesgy is measured in joules (J) in the M.KS. system. As mentioned earlier, each electron has an energy level associated with it. The unit joule is very large for the discussion of such energies associated with electrons. Hence such energies associated with the electrons are measured in electron volts denoted as eV. The charge on a single clectron is 1.6x10~* coulomb. So one electron volt is defined as the energy required by an electron to fall through a potential of one volt. LeV = 16x10-" (C)x 1 (V) = 16x10" J TeV = 16x10 J 1.4 Classification of Materials Based on Energy Band Theory Based on the ability of various materials to conduct current, the materials are classified as conductors, insulators and the semiconductors. A metal which is very good carrier of electricity is called conductor. A very poor conductor of electricity is termed as insulator. A metal having conductivity which is between conductor and an insulator is called semiconductor. The copper and aluminium are good examples of a conductor. The glass, wood, mica, diamond are the examples of an insulator which does not conduct current. The silicon and germanium are the examples of a semiconductor which does not conduct current at low temperatures but as temperature increases these materials behave as good conductors. Let us see the energy band diagrams for these three types of metals.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-7 Semiconductors and Rectifiers 1.4.1 Conductors It has been mentioned earlier that a material having large number of free electrons can conduct very easily. For example, copper has 8.5x10%* free electrons per cubic metre which is a very large number. Hence copper is called good conductor. In fact, in the metals like copper, aluminium there is no forbidden gap between valence band and conduction band. The two bands overlap. Hence even at room temperature, a large number of electrons are available for conduction. So without any additional energy, such metals contain a large number of free electrons and hence called good conductors. An energy band diagram for a conductor is shown in the Fig. 1.4 (a). 1.4.2 Insulators An insulator has an energy band diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.4 (b). In case of such insulating material, there exists a large forbidden gap in between the conduction band and the valence band. Practically it is impossible for an electron to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence such materials cannot conduct and called insulators. The forbidden gap is very wide, approximately of about 7 eV is present in insulators. For a diamond, which is an insulator, the forbidden gap is about 6 eV. Such materials may conduct only at very high temperatures or if they are subjected to high voltage. Such a conduction is rare and is called breakdown of an insulator. The other insulating materials are glass, wood, mica, paper etc. Energy Energy Energy Conduction Conduction Conduction band band No A large forbidden Asma, = forbidden Eg forbidden gap ° Overlapping se of valence & conduction band (a) Conductor (b) Insulator (c) Semiconductor Fig. 1.4 Energy band diagrams 1.4.3, Semiconductors Now let us come to an important category of materials, which are neither insulators nor conductors. The forbidden gap in such materials is very narrow as shown in Fig. 1.4 (c). Such materials are called semiconductors. The forbidden gap is about 1 eV. InElectronics & Microprocessors 1-8 Semiconductors and Rectifiers such materials, the energy provided by the heat at room temperature is sufficient to lift the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. Therefore at room temperature, semiconductors are capable of conduction. But at 0 °K or absolute zero (~273 °C), all the electrons of semiconductor materials find themselves locked in the valence band. Hence at 0 °K, the semiconductor materials behave as perfect insulators. In case of semiconductors, forbidden gap energy depends on the temperature. For silicon and germanium, this energy is given by, Eg = 121-36 104 T eV (for Silicon) Es = 0.785 -2.23«104xT eV (for Germanium) where T = Absolute temperature in °K Assuming toom temperature to be 27 °C ie. 300 “K, the forbidden gap energy for Si and Ge can be calculated from the above equations. The forbidden gap for the germanium is 072 eV while for the silicon it is 1.12 eV at room temperature. The silicon and germanium are the two widely used semiconductor materials in electronic devices, as mentioned earlier. Key Point: While calculating’ Ec, substitute T in °K. Why Silicon is most widely used 7 Looking at the structure of silicon and germanium atom, it can be seen that valence shell of silicon is 3" shell while valence shell of germanium is 4" shell. Hence valence electrons of germanium are at larger distance from nucleus than valence electrons of silicon. Hence valence electrons of germanium are more loosely bound to the nucleus than those of silicon. Thus valence electrons of germanium can easily escape from the atom, due to very small additional energy imparted to them. So at high temperature, germanium becomes unstable than silicon and hence silicon is widely used semiconductor material mp Example 1.1: Calculate the value of forbidden gap for silicon and germanium at the temperature of 35 °C. Solution : Forbidden gap for silicon is given by, Eg = 1.21-3.6x104*T Now T = 35+273= 308K Eg = 121-3.6x 104x308 = 1099 eV While forbidden gap for germanium is given by, Eg = 0.785- 2.23x 104 x T = 0.785 ~ 2.23% 104 x 308 = 0.7163 eVElectronics & Microprocessurs 1-9 Semiconductors and Rectifiers 1.5 Intrinsic Semiconductors A sample of semiconductor in its purest form is called an intrinsic semiconductor. The impurity content in intrinsic semiconductor is very very small, of the order of one part in 100 million parts of semiconductor. For achieving such a pure form, the semiconductor materials are carefully refined. To understand the conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor let us study the crystalline structure of an intrinsic semiconductor. 1.5.1 Crystal Structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor Consider an atomic structure of an intrinsic semiconductor material like silicon. An outermost shell of an atom is capable of holding eight electrons. It is said to be completely filled and stable, if it contains eight electrons. But the outermost shell of an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon has only four electrons. Each of these four electrons form a bond with another valence electron of the neighbouring atoms. This is nothing but sharing of electrons. Such bonds are called covalent bonds. The atoms align themselves to form a three dimensional uniform pattern called a crystal ‘The crystal structure of germanium and silicon materials consists of repetitive occurrence in three dimensions of a unit cell. This unit cell is in the form of a tetrahedron with an atom at each vertex. But such a three dimensional structure is very difficult to represent pictorially. Hence a symbolic two dimensional structure is used to represent a three dimensional crystal form, as shown in the Fig. 1.5 (a). The covalent bonds are represented by a pair of dotted lines encircling the two electrons forming the covalent bond. The more clear understanding of the covalent bonds can be obtained from the Fig. 1.5 (b) which shows the sharing of valence electrons. Both the electrons are shared by the two atoms. Hence the outermost shell of all the atoms is completely filled, and the valence electrons are tightly bound to the parent atoms. No free electrons are available at absolute zero temperature. Hence such an_ intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at absolute zero temperature. Silicon Covalent Valence Shared valence nucleus bond electron electrons, @ (b) Fig. 1.5 Two dimensional representation of silicon crystalElectronics & Microprocessors 1-10 Semiconductors and Rectifiers 1.5.2 Charge Carriers in Intrinsic Semiconductors Intrinsic semiconductors behave as a perfect insulator at absolute zero temperature. Let us see what happens at room temperature. At room temperature, the number of valence electrons absorb the thermal energy, due to which they break the covalent bond and drift to the conduction band. Such electrons become free to move in the crystal as shown in the Fig. 1.6 (a) Electron-Hole pair Free electron = vst : ‘energy Electron-Hole {a) Breaking of covalentbond —_(b) Electron-hole pair in a silicon crystal_(c) Energy band diagram Fig. 1.6 Thermal generation ‘Once the electrons are dislodged from the covalent bonds, then they become free. Such free electrons wander in a random fashion in a crystal. The energy required to break a covalent bond is 0.72 eV for germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon, at room temperature. When a valence electron drift from valence to conduction band breaking a covalent bond, a vacancy is created in the broken covalent bond. Such a vacancy is called a hole. Whenever an electron becomes free, the corresponding hole gets generated. So free electrons and holes get generated in pairs. The formation of electron-hole pair is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (b) while the corresponding energy band diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (c). Such a generation of electron hole pairs due to thermal energy is called thermal generation. The concentration of free electrons and holes is always equal in an_ intrinsic semiconductor. The hole also serves as a carrier of electricity similar to that of free electron. An electron is negatively charged particle. Thus a hole getting created due to electron drift is said to be positively charged. Key Point: Thus in an intrinsic semiconductors both holes as well as free electrons are the charge carriers. 1.5.3 Conduction by Electrons and Holes The electrons and holes generated due to thermal generation move randomly and hence cannot constitute any current. Now consider that battery is connected across the intrinsic semiconductor.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-11 Semiconductors and Rectifiers Under the influence of applied voltage there is electron as well as hole motion in one particular direction, causing the flow of current The free electrons which are available in the conduction band are moved under the influence of applied voltage. The electrons as negatively charged get repelled from the negative terminal of battery and attracted towards the positive terminal. Thus there is an electric current due to the movement of electrons in conduction band. This is called electron current . There are electrons present in the valence band which are involved in forming the covalent bonds. Some holes are also present in the valence band due to escape of electrons from valence to conduction band. Under the influence of applied voltage, the electrons involved in covalent bonds break the covalent bonds and try to fill the holes present. The electron breaking the covalent bond jumps to the hole of neighbouring atom, leaving a hole behind. This is illustrated in the Fig, 1.7 (a), (b) and (c). The atom x has a hole due to escape of an electron to the conduction band. The electron from atom y breaks its covalent bond and fill the hole of atom x. Now the hole is left in the valence shell of atom y. An electron from atom z jumps to fill the hole in atom y. The hole in y gets filled but a hole is left in the valence shell of atom z. Thus the hole moves from atom x to y to z and so on towards the negative terminal of battery. Negative Positive () (b) hole te) Fig. 1.7 Hole currentElectronics & Microprocessors 1-12 Semiconductors and Rectifiers Such a movement of holes in valence band constitute the current which is called hole current. The direction of motion of holes is in the opposite direction to that of electrons. Key Point: The current due to movement of free electrons in the conduction band is an electron current. The current due to movement of holes in the valence band is a hole current. The electron as well as hole current together constitutes current in an intrinsic semiconductor. The movement of hole and electron can also be shown as in the Fig. 1.8. “_ Direction in which 7 hole moves AB AB ®©OPO0OO® Q@O0OOO®O Hole —» Direction in whi 7 election moves. Fig. 1.8 Movement of hole The electron from atom A jumps to B to fill the hole at B. And the hole gets created at A. Thus holes moves from B to A. Thus the conduction of an electric current is due to the movement of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. Total current = Electron current + Hole current (I) 1.5.4 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors In earlier sections, we have seen that the free electrons and holes are the two types of charge carriers in the intrinsic semiconductors. But the random motion of these carriers do not constitute any current. Direction of flow of holes Let us now consider that a battery Se hed is connected across an _ intrinsic semiconductor. The free electrons as Free negatively charged experience a force Slectron towards the positive terminal of the battery while the holes as positively charged experience a force towards negative terminal of the battery. This is shown in the. Fig. 1.9. Direction of Key Point: The direction of current flows owof conventonal from positive to negative terminal of the battery is referred as the conventional 1.9 Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor current direction.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-13 Semiconductors and Rectifiers Electron flows from negative to positive is known as the direction of electron flow. Every symbol used to represent an electronic device has an arrowhead which indicates conventional current direction. However, the operation of electronic devices is explained with the help of the electron movement. 1.5.5 Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor The property called conductivity indicates the ease with which a material can carry the current. Thus more conductivity means that material can carry high current, very easily. ‘The conductivity of a good conductor is high while that of an insulator is low. In intrinsic semiconductor, very few electron-hole pairs get generated at room temperature. Hence very small current can be constituted, due to the application of voltage to an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature is very low. Such a low conductivity has very little practical significance. Key Point: Due to low conductivity, the mtrinsic semiconductors are not used in practice for manufacturing of electronic devices. 1.5.6 Recombination of Electrons and Holes The movement of holes in the valence band is always random and similarly the movement of free electrons in the conduction band is also random. Thermal agitation continues to produce new hole-clectron pairs. Occasionally, a free electron approaches a hole and falls into it. This merging of a free electron and a hole is called recombination. After the recombination, an electron-hole-pair gets disappeared. Due to recombination the number of charge carriers decreases. The amount of time between the creation and disappearence of a free electron or hole is called the mean life time of the charge carrier. At any temperature, at any instant, the free electrons and holes, the two types of charge carriers are present in equal numbers. This concentration is called intrinsic conéentration. Mathematically this is indicated as, n= p=n ~ Q) where n= number of free electrons per unit volume p = number of holes per unit volume and n, = intrinsic concentration. The concentration is measured in the units number per m} or per m3.Electronics & Microprocessors 1-14 Semiconductors and Rectifiers 1.6 Extrinsic Semiconductors In order to change the properties of intrinsic semiconductors a small amount of some other material is added to it. The process of adding other material to the crystal of intrinsic semiconductors to improve its conductivity is called doping. The impurity added is called dopant. Doped semiconductor material is called extrinsic semiconductor. The doping increases the conductivity of the basic intrinsic semiconductors hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used in practice for manufacturing of various electronic devices such as diodes, transistors ete. Depending upon the type of impurities, the two types of extrinsic semiconductors ere, 1. mtype and 2. p-type 1.6.1 Types of Impurities The impurity material having five valence electrons is called pentavalent atom. When this is added to an intrinsic semicondcutor, it is called donor doping as each impurity atom donates one free electron to an intrinsic material. Such an impurity is called donor impurity. The examples of such impurity are arsenic, bismuth, phosphorous etc. This creats an extrinsic semiconductor with large number of free electrons, called n-type semiconductor. Another type of impurity used is trivalent atom which has only three valence electrons. Such an impurity is called acceptor impurity. When this is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it creates more holes and ready to accept an electron hence the doping is called acceptor doping. The examples of such impurity are gallium, indium and boron. The resulting extrinsic semiconductor with large number of holes is called p-type semiconductor. 1.7 n-Type Semiconductor When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called n-type: semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity has five valence electrons. These elements are such as arsenic, bismuth, phosphorous and antimony. Such an impurity is called donor impurity. _ Consider the formation of n-type RS Free steon atom “Material by adding arsenic (As) into : (4 valence electrons) silicon (Si). The arsenic atom has five ZS Added Arsenic atom valence electrons. An arsenic atom fits (S valence electrons) in the silicon crystal in such a way Impurity atom: that its. f Ik SL a Extra free lection: that its four valence electrons form created due to As atom covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. The fifth electron has no chance of forming a covalent bond. This spare electron enters the Fig. 1.10 n-type material formationElectronics & Microprocessors 1-15 Semiconductors and Rectifiers conduction band as a free electron. Such n-type material formation is represented in the Fig. 1.10. This means that each arsenic atom added into silicon atom gives one free electron. The number of such free electrons can be controlled by the amount of impurity added to the silicon. Since the free electrons have negative charges, the material is known as n-type material and an impurity donates a free electron hence called donor impurity Key Point: One donor impurity atom donates one free electron in n-type material. The free electrons are majority charge carriers. 1.7.1 Conduction in n-Type Semiconductor When the voltage is applied to the n-type semiconductor, the free electrons which are readily available due to added impurity, move in a direction of positive terminal of voltage applied. This constitutes a current. Thus the conduction is predominantly by free electrons. The holes are less in number hence electron current is dominant over the hole current. Hence in n-type semiconductors free electrons are called majority carriers while the holes which are small in number are called minority carriers. The conduction in n-type material is shown in the Fig. 1.11. n-type material Free electrons large in number Holes small in number (minority) 1! Battery Conventional current Fig. 1.11 Conduction in n-type material 1.8 p-Type Semiconductor When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type, semiconductor. The trivalent impurity hes three valence electrons. These elements are such as gallium, boron or indium. Such an impurity is called acceptor impurity. Consider the formation of p-type material by adding gallium (Ga) into silicon (Si). The gallium atom has three valence electrons. So gallium atom fits in the silicon crystal in such a way that its three valence electrons form covalent bonds with the three adjacent silicon atoms. Being short of one electron, the fourth covalent bond in the valence shell is incomplete. The resulting vacancy is called a hole. Such p-type material formation is represented in the Fig. 1.12. This means that each gallium atom added into silicon atom gives one hole. The number of such holes can be controlled by the amount of impurity added to the silicon. As the holes are treated as positively charged, the material is known as p-type material.