Selected issues of machine design

Selected issues
of machine design

ISBN: 978-83-7947-129-4

Publication co-financed by the European Union under the European Social Fund

Lublin 2015

P odr c z n i k i

Hubert Dbski, Jakub Gajewski

Jzef Jonak, Grzegorz Poniewa

Selected issues
of machine design

Podrczniki Politechnika Lubelska

Publication co-financed by the European Union

under the European Social Fund

Hubert Dbski , Jakub Gajewski

Jzef Jonak , Grzegorz Poniewa

Selected issues
of machine design

Politechnika Lubelska
Lublin 2015

Reviewers:
Dr. hab. in. Pawe Drodziel, prof. Politechniki Lubelskiej
Doc. Ing. Dana Stanekov, PhD

Translation at the sole request of Lublin University of Technology

Free of charge publication.

The publication was prepared and published as a part of the project
Engineer with a warranty of quality tailoring the course offer of the
Lublin University of Technology to the requirements of the European
labour market (agreement number: UDA-POKL.04.01.01-00-041/13-00),
co-financed by the European Social Fund, Human Capital Operational
Programme, Submeasure 4.1.1.

Publication approved by the Rector of Lublin University of Technology

Copyright by Lublin University of Technology 2015
ISBN: 978-83-7947-129-4

Publisher:

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Contens
Chapter I

Introduction to engineering graphics................................................... 7

Chapter II Designing of screw mechanisms and gears........................................51

Chapter III Method of finite elements in engineering applications.....................93
Chapter IV Modern techniques of production accelerating...............................111

Jakub Gajewski

Chapter I
Introduction to engineering graphics

1.

Introductory information

1.1. Formats of sheets

While choosing the size of a drawing sheet, one should comply with the norm
PN EN ISO 5457 which suggests that the original copy of a drawing should be
made on the smallest sheet allowing to gain an indispensable clarity and resolution
of the drawing.
The basic paper sheet is the sheet A4 with dimensions 210 mm x 297 mm after
cutting. Dimensions of other cut sheets are given in the table 1.1.

Table 1.1. Dimensions of drawing formats in mm (after cutting)
Sheet marking

a2

b2

A0

841

1189

A1

594

841

A2

420

594

A3

297

420

A4

210

297

An indispensable element of the format is a label, placed in the right bottom

corner of a drawing.
The formats of the sheets A0, A1, A2 and A3 are situated only horizontally, the
sheet A4 is situated vertically.
A sheet should have the frame made with continuous line of the thickness of 0,7
mm, at the 5 mm distance from the line of cutting.
7

1.2. Drawing Lines

Kinds and widths of lines used in the machine technical drawing are based on
the norm PN ISO 128 24.
For drawing of elements one ought to use the lines of two widths, while the
proportion between thin and thick lines should be 1:2, tab. 1.2.
Table 1.2. Widths of drawing lines in mm
Width of thin lines

0,13

0,18

0,25

0,35

0,5

0,7

Width of thick lines

0,25

0,35

0,5

0,7

1,4

Below, the kinds of lines used in machine technical drawing, and their basic use
have been outlined:
continuous thick line; visible edges and contours of an object, contours of
detail sections, contouring of drawings
continuous thin line; dimension lines, auxiliary dimension lines, hatching
of section field, outlines of superimposed sections,
wavy thin line; used mainly with manual plotting, as partial ending, intermittent view or section, as line separating view from section,
thin zigzag line; used mainly for automatic plotting, has the use like wavy
thin line,
thick dash line; for marking of admissible areas of surface processing
thin dash line; invisible contours and edges,
thick line with long dash and dot; for limiting the areas of surface processing; location of sections surface,
thin line with long dash and dot; symmetry axes and surfaces, separating
lines,
thin line with dash and two dots; extreme position of moving parts.
Lines in the order of the above order have been presented in the pic. 1.1.
While drawing non-continuous lines one should make sure that:
distance between the dashes or between dashes and points equals 4 widths
of lines
length of dashes for the line with dash and dot should be from 1- to 12 mm,
length of dashes for the dash line should be from 3 to 6 mm,
lines should start, cut across and end with dashes,
for the circles to 12 mm, axes of symmetry should be drawn with thin continuous line.

Pic. 1.1. Drawing lines

1.3. Technical writing

Technical writing in technical drawing is regulated by the norms: PN EN ISO
3098 - 0 , PN - EN ISO 3098 2 and PN EN 3098 5
Values of the heights of the writing h, specified by the norms are: 1,8; 2,5; 3,5;
5; 7; 10; 14;20 [mm].
One distinguishes:
writing of the kind A, in which the width of the line of writing d is d=1/14 h,
writing of the kind B, in which there is the dependency d=1/10 h.
Writing may be straight or slanting with the gradient of 75o to the basis of a
verse. Below is an example of technical slanting writing pic. 1.2.
9

1.4. Scales
Objects in machine drawings may be considerably differentiated as regards
measuring. It causes that one should use the scale, which is the quotient of line
values from the drawing and real line values.
According to the norm PN-EN ISO5455, one should use the following scales:
Increasing scale;
Natural scale;
Decreasing scale;

10

50:1; 20:1; 10:1; 5:1, 2:1,

1:1,
1:2; 1:20; 1:200; 1:2000,
1:5; 1:50; 1:500; 1:5000,
1:10; 1:100; 1:1000; 1:10000.

2.

Patterning of geometrical shape of an object

2.1. Rectangle projecting with the European method

Rectangle projecting with the European method uses the Monge impinging
rule. It is based on marking rectangle projections of solid element on six mutually
perpendicular surfaces projection planes. Through this one gets the following
projections, pic. 2.1.:
projection in the direction A projection from the front, called the main
projection
projection in the direction B projection from the above
projection in the direction C projection from the left
projection in the direction D projection from the right
projection in the direction E projection from the underneath
projection in the direction F projection from the back.

Pic. 2.1. Rectangle projecting projection planes

In the pic. 2.2. the object patterned on six projection planes has been presented.

11

Pic. 2.2. Patterning of the object in six mutually perpendicular projection planes

It is assumed, that:
a) number of projections should be limited to an indispensable minimum for
unambiguous presentation and measuring of an object,
b) the main projection A should present an object in usable or processing
location, from the side presenting its highest number of details,
c) if the usable location is different from the horizontal or the vertical one, the
object is drawn in the location which makes most of its characteristic surfaces
and axes horizontal or vertical in relation to the projection planes.
Projections of objects may be:
views; present the picture of an object while observation from the outside,
sections; presenting the surfaces or details of an object, partly or entirely
covered by other elements of it.
In the starting phase of an object designing it is hard to predict the number
of necessary projections, and what follows the format of the sheet. Engineering
practice suggests, however, to consider the need of using projections B and C
before starting from the main projection A and, if need be, to do the further ones.
One should also remember about the possibilities of using the projections
which are additional views or sections. They will be discussed in the further part
of the script.

2.2. Views
The projection which most frequently takes the place of the main projection
and specifies the highest number of characteristic traits of a patterned object is
called the basic view.
12

The picture of the object, presented entirely in the drawing, is called the complete view. However, when there is a need of showing a certain fragment of an
element, one may use the partial view.
In the case of symmetrical objects of simple structures, one usually uses halfviews or even quarter-views (pic. 3.3).

Pic. 2.3. Patterning of symmetrical objects

Aid view is used in the cases when one should present part of an object in
non-parallel surface to any of basic surfaces of rectangular projection pic. 3.4.

Pic. 2.4. Aid view

13

In specific cases, we also use the partial views, like it is shown in the pic. 2.5 and
pic. 2.6 on an increased scale.

Pic. 2.5. Partial view

Pic. 2.6. Partial view on an increased scale

14

2.3. Sections
Sections are used when there is a necessity of showing geometrical shapes
inside of an object, e.g. all kinds of openings. One gets them by cutting through an
object with an imaginable cutting surface, eliminating part of the object in front of
the surface and drawing flat figure lying within the surface of section and all the
edges lying beside it.
The division of sections may be made by using various criteria. Most frequently
these are the characteristics of:
complexity of the surface of section, which is the number of surfaces,
size of the area of an object covered with section.
2.3.1. Marking of sections
The contouring of a flat figure lying directly within the cutting surface should be
dashed with the thin continuous line in the gradient of 45o towards the horizontal
line, specified most frequently by location of drawing table. In the specific cases it
is possible to dash it in the gradient of 30o or 60o. The scale of dashing is adjusted
according to the size of the dashed area of the section; the smaller it is, the smaller
the distance between dashing lines is and the other way round. It is assumed that
the size of scale is from 0,5 to 5 mm pic. 3.7.
Section of an object in the case of using one cutting surface is presented in the
pic. 3.9 and section with three parallel to each other surfaces is shown in pic. 3.10.

Pic. 2.7. Dashing of sections

Full marking of section includes:

Specification of location of the cutting surface; most frequently in the form
of thick line with long dash and dot, drawn beside the contours of an object
and, if need be, completed with thin line with long dash and dot; in the case
of straight sections, when the location of surface doesnt raise any doubts,
there is no need to mark it,
15

 Specifying the direction of projecting in the form of arrows; in the case

when the set of projections made with the European method is kept, and the
section takes the place of one of the projections, there is no need to make
additional letter markings, which are the capital letters of the Latin alphabet
(letters I, O, Q, R, S, X they are not used in technical drawing).
In the pic. 2.8 graphic tips for drawing and placing arrows are presented.

Pic. 2.8. Graphic markings for section marking

2.3.2. Kinds of sections

Taking into consideration the criteria of division of sections given in the pic. 2.3
below the examples of the most frequently used ones have been shown.
Depending on the used number of surfaces, we divide sections into simple
one surface, and complex two or more surfaces.
Complex sections are divided into gradual when the cutting surfaces are
parallel to each other, and broken if there is an obtuse angle between the surfaces.
Depending on the area covered with section, they are divided into complete,
partial and partitive (called extractions).
Simple sections.
In the pic. 2.9 the element for which it is sufficient to use the simple section is
presented. If the location of cutting surface is obvious, it is permissible not to mark
it. However, one should always remember about drawing the edges lying beside the
surface.

16

Pic. 2.9. Simple section

Complex sections
As it was mentioned above, complex sections occur when there was one or more
cutting surface used for making the sections. However, while drawing this kind of
section, elements presented on different surfaces join in in one - mutual.
In the pic. 2.10 the object is presented, the structure of which required the usage
of the three cutting surfaces, mutually parallel. This section is called the gradual
section. Location of cutting surfaces is completed here with the line with long dash
and a dot. Moreover, one should pay attention to the fact, that the gradual section
is obtained by bringing the sections placed closer or further from an observer to
one surface.

Pic. 2.10. Complex section the gradual one

The other kind of complex section is presented in the pic. 3.11. Cutting surfaces
have been used here, the trails of which create the obtuse angle. This is the broken
section.
17

Pic. 2.11. Complex section the broken one

Complete sections
The sections presented in the pictures 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11 belong to the group of
complete sections, because they present the full section of the whole object.
Partial sections
In the case of simple symmetrical objects or the ones of rotary shapes one may
easily use the partial section presenting only a certain part of the object contouring.
It allows for making graphical works much easier, while knowing the same information about the designed element.
In the pic. 2.12 the object in the projection being half-section was shown, and in
the pic. 2.13 half-view and half-section is shown (projection A).

Pic. 2.12. Rotary solid, half-view

18

Pic.2.13. Projections of symmetrical object half-view and half-section

In the case of the half-section, one should pay attention to the fact that according to the norm it may be the right or the left side of the projection. Symmetry of
the object has been marked by drawing the segments of the thin continuous line on
the axis (pic. 2.12).
Its worth adding that in engineering practice while patterning a rotary object in
one projection, one draws it mainly in the half-view of the half-section, despite the
fact that half-section is sufficient.
Using the sections presented in the pic. 2.13, one should make sure that the
visible edge of an object doesnt stand the line delimiting the half-view and the
half-section pic. 2.14.

Pic. 2.14. Patterning of hexagons in various locations

19

Partitive sections.
Partitive section, commonly called extraction, is used when there is a need
of showing small interior details of an object, with no need of using the complete
section. Drawn in the view of the object, it is separated with the wavy line (the thin
one) pic. 2.15.

Pic. 2.15. Examples of using the partitive section (extraction)

While using this type of section one should remember that the line limiting the
section should never overlap with the line of contour or the edge of an object. If one
is drawing several sections lying close to each other, it is best to join them together.
Sometimes there is a need of showing a detail of an object, in increased scale.
Such case is presented in the pic. 2.16.

Pic. 2.16. Partitive sections in increased scale

20

2.3.3. Sections
Section is the contour of a geometrical figure lying within the surface of cross
section of an object, after bringing this surface to the surface of the made drawing
(which is the rotation of 90o). The difference between section and section is based
on the rule that in the case of section one doesnt draw the contours of views placed
beside the surface of section.
Sections are divided into:
local sections pic. 2.17, drawn with the thin line in the view of an object,
detail sections pic. 2.18, drawn besides the view of an object.

Pic. 2.17. Local section

Pic. 2.18. Detail sections

21

2.4. Notices concerning drawing of views and sections

Below we will discuss the issues which one may encounter while patterning an
object, and which are not included in the previous chapters.
Generally, full elements, including the ones of rotary shapes are not presented.
If there is a need of showing details, one should use the partitive sections, pic. 2.19.

Pic. 2.19. Full object of rotary shapes

And that is how the elements like pegs, clinches, pivots, bolts, chocks, mortises,
drawn in compounding drawings, are presented in views.
One shouldnt also draw ribs, thin walls, arms of wheels pic. 2.20.

Pic. 2.20. Element of rib type

Long objects, which dont include any details which would require showing,
may be shortened in their middle part, in the way shown in the pic. 2.21.

22

Pic. 2.21. Drawing of long objects

23

3.

Notation of Dimensions

Most of the elements of machines are made of basic geometrical creations such
as cylinder, sphere, cone or prism. They are usually slightly modified after processing, however it doesnt change their characteristic contour. This fact has essential
influence on the notation of dimensions of a particular element.

3.1. Graphic rules of notation of dimensions

Notation of dimensions in the drawing requires locating of several graphic
elements. These are:
dimension line 1
mark of dimension line limitation 2
dimension number 3
dimension mark 4
aid dimension line 5 (pic. 4.1)

Pic. 3.1. Graphic elements of dimensions notation

24

Dimension lines are drawn as thin continuous lines, parallel to the edge of an
object, in the distance not smaller than 10 mm from the line of its contour and 7
mm from the parallel dimension line. The rule is that these lines shouldnt cross
each other.
Marks of dimension lines limitation are boltheads, the construction of which
is discussed in the pic. 4.2a, and if there is no place, boltheads can be replaced by
slanting dashes or by dots of about 1 mm in diameter pic. 3.2b.
Auxiliary lines are drawn with thin continuous line, lengthened by about 2 mm
beyond corresponding to them dimension lines, parallel to them.
Dimension numbers should be placed above the dimension lines, possibly in
the middle. One should write them down so that they are legible in two locations
of a sheet. One gives line dimensions in mm and angle dimensions in degrees,
minutes and seconds.

Pic. 3.2. Marks of dimension lines limitations

The use of proper dimension marks makes the measuring much easier; it limits
the number of projections, which makes reading of a drawing easier.
The most frequently used dimension marks are:
- diameter; e.g. 100
- R radius; e.g. R50,
- square; e.g. 100,
- 6 - hexagon; e.g. 6 100,
- SR radius of sphere; e.g. SR100,
- S diameter of sphere; e.g. S100,
- x thickness of object presented in one projection; e.g. x 5,
- M metric thread; e.g. M20.
One should pay attention especially to the difference between placing dimension marks of square and hexagon in the pic. 4.3.

25

Pic. 3.3. Measuring of hexagon and square

3.2. General rules of measuring

When attempting to dimension, one should strictly obey the rules given above.
The rule of necessary dimensions orders to give only necessary dimensions on
a drawing for unambiguous reconstruction of an element.
The rule of non-repetition of dimensions assumes that each of the dimensions
is given in a drawing only one time. Giving the same dimension on several projections is a mistake. One should also make sure that a dimension is given there,
where it is best readable and understandable. That is why, while having e.g. two
projections of an element to choose from, one should dimension diameters on
section pic. 3.4.

Pic. 3.4. Measuring (model UM)

26

The rule of open measuring chain orders to omit one of the dimensions considered as the resultant in measuring chain. Then, we get open measuring chain. If
the dimension makes reading of drawings easier, one may give it as auxiliary one,
informative in brackets pic. 3.5.

Pic. 3.5. The rule of open measuring chain

The rule of obvious dimensions omission orders to omit the obvious dimensions, such as e.g. angle dimensions equaling respectively 0o and 90o.

3.3. Kinds of measuring

The following ways of measuring the objects are distinguished:
measuring in the serial system of dimensions, based on giving dimensions
one after another; this way is used when attention is paid to precision of mutual location of the neighboring geometrical elements of an object pic. 3.6,

Pic. 3.6. Measuring in serial system

27

 measuring in parallel system of dimensions, is based on one measuring

base; this way is used when there is a necessity of precise location of geometrical elements of an object towards one measuring base pic. 3.7,

Pic. 3.7. Measuring in parallel system

measuring in mixed system of dimensions is a mixture of serial and parallel measuring pic. 3.8,

Pic. 3.8. Measuring in mixed system

28

4.

Marking of Surface Roughness

Roughness, which is a geometrical structure of worked surfaces, is described

usually with the aid of parameter Ra, specified as arithmetic mean of absolute values
of profiles deviation from average line in the range of elementary segment.
In the picture the value of roughness has been presented in micrometers.
Normalized, advisable by the norm values of the parameter Ra are given in the
table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Advisable values of parameter Ra [m]
Ra [m]

Ra[ m]

Ra[ m]

400

12,5

0,40

200

6,3

0,20

100

3,2

0,100

50

1,6

0,050

25

0,80

0,025

4.1. Marks of roughness

The basic graphic mark used for marking roughness in the drawing is made of
two segments of the continuous of various length, inclined in the angle of 60o to the
line which marks the surface pic. 5.1.

Pic. 4.1. The basic graphic mark of roughness

29

The heights H1 and H2 are adjusted depending on the height of writing in the
drawing sheet.
For marking roughness graphic symbols presented in the pic. 5.2 ought to be
used.

Pic. 4.2. Graphic symbols of marking the roughness

The mark in the pic. 5.2a is used for marking several surfaces of an object,
most frequently in collective markings of roughness.
In the pic. 5.2b the mark used when an expected roughness of a surface is gotten
without removing or with removing a layer of material was shown. The mark in
the pic. 5.2c is used when an expected roughness of surface is gotten only with
removing a layer of material; in the pic. 5.2d without removing a layer of material.
Another mark, 5.2e, is used when one should keep roughness from the previous
technological process or for metallurgic making, e.g. raw cast. The last mark is
used for giving detailed characteristics of surfaces roughness. Marks of roughness
should be placed in the right upper corner of a drawing, according to the pic. 5.3,
in the distance from 5 to 10 mm from frame.

Pic. 4.3. Placing of mark of roughness in drawings

30

5.

TOLERANCES AND FITS

5.1. Tolerances of line dimensions

Tolerating is based on specifying the range of values of permissible deviations
from the nominal dimension.
Dimensions specifying a patterned object may be divided into: external dimensions (e.g. external diameters) pic. 6.1a, internal (e.g. internal diameters) pic.
6.1a, mixed pic. 6.1b and intermediate pic. 6.1c.

Pic. 5.1 Kinds of dimensions

As regards precision of making an element, dimensions may be divided into:

free, theoretical and tolerated.
Free dimensions are the ones for which there is no need to specify the deviation. Theoretical dimensions are also specified without giving deviations, they are
usually dimensions for adjusting tools or tests. Tolerated dimensions are the ones
for which deviations have been specified.
The dimension towards which the deviations are specified is the nominal dimension N pic. 6.2.
Upper side dimension B (Bo is specified for internal dimension and Bw for
external dimension) it is the highest permissible value of the tolerated dimension.
Lower side dimension B (Ao is specified for internal dimension and Aw for
external dimension) it is the lowest permissible value of the tolerated dimension.
Upper deviation (ES for internal dimension and es for external dimension) it is
the remainder of upper side dimension and nominal dimension.

31

ES = es = B N
Lower deviation (EI for internal dimension and ei for external dimension) it is
the remainder between lower side dimension and nominal dimension.
EI = ei = A N
The area of tolerance T is the area included in between upper and lower side
dimension.
T = B A = es ei = ES EI

Pic. 5.2. Marks of location of dimensions, deviations and tolerances

The following can be distinguished:

normal tolerating
free tolerating
Normal tolerating is based on giving deviations based on set of tolerances
included in proper norms. Free tolerating is based on giving deviations not connected with any conditions included in norms.
The example of marking dimensions normal tolerating is presented in the pic. 5.3.

Pic. 5.3. Drawing notation of normal tolerating

32

Letter symbols placed next to the dimension number specify the location of area
of tolerance towards the baseline. Distribution of basic deviations and their letter
symbols are presented in the pic. 5.4.

Pic. 5.4. Distribution of basic deviations for shafts and openings

In the notation of tolerated dimensions in the pic. 5.3, the numbers by the letters
h6, H7 signify class of precision of making. There are 20 obligatory precision
classes: 01; 0; 1; 2 18, in order of decreasing precision.
The values of deviations read from the norms, indicated always in mm, are
noted in table placed in the left upper corner of a drawing, as shown on the pic. 5.5.

Pic. 5.5. Table of deviations placed in a drawing

33

5.2. Fits of elements

One specifies fit as a way of co-operation of parts co-operating with each other:
shaft (in conventional meaning of external dimension) and opening (in conventional meaning of internal dimension).
We distinguish the following fits:
loose
tight
mixed
Loose fit occurs when the area of toleration of a shaft lies under the area of
toleration of an opening. Tight fit occurs when the area of toleration of a shaft lies
above the area of toleration of an opening; mixed fit when these areas overlap
completely or partially.
In a general structure of machines we commonly use the following fits:
on the basis of continuous opening H
on the basis of continuous shaft h
The first one of them is privileged. In case of the opening, the location of which
is specified by the letter H, we adjust the toleration of shaft from the norms so as to
provide the assumed co-operation of these elements.
The notation of fit used in drawings is presented in the pic. 5.6.

Pic. 5.6. The notation of fit

5.3. Tolerating of shape and location

The norm PN - 87/M 01145 specifies the rules of tolerance of shape and
location. The notation used in drawings should include:
mark of kind of tolerance,
number value of tolerance.
In the pic. 5.7 there is a notation of:
34

 tolerance of shape:
a) rectilinearity pi. 5.7a,
b) flatness pic. 5.7b,
c) roundness pic. 5.7c,
d) cylindricality pic. 5.7d,
tolerance of location:
e) parallelism pic. 5.7e,
f) perpendicularity pic. 5.7f,
g) inclination pic. 5.7g,
h) coaxiality pic. 5.7h,
i) symmetry pic. 5.7i,
j) position pic. 5.7j,
tolerance of shape and location of:
k) squareness pic. 5.7k,
l) complete beating pic. 5.7l,
m) shape of a given contour pic. 5.7m,
n) shape of marked surface pic. 5.7.

Pic. 5.7. Graphic signs for notation of tolerance, shape and location

The way of notation of shape and location in drawings is presented in the pic. 5.8.

Pic. 5.8. Notation of tolerance and shape in drawing

Notices for desig classes

Signs of tolerance, shape and location should be written in with the height of
writing h = 3,5 mm, height of frame should be 2h = 7 mm
35

6.

Connections

6.1. Thread connections

Thread connections belong to the group of disjoint connections.
Threads are characterized by the following values:
diameter of a thread
scale
shape of a threads contour triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal symmetrical and non-symmetrical, round.
All kinds of threads are drawn in the same way, completing the dimensions with
normalized marks.
One of the most frequently used threads is the metrical thread (of triangular
contour) marked with the letter M.
Elements with threads are drawn with simplification, patterning the bottoms
of furrows with the continuous thin line, the peaks of a threads ledges with the
continuous thick line and ends of threads with continuous thick line, transversal
towards the axis of a thread pic. 6.1.
Distance from the thin line to the thick line equals the height of a thread, and
is not smaller than 0,8 mm. In projection on surface perpendicular to the axis of a
thread, one marks the thread by drawing continuous thin line for of a circle. This
line shouldnt start or end on axes of symmetry.

36

Pic. 6.1. Elements with metrical and trapezoidal symmetrical threads

Examples of thread connections are presented in the pic. 7.2 and the pic. 7.3.

Pic. 6.2. Thread connection

37

Pic. 6.3. Examples of thread connections

While patterning the thread connections, one draws them so that the external
thread always covers the internal thread.
Heads of threads should be drawn according to the pic. 6.4. In the same way one
draws nuts, taking the height of nut w = 0,8 d.

In which:
d according to the norm PN/M02013,
dr = 0,8d,
s dimension for wrench,
D 1,15s,
k 0,7d,
R1- 3/4D,
R2 - 0,5D,
R3 result of construction,
R4 from tables.
Pic. 6.4. Drawing of heads of hexagonal screws

6.2. Welded connections

Welded connections belong to disjoint connections, in which the fundamental
joining element is a weld. There are dozen or so various kinds of welds. One may
draw welded connections in simplified way or in conventional way. While patterning the welded connection in the simplified way, in view, in projection from the
side of welds face, one marks it by drawing a row of perpendicular to each other
arches with continuous thin line. In projection from the front, one draws contour
38

of elements of connection and of the weld with continuous thick line. In section,
the weld is to be blackened. In the pic. 6.5 there is a spandrel weld and in the pic.
6.6 the front weld with characteristic dimensions is shown.

Pic. 6.5. Spandrel weld

Pic. 6.6. Front weld

39

While using the conventional way of patterning of welded connection, one

assumes that the weld specified with a proper graphic mark is known, and that
is why one doesnt draw it. The location of the weld, its shape and dimensions are
given in the way presented below in the pic. 6.7.

Pic. 6.7. Measuring of spandrel and front weld, graphic marks

The line of correspondence should be drawn with continuous thin line ended
with an arrowhead which should touch the weld, most often from the front side.
The graphic mark of weld should be drawn on the shelf of marking line. Characteristic dimensions of cross section of the weld should be written on the left from
the mark, while for the front welds it is the value s, and for the spandrel welds there
are values a or z. On the right side of the mark of weld one places the dimensions
of profile section of the weld, its length. The identifying line (dashed one) drawn
under the marking line specifies the location of weld towards the placed dimension. The location and measuring shown in the pic. 6.7 is the one most often used.

6.3. 7.3. Inlet connection

Inlet connections belong to the group of disjoint connections. One distinguishes prism, shuttle, suppository symmetrical and suppository non-symmetrical
inlets.
In the pic. 6.8 the prism inlet of A type is presented.

40

In which: b width, h- height, l length

Pic. 6.8. Prism inlet

The connection with the use of inlet is presented in the pic. 6.9.

Pic. 6.9. Inlet connection

Inlets are measured in the simplified way. From the contour of inlet one draws
the line of correspondence and the marking line, above which one writes in, for
prism inlets:
- prism inlet
- letter sign meaning the type of inlet
- values of width, height and length
- number of a proper norm
This notation has the following form: Prism inlet A 12 x 8 x 56 PN/M-85005

41

6.4. Splined connections

Splined connections belong to the group of disjoint connections. They provide the connection by properly shaped inlets. One distinguishes parallel splins
and evolvent splins.
The example of a parallel splin is presented in the pic. 6.10.
In which:
d internal diameter,
D external diameter,
B width of splin.
Pic. 6.10. Contour of splined shaft

Elements of spline connector and the connector itself are drawn with simplification, in the way presented in the pic 6.11

Pic. 6.11. Elements and spline connectors: a) shaft, b) hub, c) connector

42

Measuring of an element of spline connector includes the following markings:

- graphic mark of spline,
- number of the norm PN ISO 14,
- number of splines e.g. 8,
- dimension of internal diameter e.g. 32,
- dimension of external diameter e.g. 36.
The above mentioned values are compliant with the norm.

43

7.

Example Solutions of Subjects of Design Exercises

Pic. 7.1. PH plate

44

Pic. 7.2. UC model

45

Pic. 7.3. UO model

46

Pic. 7.4. Lever II

47

Pic. 7.5. Connector II

48

Number of cogs

79

Normal module

Angle of contour

20

Coord. of height of the cog

Coord. of dislocation of contour

Class of precision

Scale diameter

395

Height of the cog

8,5

Pic. 7.6. Gear

49

Literature
1. Bajkowski J.: Bases of notation of construction Publishing house of Warsaw
University of Technology, Warsaw 2005 (Podstawy zapisu konstrukcji Oficyna
Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warszawa 2005).
2. Bober A., Dudziak M.: Notation of construction Scientific Press of the PWN,
Warsaw 1999 (Zapis konstrukcji. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa
1999).
3. Dobrzaski T.: Machine technical drawing. Scientific and technical Presses,
Warsaw 2004 (Rysunek techniczny maszynowy. Wydawnictwa Naukowo Techniczne, Warszawa 2004).
4. Lewandowski T.: Technical drawing for mechanics. School and Pedagogical
Press (SPP), Warsaw 2003 (Rysunek techniczny dla mechanikw. WSiP, Warszawa 2003).
5. Polish Norms. Technical Drawing and Machine Technical Drawing. (Polskie
Normy. Rysunek Techniczny i Rysunek Techniczny Maszynowy).

50

Grzegorz Poniewa

Chapter II
Designing of screw mechanisms and gears

1.

Designing of screw lift

Srew lift designed with drive through the srew. Basic guidelines of construction
include:
working load of the lift 20kN
height of lifting 300mm
welded construction of the corpus
movable crown (korona ruchoma) enabling nuts(nakrtka) rotary towards
the screw
pole triggered drive.

1.1. Calculation of the diameter of core of the screw and adjustment

of thread
Assuming that material of the screw is steel C35 of the following resistance
parameters: kcj = 85MPa, kgj = 75MPa, kgj = 115MPa.
In the considered case of the screw lift the core of the screw is loaded with axin
force arousing the squeezing stresses and with the twining moment arousing the
twining stress. However, taking into consideration a considerable length of the
screw, the resistance to buckling decides, above all, about its resistance. Thus, we
can write down the resistance condition:

R
Q
kw w
A
xw

In which:
51

Q axin load of the lift,

A area of the section of the screws core,
Rw limit of resistance to buckling,
xw safety factoron buckling.
With regards to a considerable height of lifting and the character of screws
fixing (one end placed in the nut, the other one free) we may assume that slimness
of the screw will be bigger than the limit slimness, so for calculations of the lift we
can use the Euler formula:
RW

2 E
s2

In which:
E Youngs module, we assume it for steel 210000MPa,
s slimness expressed through the formula,
s

ls
0,25d3

ls free (buckling) length including height of lifting and height of crown, also
the place remained for the drive and way of fixing the screw,
d3 diameter of the screws core.
In the analyzed calculation example, the whole length of twined screw with the
crown equals:
l = H + Hk
in which:
H the assumed height of lifting
Hk height of the crown
We assume that the height of crown will be Hk = 60mm, so the free length will be:
ls
2l
2 H Hk
720 mm

After transforming the Eulers formula well get the formula allowing to mark
the diameter of the screws core:
d3

52

64 xw Qls2
3 E

Assuming that the buckling safety factorxw = 5, well get the diameter of the core:

d3

64 5 20000 7202

26,71mm
3 210000

On the basis of the norm PN-ISO 2904+A:1996 we adjust the trapezoidal symmetrical thread Tr346 of the following geometrical parameters:
d = 34,00mm, d3 = 27,00mm, D1 = 28,00mm, D4 = 35,00mm, P = 6mm.
We calculate the slimness for the assumed thread and compare the received
result with the value of limit slimness (Table 1.2):

ls
720

106,67
0,25d3 0,25 27

For the assumed material of the screw, the limit slimness is sgr = 90, so the
condition of applicability has been met:

s 106,67 s
90
gr

Table 1.1 Trapezoidal metrical threads (PN-ISO 2904+A:1996)

Nominal
size
d

Scale
P

Diameter of
the screws
thread d3

Internal
diameter
D1

External
diameter
D4

10

1,5
2

8,20
7,50

8,50
8,00

10,30
10,50

12

2
3

9,50
8,50

10,00
9,00

12,50
12,50

14

2
3

11,50
10,50

12,00
11,00

14,50
14,50

16

2
4

13,50
11,50

14,00
12,00

16,50
16,50

18

2
4

15,50
13,50

16,00
14,00

18,50
18,50

20

2
4

17,50
15,50

18,00
16,00

20,50
20,50

53

22

3
5
8

18,50
16,50
13,00

19,00
17,00
14,00

22,50
22,50
23,00

24

3
5
8

20,50
18,50
15,00

21,00
19,00
16,00

24,50
24,50
25,00

26

3
5
8

22,50
20,50
17,00

23,00
21,00
18,00

26,50
26,50
27,00

28

3
5
8

24,50
22,50
19,00

25,00
23,00
20,00

28,50
28,50
29,00

30

3
6
10

26,50
23,00
19,00

27,00
24,00
20,00

30,50
31,00
31,00

32

3
6
10

28,50
25,00
21,00

29,00
26,00
22,00

32,50
33,00
33,00

34

3
6
10

30,50
27,00
23,00

31,00
28,00
24,00

34,50
35,00
35,00

36

3
6
10

32,50
29,00
25,00

33,00
30,00
26,00

36,50
37,00
37,00

38

3
7
10

34,50
30,00
27,00

35,00
31,00
28,00

38,50
39,00
39,00

40

3
7
10

36,50
32,00
29,00

37,00
33,00
30,00

40,50
41,00
41,00

44

3
7
12

40,50
36,00
31,00

41,00
37,00
32,00

44,50
45,00
45,00

46

3
8
12

42,50
37,00
33,00

43,00
38,00
34,00

46,50
47,00
47,00

Source: The norm PN-ISO 2904+A:1996

54

Table 1.2. Values of material coordinates Ro, R1, sgr

Material

Symbol

R0
MPa

R1
MPa

sgr

Coal steel, very soft

S185, C10, C15

303

1,29

112

Coal steel, soft

S235JR, S235JRG1, C20, C22, C30

310

1,19

105

Coal steel, middle hard

S275JR, E295, C35, C40, C45

335

0,62

90

Coal steel, very hard

E360, C55, C60

470

2,3

86

Source: Szewczyk K., Thread connections (Poczenia gwintowe), Warszawa, Scientific Press of the
PWN (Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN), 1991

We calculate the buckling safety factor as follows:

Rw

2 E 2 210000

182,15MPa
s2
106,672

4Q 4 20000

34,93MPa
d32
272

x
w

Rw 182,15

5,21
c 34,93

The safety factor has achieved the value inconsiderably higher than the one assumed in the beginning, so we can say that the thread has been adjusted correctly.

1.2. Calculation of nuts dimensions

We assume that the material of nut bronze CuSn10Pb10 is characterized by
small fraction coefficient in cooperation with steel. We mark the height of the nut
on the basis of condition of surface pressure on threads pitches. With regard to
mutual movement of the screw and the nut under considerable load of values of
permissible stress we assume pdop = 12MPa:
p

Q
4QP

pdop
2
A d D12 H n

55

In which:
Hn is the height of nut,
D1 is the internal diameter of nut
After transforming and substituting the values, we mark the minimal height of
nut resulting from the condition of surface stresses:
Hn

4QP
4 20000 6

34,23mm
2
d D1 pdop 342 282 12
2

With regard to necessity of providing a good cooperation between screw and

nut, additionally there should be the so-called condition of good conduction met,
on whose basis the height of nut should be:
H n 1,2 1,5 d 1,2 1,5 34 40,8 51,0mm

Finally, we get the height of nut Hn = 45mm.

The external diameter of nut is marked through putting the same deformation
of screw and nut while remembering that the above mentioned assumption will be
real only in the case when the screw and the nut are squeezed at the same time. In
order to meet the above assumption, there should be the following dependency:
1
1

Es As En An

In which:
Es and En are the values of Youngs module for materials of screw and nut (Es =
210000MPa for steel, En = 100000MPa for bronze), then As and An are the areas
of full sections of the screw and the nut.
After transforming, well get the dependency allowing to mark the diameter of
external nut Dz:
Dz2 D42
d32
Es
En
4
4

and on:
D
z

Es 2
2
d3 D
4
En

210000 2
2
52, 49mm
27 35
100000

We assume the external diameter of the nut Dz = 54mm.

56

1.3. Strength calculations of screw

We mark the moment of strength in thread connection while lifting the load,
on the basis of the dependency:

M s 0,5Qds tg

In which:
Ds average diameter of screw and nuts cooperation

ds

d D1 34 28
31mm
2
2

angle of the screw lines lifting

tg

P
6

0,0616
ds 31

=3,53
apparent angle of friction for the friction coordinate = 0,1
tg

0,1
0,1035
cos r cos15

=5,91
By substituting the above data well get the value of the moment of strength in
thread connection:
M s 0,5 20000 31 tg 3,53 5,91 51543 Nmm

We mark stresses reduced in the core of screw; however, with regards to the fact
that the basic condition during calculations is the buckling condition, one should
expect that the marked values will be smaller than the permissible values.

c2 3 s2 kcj

c 34,93MPa

57

16 M s 16 51543

13,34MPa
d33
273

Thus, we can mark the value of reduced stresses:

2
34,932 3 13,34

41,88MPa
kcj 85MPa

1.4. Calculations of drive pole

We assume the force of arm on the level of 250N (from the range of values 200
300). If we assume that between crown and screw well place a small ball, we may
also assume that the value of the moment of friction between the ball and the nest
is small in relation to the value of the moment of friction in the coils of thread.
Thus, we can omit its value and while calculating the length of pole, we take into
consideration only the moment M5

Pic. 1.1. The scheme of lift driving

The length of pole (distance from the axin of screw) is marked on the basis of
the dependency:
M s 51543

ln
206mm
250
Pr
We assume the value ln = 205mm.
Assuming the material of pole, steel C55, and assuming the diameter of the poles
placement in the range:
dz

1,1 1,2 d 1,1 1,2 34

we assume the value dz = 40mm.

58

37,2 40,8mm

The diameter of pole is marked from the condition for folding:

dn

32 M g
k gj

In which:
M g Pr (ln 0,5dz )

Thus, by substituting the values we get:

32Pr ln 0,5dz

k gj

dn

32 250 205 0,5 40

14, 48mm
155

And we assume the diameter of driving pole dn = 14,5mm

In the end we check stresses in the nest of driving pole, one should remember
to assume permissible stresses as permissible values for a lighter material.
pmax

6 M s 6 51543

13, 4MPa pdop 28MPa

dz2 dn 402 14,5

1.5. Calculating of the basis

Assume constructing the internal diameter of the basis Dpw = 90mm and the
external diameter Dpz = 150mm, then mark the value of the basis stress on the
ground assuming pdop = 2MPa as the permissible values.

Q
4Q

2
A D pz D 2pw
4 20000
1,77MPa p
2MPa
dop
1502 902

The marked values of surface stresses on the ground are smaller than permissible values, thus the assumed constructing dimensions of the basis are to be
considered as the correct ones.

59

1.6. Testing calculations of the corpus

Assuming that the corpus of lift will be made of steel pipe without seam (material S235JR) of the external diameter 56mm and thickness of wall 3mm, mark
slimness of the pipe assuming that its length equals the height of lift, fully pulled
out.
s

ls
ls
1440

76,7
2
2
ix 0,25 Dkz Dkw
0,25 562 502

With regard to the slimness being smaller than the limit slimness (sgr = 105
- Table 2), thus the permanent buckling occurs there and the Tetmajers formula
should be used:
R
R0 R1s
w

For the assumed corpus the constants R0 and R1 takes the following values:
R0 = 310MPa, R1 = 1,19MPa
After substitution one gets:
Rw = R0 R1s = 310 1,19x76,7 = 218,7MPa
Marking of the buckling safety factor for the corpus of lift:
2
2
2
2
Rw Rw Dkz Dkw 218,7 56 50
x

5, 46
w
c
4Q
4 20000

The calculated safety factor is bigger than the assumed at the beginning value
and it is bigger than buckling safety factor for the screw, thus one may assume that
the thickness of wall of the pipe has been fitted correctly. One should remember
that in reality the value of buckling safety factor for the corpus is bigger than the
marked one, which is beneficial, this difference results from the regard to the
accepted simplifications of the model of calculations.

1.7. Testing calculations of placing the nut in nest

Assume that the nut will be placed in nest with tight fitting H7/s6 or H7/r6.
Besides, assume that axis load will be moved through the surface of the nest of
nuts bottom. The nut will be secured from rotation, with two longitudinal pegs.
60

Check the condition of nuts stresses on the bottom of the nest (permissible
stresses for bronze CuSn10Pb10 pdop= 28MPa), assuming the internal diameter of
the nest Dw= 36mm (for the thread Tr346):
p

4Q
4 20000
pdop 28MPa

15,72MPa
2
2
Dz Dw 542 362

Assuming two cylindrical pegs 418 on the basis of the norm PN-ISO8734:2003,
we check resistance conditions for stresses and the cuttings of the pegs.
p

2Ms
2 51543

26,5MPa pdop 28MPa

Dz dk lk 54 4 18

Ms
51543
ktj 61MPa

13,3MPa
Dz dk lk 54 4 18

The pegs have been fitted correctly and they will secure net from rotation. An
additional security from the rotary of net will be placing of the net in nest by using
tight fit H7/s6 or H7/r6.

1.8. Testing calculations for security from full unscrewing of lifts

screw
The screw of the lift should be secured from the possibility of full unscrewing
from the net. One may use a washer of the external diameter 45mm, tightened
with the aid of screw of left-twisting thread M10LH. The screw should enable load
of stretching force of the value equaling to the lifted load Q.

4Q 4 20000

382,45MPa
d32 8,1602

Thus we may use the screw M10LH35of the class of mechanical features 8.8
for which the limit of plasticity is Re = 640MPa.

1.9. Screw lift with drive through the screw model 3D

In the pictures 1.2 and 1.3 the 3D model of the calculated before screw lift with
drive through the screw has been presented. In the next picture 1.4 the fragment of
unveiled upper part of the lift is shown; there are visible screws securing the crown
61

from sliding off the screw and cylindrical pegs securing the net from rotary in the
nest. Pic. 1.5 presents the lower part of lift in section, there is a visible washer and the
screw securing the main screw from full unscrewing of the net. One should remember that the securing screw has the opposite thread in relation to the main screw.

Pic. 1.2. Screw lift with drive through the screw 3D model

Pic. 1.3. The view of upper part of the lift

Pic. 1.4. Section of the upper part of the lift

62

Pic. 1.5. Lower part of the lift securing washer

63

2.

Designing of reducer with cylindrical wheels with screw

cogs

We design one-step reducer with cylindrical wheels with screw cogs. Introductory data for calculations:
force by entering of transmission N = 15kW,
rotary speed on entering n1 = 1000obr/min,
transmission ratio u= 4 3%,
hour durability Lh = 12000h.

2.1. Introductory selection of wheels dimensions

With regard to a complicated character of conditions deciding on wheels resistance, marking of dimensions on their basis is made highly difficult. Thus, making
introductory calculations of wheels dimensions seems to be necessary, while
assuming lots of important parameters of cog wheel, and checking of resistance
conditions and potential correcting of the assumed dimensions. The divisional
diameter of the smaller wheel may be marked on the basis of the dependency [1]:

d1 270 3

N
u 1

n1 Qu u

mm

In which:
Qu rate of load,
relative width of cog wreath of pinion, = b/d1 ,
N force located by the calculated pair of wheels [kW],
u geometrical transmission ratio,
n1 rotary speed of pinion
The ratio of load Qu is approximately proportional to stresses in the bottom of
cog and to contact stresses. We may assume its values for transmission of general
use dependently on the circuit speed of cog while assuming the use of alloy steel
for carburizing [1]:
64

3, 46 6,92 mm2 , przy 5m s

Qu
2, 42 5,20 N , przy 5m s

mm 2

Relative width of cog wreath one may assume by the Table 2.1. Assuming introductorily the value Qu = 6N/mm2 and = 0,75 well get the divisional diameter
of pinion:
d1 270 3

N
u 1
15
4 1
43, 45mm
270 3

n1 Qu u
1000 0,75 6 4

Table 2.1. Advisable values of relative width of pinion = b/d1

Hardness of cogs sides

Location of wheels
towards bearing

HB 350

HB > 350

Symmetrical

0,80 1,40

0,40 0,90

Non-symmetrical

0,60 1,20

0,30 0,60

supporting

0,30 0,40

0,20 0,25

Source: Dziama A., Michniewicz M., Niedwiedzki A., Przekadnie zbate, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1989

The divisional diameter may be marked also on the basis of other dependency
[2]:

d1 f H

Ms K u 1

2
HP
u

mm

In which:
H = 770 for the wheels of simple cogging
H = 690 for the wheels of diagonal cogging
Ms = turning moment of pinion
K working coordinate, first we may assume the values of the range 1,3-1,7,
HP permissible contact stresses
Hlim contact exhaustion resistance, by assuming the use of wheel of alloy steel
for carbonizing, the value = 1600 1630MPa.

65

Substituting the assumed values for the above dependency well get:
15
1,5
9550
Ms K u 1
4 1
1000
3

41,56mm
d1 f H 3
690
2
2
HP u
4
0,75 0,8 1600

We can notice that on the basis of both dependencies weve got the approximate values of divisional diameter and for the further calculations we can assume
smaller value.
Using introductorily marked value of divisional diameter we may mark the
distance between axes of wheels:

a 0,5d1 u 1

Next, assuming the number of pinions cogs z1 and the angle of gradient of the
line of cogs we mark the nominal module:
mn

2a
cos
z1 u 1

In which:
Z1 number of cogs of the pinion (Table 2.2)
- angle of cogs gradient (advisable values 8 20o)
Table 2.2. Advisable number of pinions cogs
Wheels material

Transmission ratio
1

Improved steel HB < 230

32 60

29 55

25 50

22 45

Improved steel HB >300

30 50

25 45

23 40

20 35

Carbonized steel

21 32

19 29

16 25

14 22

Note: use lower ranges with: n1 < 1000 rotations/min, upper with: n1 > 3000 rotations/
min
Source: Dziama A., Michniewicz M., Niedwiedzki A., Przekadnie zbate, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1989

Taking the values z1 = 19 and = 15, and next substituting in the formulae
well get:
a 0,5d1 u 1 0,5 41,56 4 1 103,09mm

66

2a
2 103,09

cos

cos15 2,10mm
z1 u 1
19 4 1

mn

Mark the number of cogs of big wheel, remembering that wheels dont have
mutual aliquots:
z 2 u z1 4 19 76
Take the normalized value of module (Table 2.3), number of cogs of the bigger
wheel and then mark real transmission ratio:

mn 2,25

z 2 77

z 2 77
4,05
z1 19

Table 2.3. Chosen normalized values of nominal modules mn

Sequence
1
2

Nominal module mn [mm]

1

1,25

1,5

2,5

10

12

1,125

1,375

1,75

2,25

2,75

3,5

4,5

5,5

11

14

Source: Norm PN-ISO 54:2001

Table 2.4. Chosen lengths of axes of general purpose reducers aw

Sequence
1
2

Axis distance aw [mm]

50

63

80

100

125

160

200

225

56

71

90

112

140

180

225

280

Source: Norm PN-M-88525:1993

After taking normalized value of module and number of cogs we mark the zero
distance of axis again and take normalized real distance of axis aw (Table 2.4).
m z z
2,25 19 77
a n 1 2

111,81mm
cos
2
cos15
2

aw 112mm

67

We should remember that regarding resistance issues, it is very useful to

conduct positive construction correction which allows to regulate the value of
folding stresses by the bottom of cogs of both wheels. As long as it is possible, it
is advisable to take the coordinate of contour dislocation for the smaller wheel x1
0,5. In order to make conduction of positive correction of the type P possible,
the zero distance of the axis should be smaller than the distance aw of the value
which equals approximately 0,5 mn. In the case when this value is higher than 1
mn , one should make the correction of the taken angle of gradient of cogs line or
number of wheels cogs z2. For further calculations, take the following parameters
of transmission rate:

z1 19

z 2 77

mn 2,25

13

y n 1
c * 0,25
n 20

aw 112mm

b 35mm

2.2. Calculations of the basic geometrical dimensions of transmission

rate
Before proceeding to check resistance calculations, one should make construction correction, mark the wheel dimensions and press number.
The marked before zero distance of axis is:
m z z
2,25 19 77
a n 1 2

110,84mm
cos
2
cos13
2

On the basis of the below dependency one marks rolling angle of press in the
front surface awt:
aw cos wt a cos t

In which:

tg t

tg n
tg20

0,37354
t 20, 48
cos cos13

cos wt

68

a cos t 110,84 cos20, 48

0,92709

wt 22,01
aw
112

On the basis of the next dependency:

xt tg
2
inv wt inv t
t
z1 z 2
One marks the sum of coordinates of contours in front surface:

xt

inv wt inv t
0,020082 0,016043

z1 z 2
19 77 0,519
2tg t
2 0,37354

While,

inv wt tg wt wt 0,020082

inv t tg t t 0,016043

Take the following coordinates of contour dislocation, then mark theirs values
in nominal surface:

xt 1 0,519

xt 2 0

xn1

xt 1
0,519

0,533
xn1 0
cos cos13

Calculate the apparent distance of axis and coordinate of heads shortening:

a p a xn1 xn2 mn 110,84 0,533 0 2,25 112,039mm

kt

a p aw a p aw
112,039 112
cos
cos13

0,017
mt
mn
2,25

The value of coordinate of heads shortening is small (smaller than 0,1), thus in
the further calculations one may omit it, taking kt = kn = 0.
mn z1 2,25 19

43,87mm
cos cos13
mn z 2 2,25 77

177,81mm
d2
cos cos13

d1

69

Diameters of heads:
z

da1 mn 1 2 yn 2 xn1
2kn

cos

19

2,25
2 1 2 0,533 2 0
50,77mm
cos13

da 2 mn 2 2 yn 2 xn2
2kn

cos

77

2,25
2 1 2 0 2 0
182,31mm
cos13

Diameters of feet:
z

d f 1 mn 1 2 yn 2c * 2
xn1

cos

19

2,25
2 1 2 0,25 2 0,533
40,65mm
cos13

d f 2 mn 2 2 yn 2c * 2
xn 2

cos

77

2,25
2 1 2 0,25 2 0
172,18mm
cos13

Diameters of rolling wheels:

z1
19

2 112
44,333mm
z1 z 2
19 77
z2
77

2aw
2 112
179,667mm
z1 z 2
19 77

dw 1
2aw
dw 2

Calculating the front number of press:

1
z1 tg a1 tg wt z 2 tg a 2 tg wt
2

d1 cos t
43,87 cos 20, 48
a1 arccos

arccos
35,96
50,77

da1

70

 d2 cos t
177,81 cos 20, 48
a 2 arccos

arccos
23,98
182,31

da 2
1

1, 47
19 tg35,96 tg22,01 77 tg23,98 tg22,01
2

Calculating the after-jump number of press:

b sin 35 sin13

1,11
mn
2,25

Total number of press is:

1, 47 1,11 2,58

2.3. Testing strength calculations for surface exhaustion

Taking the pinion material: alloy steel for carbonizing 18CrNi8. Nominal contact stresses are marked on the basis of the dependency:

H 0 Z E Z H Z Z

u 1
dw1b u
F

In which:
F peripheral force,

2 M s 2 9550N 2 9550 15 103

6462,5N
dw1
dw1n1
44,333 1000

ZE material coordinate,
ZE

1
1
1 22

E2
E1
2
1

In the case in which both wheels are made of steel, material coordinate is:
Z E 189,8MPa

12

71

ZH coordinate of geometry in the area of contact (Pic. 2.1),

xn1 xn2

Z H 2,35

0,006
z1 z 2

Pic. 2.1. Coordinate ZH of geometry in the area of contact (n = 20) [ 1]

ZE coordinate allowing for the influence of press number

72

4
1

when

when

1
0,825
1, 47

Z coordinate of cogs gradient.

cos

cos13
0,990

After substituting the coordinates one gets:

H 0 189,8 2,35 0,825 0,990

6462,5 4,05 1

830,2MPa
44,333 35 4,05

Real contact stress after allowing for the coordinate of exploitation:

H
H 0 K A K v K H K H
H0 K

In which:
K coordinate of exploitation
KA coordinate of usage (Table 2.5) KA = 1,25,
Kv coordinate of dynamic loads
Table 2.5. Values of coordinate of usage KA
Character of changes on engine shaft
regular

moderate
pulsation

medium
pulsation

high
pulsation

regular

1,00

1,25

1,50

1,75

moderate pulsation

1,10

1,35

1,60

1,85

medium pulsation

1,25

1,50

1,75

2,00

high pulsation

1,50

1,75

2,00

2,25

Source: Dietrich M., Podstawy konstrukcji maszyn, Warszawa, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, 1999

Pic. 2.2. Coordinate of dynamic loads Kv for screw wheels and > 1 [ 1]

73

If < 1, the coordinate of dynamic loads is marked according to the dependency;

Kv
K v K v K v

Additionally, the value Kvalfa is marked from the graph presented in the pic. 2.2,
the value Kv is marked from the graph in the pic. 2.3.

Pic. 2.3. Coordinate of dynamic loads Kv, for simple wheels [1]

In our case > 1, then for the parameter vz/100 = 0,44 and 7th class of precision
of making wheel the coordinate of dynamic loads is:
K v 1,02

KH coordinate of distribution of load along the cog, marked with simplified

method [1] for the 7th class of precision of making:
2

KH

b
1,23 0,18 0,61 10 3 b
d1

Marking the value of coordinate of load distribution along the cog for the taken
before 7th class:
2

KH

35
1,23 0,18
0,61 103 35 1,37

43,87

KH coordinate of load distribution along the segment of press. For wheels

tempered superficially or to pierce, normally loaded, one takes:
KH = 1

74

Substituting the marked values, we get the coordinate of exploitation and mark
real contact stress:
K K A K v K H K H 1,25 1,02 1,37
1 1,75

H H 0 K 830,2 1,75 1098,3MPa

The marked real stress for smaller wheel is smaller than the permissible value and
while assuming the genre of material of smaller wheel before, it equals (Table 2.6):

HP 0,8 H lim

HP 0,8 1630MPa
1304 MPa
Table 2.6. Resistance features of chosen materials for cogwheels
Kind of steel
Constricting steel of
higher quality

Alloy steel for heating

improvement

Tempered superficially
steel for improving

Nitric steel for improving

Steel for carbonizing

Hlim
[MPa]

Flim
[MPa]

Hardness
[HV]

C22

440

170

140

C45

590

200

185

C55

620

220

210

34Cr2

650

270

260

41Cr4

650

270

260

42CrMo4

670

290

280

34crNiMo6

770

320

310

C45

1100

270

560

41Cr4

1280

310

610

42CrMo4

1360

350

650

C45

1100

350

400

42CrMo4

1220

430

500

42CrMo4

1220

430

550

C15

1600

230

720

16MnCr5

1630

460

720

20MnCr5

1630

480

720

15CrNi6

1630

500

720

18CrNi8

1630

500

740

18CrNiMo7

1630

500

740

Symbol

Source: Mazanek E. Przykady oblicze z podstaw konstrukcji maszyn, Warszawa, Wydawnictwa

Naukowo-Techniczne, 2005

75

2.4. Testing strength calculations for exhaustion fracture

Nominal calculation stresses:

F0

F
YFaYSaY Y
bmn

In which:
YFa cog shape coordinate
YSa - notch working coordinate
On the basis of the graph (Pic. 2.4) for xt1 = 0,519 and for replacing number of
z v1 20,8 21 we mark the coordinate YFS
cogs =
YFS YFa YSa 3,92

Pic. 2.4. Coordinate YFS (n =20, yn=1, c*=0,25) [ 1]

YE press coordinate:

76


Y 0,25

0,75

cos 2 b

b arctg cos t tg
Substituting the values, well get:

b 12,20
0,75 2
Y
0,25
cos 12,20
0,737
1, 47

Y coordinate of cogs gradient influence:

Y
1

120

1 1,11

13
0,880

120

Mark nominal stresses and real stresses, taking the simplification KF KH

oraz KF KH

F0

P
6462,50
YFaYSaY Y
3,92 0,737 0,880
208,6MPa

bmn
35 2,25

F F 0 K 208,6 1,75 365,1MPa

As we can see, the value of real stress is much higher than the permissible value,
which while assuming the usage of alloy steel for carbonizing equals (Table 8):

FP 0,6 F lim 0,6 500MPa 300MPa

In this case we have to increase the width of the wreath of cogwheel till the value
b = 43mm and make calculations of values of coordinates and values of stresses,
which underwent change, again:

1,37

2,84
K H 1,
43 K 1,82

Y 0,852

H 0 749,0MPa

H 1110,5MPa

F 0 164,

4MPa F 299,2MPa

77

With regards to more favorable conditions of wheel working we may omit

testing calculations, under the condition of making a wheel of the material of
the values Hlim ,Flim, approximate to the small wheel. Thus, we take alloy steel
15CrNi6 for carbonizing as the material.

2.5. Calculations of input rolling

We calculate forces appearing in mesh, taking into consideration the coordinate
of KA usage. Circuit force F:

2 M s1 2 179060

8078,0N
dw 1
44,333

M
9550
s1

N
15
K
9550
1,25
179,06Nm

A
n1
1000

179060Nmm

Radius force Fr:

Fr
F tg wt
8078,0 tg 22,01
3265,4N

Axis force Fx (taking in approximate w = ):

Fx
F tg
8078,0 tg 13
1865,0N

The smaller wheel will be cut on input rolling, then for calculations of rolling
we take the permissible values:

k go 114MPa,

ksj 124MPa

Calculating of theoretical diameter of input pin:

dwe

16 M s1

ksj

16 179060
19,39mm
124

For input pin, we take a spline of the dimensions 6x21x25 according to the
norm PN-ISO14 of the length l = 25 mm and we check the condition of stresses,
assuming permissible stresses for the hub pdop= 90MPa.

78

8 M s1

D d 2 l z
2

8 179060
69,20MPa pdop
25 212 25 6 0,75
2

We take the diameter of seal 28mm and nominal diameter of bearing in respective surfaces. Reactions in the surface XY is marked on the basis of moments
equation towards any point:
l b 2 15 25mm 43 2 23,5 90mm

We mark the values of forces reacting on bearing threads in respective surfaces.

Reactions in the surface XY are marked on the basis of the equation of moments,
towards any point:

M
B

RAy l Fx

dw 1
l
Fr 0
2
2

Pic. 2.5. Scheme of input rolling loading in the surface XY

d
44,333
l
1865,0
Fx w1 Fr
3265, 4 45
2
2
2 2092,0N

RAy
90
l

RBy Fr RAy 3265, 4 2092,0 1173,4N

Similarly, we mark reactions in the surface XZ:

M
B

l
RAz l F 0
2

79

Pic. 2.6. Scheme of input rolling loading in the surface XZ

RAz

F 8078,0

4039,0N
2
2

R
R
4039,0N
Bz
Az

The values of resultant reactions RA and RB

RA

2
2
RAy
RAz

RB

2
2
RBy
RBz

2092,02 4039,02 4548,6N

1173,42 4039,02 4206,0N

We mark the values of fracture moments in middle section of cogwheel in

respective surfaces and the resultant moment:
l
90
M gy RAy 2092,0 94140Nmm
2
2
l
90
M gz RAz 4039,0 181755Nmm
2
2
Mg

M gy2 M gz2

941402 1817552 204688Nmm

Substitutive moment:
M z M g2

80

3 2
3
M s1 2046882 1790602 218881Nmm
16
16

Checking the diameter of pinions rolling:

d3

32 M z

k go

32 218881
26,94mm
114

Of course, the diameter of pinions rolling has to be smaller than diameter of

wheels foot, thus the above calculations may be treated only as testing calculations.

2.6. Input rolling calculations

We assume the material of rolling 41Cr4 (kgo=114MPa, ksj=124MPa) and
mark turning moment, loading the input rolling from the dependency:
Ms2 Ms2

z2
179060 4,05
z1

725193Nmm

We calculate theoretical diameter of input pin:

dwy

16 M s 2

ksj

16 725193
31,00mm
124

For input pin, we take the spline of dimensions 8x32x38 according to the norm
PN-ISO14 of the length l=40mm and we check the surface stresses condition,
assuming permissible stresses for hub:
pdop 90MPa

8Ms2

D d 2 l z
2

8 725193
57,56MPa pdop
38 322 40 8 0,75
2

We take the diameter of seal 42mm and nominal diameter of bearing in respective surfaces.
Values of reaction in the surface XY:
d
179,667
l
1865,0
Fx w 2 Fr
3265, 4 45
2
2
2 3494,2N

RCy
90
l

81

RDy
Fr RCy
3265, 4 3494,2
228,8N

Values of reaction in the surface XZ:

RCz

F 8078,0

4039,0N
2
2

R
R
4039,0N
Dz
Cz

Values of resultant reactions RC and RD

RC

2
2
RCy
RCz

3494,22 4039,02 5340,7N

RD

2
2
RDy
RDz

228,82 4039,02 4045,5N

We mark the values of fracture moments in middle section of cogwheel in

respective surfaces and the resultant moment:
l
90
M gy RCy 3494,2 157239Nmm
2
2
l
90
M gz RCz 4039,0 181755Nmm
2
2
Mg

M 2gy M gz2

1572392 1817552 240331Nmm

Regarding the domination of turning moment, we mark the substitutive moment from the dependency:
M
zs

16 2
2
M g M
s2
3

16
2
2403312 725193
913210Nmm
3

We calculate the diameter of rollings pin in the place of big wheel location:
d3

16 M zs

ksj

16 913210
33, 47mm
124

We take the spline 8x46x54 according to the norm PN-ISO14 of the length
l = 42mm (inconsiderably smaller than lengths of cogwheel, which is b = 43mm)
and we check the condition for surface stresses.
82

8Ms2

D d 2 l z
2

8 725193
28,78MPa pdop
54 462 42 8 0,75
2

2.7. Calculations of input rolling bearing

Regarding the simplicity of building of the input rolling bearing set, we take
cone bearings in the set X. On the basis of SKF company catalogue and the
assumed before diameter of bearing, we take bearings 32206 of the following
construction parameters:

C 50100N
C0 57000N
X 0,
4 Y 1,6

e 0,37

Pic. 2.7. Scheme of load of bearings in the set X of input rolling

We mark the internal longitudinal forces in the bearings:

FrA

2Y
FrB

SB
2Y
S
A

RA 4548,6

1421,4N
2Y
2 1,6
RB 4239,0

1324,7N
2Y
2 1,6

axis force Fx
Fx = 1865,0N
Analyzing the set of forces reacting on the rolling, we may state that:
S
1421,4N SB F

1324,7 1865,0
3189,7N
A
x

So the bearing A is a bearing additionally loaded; the bearing B is the bearing

with decreased load. Axis loads of bearings are as follows:
83

FaA SB Fx 3189,7N
FaB S
1324,7N
B

We mark substitutive dynamic loads of respective bearings:

PA XFrA YFaA 0, 4 4548,6 1,6 3189,7 6923,0N

FaA 3189,7

0,70
e 0,37
FrA 4548,6
PB XFrB YFaB 1 4239,0 0 1324,7 4239,0N

FaB 1324,7

0,31
e 0,35
FrB 4239,0

Next, we mark hour resistances of bearings:

q

10

10

106 C
106 50100 3

LhA

12218h

60 n1 PA 60 1000 6923,0
106 C
106 50100 3

LhB

62675h

60 n1 PB 60 1000 4239,0

Required hour resistance of cog gear is 12000h, so the bearings have been fitted
correctly.

2.8. Calculations of output rolling bearing

Similarly to input rolling, we take the cone bearings 32009 in the set X, of the
following parameters:

C 58300N
C0 80000N
X 0,
4 Y 1,5

e 0, 4

84

Pic. 2.8. Scheme of bearings loads in the set X of output rolling

We mark the internal longitudinal forces in bearings:

FrC

2Y
FrD

S
D
2Y

SC

RC 5340,7

1780,2N
2Y
2 1,5
RD 4045,5

1348,5N
2Y
2 1,5

axis force Fx:

Fx = 1865,0N
Similarly to the previous case, analyzing the set of forces reacting on the rolling
we may state that:
SD F

1348,5 1865,0
3213,5N S
1780,2N
x
C

So the bearing C is a bearing additionally loaded; the bearing D is the bearing

with decreased load. Axis loads of bearings are:
FaC SD Fx 3213,5N
FaD
S
1348,5N
D

We mark substitutive dynamic loads of respective bearings:

PC XFrC YFaC 0, 4 5340,7 1,5 3213,5 6956,5N

FaC 3213,5

0,60
e 0, 4
FrC 5340,7
PD XFrD YFaD 1 4045,5 0 1348,5 4045,5N

85

FaD 1348,5

0,33
e 0, 4
FrD 4045,5

Hour resistances of the bearings:

q

10

10

106 C
106 58300 3

LhC

80676h

60 n2 PC 60 247 6956,5
106 C
106 58300 3

LhD

491443h

60 n2 PD 60 247 4045,5

We may notice that hour resistances of the bearings exceed considerably the
required hour resistance of the gear; however, the fitted bearings are cone bearings
of the smallest dynamic mobility available, by the assumed diameter of bearing.

2.9. Marking of the amount of oil in gear

The oil in gear has two basic roles. It separates the cooperating surfaces from
each other, decreasing the coordinate of friction and protecting the surfaces from
seizure at the same time. By giving out the heat of friction, it makes cooling the
cooperating surfaces possible. So one should provide a proper amount of oil in
gear. We assume the use of oil and standard stickiness according to ISO VG100
whose amount we may mark approximately from the dependence [2]:
V

0,1
0,03
3

[dm ]
z1 cos 2 v

3,5 11 N

In which:
N nominal force of gear [kW]
n d
1 w1 is circuit speed [m/s]
60
Smaller values are taken in the case of one-step gears, the bigger ones in the
case of multi-step gears.
V

86

3,5 11 15

0,1
0,03
3

0,65 2,78dm

19 cos13 2 2,32

We assume V = 1,0dm3 , remembering at the same time that the corpus should
be designed in the way so that the big wheel is sank in oil on the depth:
H

1 6 mn

2.10. Cog gear with screw cogs 3D model

In the pic. 2.9 and 2.10 the model of cog gear with cog screws is shown, while in
the pic. 2.11 and 2.12 the gear deprived of lid of corpus and side lids is presented.

Pic. 2.9. Cylindrical gear with screw cogs view from output rolling

Pic. 2.10. Cylindrical gear with screw cogs view from the side of input rolling

87

Pic. 2.11. Cylindrical gear with screw cogs view from the side of input rolling with the lids
taken off

Pic. 2.12. Cylindrical gear with screw cogs view from the above, with the lids taken off

In the picture 2.13 complete set of input rolling with cylindrical bearings on is
shown; in the next picture (2.14) input rolling is shown.

Pic.2.13. Set of input rolling

88

Pic. 2.14. Input rolling of gear

Picture 2.15 presents full set of output rolling with cogwheel, distance sleeve
and bearings on.

Pic. 2.15. Set of output rolling

89

Literature
1. Dietrich M., Podstawy konstrukcji maszyn, Warszawa, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, 1999
2. Dziama A., Michniewicz M., Niedwiedzki A., Przekadnie zbate, Warszawa,
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1989
3. Mazanek E., Przykady oblicze z podstaw konstrukcji maszyn, Warszawa, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, 2005
4. Szewczyk K., Poczenia gwintowe, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN,
1991
5. Norma PN-ISO 2904+A:1996, Gwinty trapezowe metryczne ISO. Wymiary
nominalne.
6. PN-ISO 8734:2003, Koki walcowe ze stali, hartowane lub z martenzytycznej
stali nierdzewnej (koki ustalajce).
7. PN-EN ISO 4017:2011, ruby z gwintem na caej dugoci z bem szecioktnym
Klasy dokadnoci A i B.
8. PN-M-85005:1970, Wpusty pryzmatyczne.
9. PN-ISO 14:1994, Poczenia wielowypustowe rwnolege walcowe osiowane na
rednicy wewntrznej - Wymiary, tolerancje i sprawdzanie.
10. PN-ISO 54:2001, Przekadnie zbate walcowe oglnego przeznaczenia oraz dla
przemysu cikiego Moduy.
11. PN-M-88525:1993, Przekadnie i reduktory zbate walcowe oglnego przeznaczenia - Podstawowe parametry.
12. PN-ISO 6336-1:2000, Przekadnie zbate walcowe. Obliczanie nonoci k.
Podstawowe zasady i oglne czynniki wpywajce.
13. PN-ISO 6336-2:2000, Przekadnie zbate walcowe. Obliczanie nonoci k.
Wytrzymao zba na zmczenie stykowe (pitting).
14. PN-ISO 6336-3:2001, Przekadnie zbate walcowe. Obliczanie nonoci k.
Wytrzymao zba na zginanie.
15. Katalog oysk SKF http://www.skf.com

90

Table 2.7. Resistance tables of chosen constructing materials [MPa]

Material

Permissible stresses
kr

krj

krc

kg

kgj

kgo

ks

ksj

kso

kt

S235JR

125

90

55

135

S275JR

150

90

62

145

79

44

87

48

E295

165 100

62

162 105

E360
C10

200 125

78

99

54

30

75

52

26

67

34

19

90

54

27

81

57

29

75

39

22

97

58

29

58

90

69

34

87

46

25

109

66

33

194 120

80

108

78

47

97

63

35

130

78

39

118

40

66

47

24

59

32

18

89

50

25

C15

108

60

33

130

C20

117

65

36

140

81

45

75

54

26

65

30

20

97

54

27

86

49

78

58

29

70

39

22

105

60

30
36

70

ktj

kto

pj

pu

C25

131

72

41

164

99

55

92

65

32

78

43

25

128

72

C35

172

85

47

205 115

64

115

75

38

103

51

28

155

87

43

C45

195 102

57

230 144

78

128

95

46

118

61

34

175

98

49

C55

220 112

66

260 155

85

145 102

51

132

67

40

200 112

58

C60

233 120

68

280 162

90

157 105

54

140

72

41

210 118

59

15Cr2

233 100

59

256 125

80

150

85

47

140

60

45

190

78

39

20Cr4

260 112

63

320 140

91

180 100

54

175

67

38

230

95

47
54

18CrMo4

330 135

80

360 172 109 205 115

65

200

81

48

285 108

15CrNi6

340 140

84

375 180 114 210 124

67

205

85

50

275 115

57

28Mn6

260 112

62

285 142

160 100

54

156

67

37

210

84

42

37MnSi5

325 125

75

355 160 102 200 112

61

195

75

45

260 104

52

91

41Cr4

360 140

84

395 175 114 220 124

67

215

84

47

275 109

55

200-400

116

60

36

128

72

41

72

49

29

69

36

22

125

65

32

40

140

78

46

78

54

32

77

40

24

138

72

36

230-450

128

67

270-480

160

79

49

170

92

55

98

65

39

96

47

29

170

89

44

EN-GJL-150

57

28

19

71

38

25

50

40

20

13

160

60

30

EN-GJL-250

86

41

28

118

59

38

87

60

29

20

240

90

46

EN-GJL-350

110

48

35

150

72

48

100

80

34

25

300 110

55
10

CuSn10Pb10

35

20

12

42

24

14

24

13

21

12

28

16

CuZn38Mn2Pb2

69

36

23

82

45

26

48

26

15

41

22

14

55

29

18

CuAl10Fe3Mn2

89

47

29

107

60

35

62

30

21

53

28

17

71

38

23

Source: Mazanek E. Przykady oblicze z podstaw konstrukcji maszyn, Warszawa, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, 2005

91

Hubert Dbski

Chapter III
Method of finite elements in engineering applications

1.

Introduction

The finite element method FEM is one of many approximate methods used for
solving the issues of mechanics with usage of numerical procedures. With regard
to its advantages it found its widest use from among other numerical methods, as
e.g. BEM boundary element method, or FDM finite difference method, which
were used more frequently than FEM before historically in practical solutions.
The conception of FEM assumes that each continuous area of physical model
can be approximated with discrete model, consisting of finite number of elements
and knots. Each element is described with the aid of continuous functions,
called functions element shape, specifying physical values, such as dislocation,
deformation, stress etc. defined in the knots of discrete model. This leads to the
set of differential partitive equations (statics, dynamics), for which unambiguity
of solution is obtained by filling the set of equations with starting and boundary
conditions of discrete model. So carrying out the analysis with the use of FEM is
based on approximation of continuous centre (real object) with discrete model;
the process of calculations is solution of the discrete issue.
Analyses of resistance, thermal, exhaustion, internal vibrations and other issues
are realized with the use of programming specified as CAE Computer Aided
Engineering. CAE programs allowing to realize numerical calculations are based
on methods of solving discrete issues from which the most widely used is the
finite-element method [1-3].
CAE programming is usually a system which consists of three modules: preprocessor, solver and postprocessor:
preprocessor it is a module of program (or an independent program) allowing to build discrete object model as well as to prepare calculation task.
The general purpose of preprocessors is based on the possibility of building
discrete model on the basis of geometrical object. Depending on CAE pro93

gramming, designer has the choice of more or less complex kinds of finite
elements, techniques of generating and joining network of finite elements
and the possibility of building mutual interactions between elements of
model. It concerns also the library of available materials (or the possibility
of entering materials defined by a user), and also formulating any sequences
of boundary conditions and a model load. There is also a possibility of importing geometry (made in other CAD programs). In such situations, a user
can make use of universal translators of geometry notation, such as among
others: DXF, IGES, SAT, STP, STEP or direct translators destined for sending geometry notation between concrete programs.
solver it is a module of CAE program, with the aid of which the process of numerical calculations (calculation program) is realized. The use of
a proper method of solution in calculations depends on specification of an
analyzed issue and the size of set of equations. In the issues of construction
resistance, one may most generally distinguish set of equations concerning:
construction statics
construction dynamics (the equation of movement)
geometrical non-linearity
material non-linearity (springiness-plastic issues)
While solving line issues, in which the Hooks law operates, usually for solving
sets of equations, direct and iterative methods are used.
As the best known direct methods one may count the Gauss method and the
Cholesky method. Among iterative methods one uses stationary, scalar and cyclic
methods.
When solving motion equations of discrete set, one commonly uses the following methods:
for calculating the frequency of own vibrations: Ritzs method, methods of
condensation, Stodolas method, method of subspace iterations
in the case of movement equations of forced vibrations: method of direct
integration, method of Fouriers transformation or modal method
For solving non-linear issues of FEM incremental calculation procedures are
used, based on the method of changeable stiffness or the method of initial loads.
Among methods of changeable stiffness one may distinguish the explicit method
(called the Eulers integration forward) and the Newton-Raphson method and
modified method of Newton-Raphson [1-6]
The procedures of solving set of equations used in CAE systems are constantly
developed and improved aiming at improvement of possibilities of solving more
and more complicated issued and making the process of larger and larger calculations, with which we have to deal in contemporary calculation tasks, faster.
Postprocessor it is a module of CAE program allowing to edit results
of made calculations. Contemporary processors have lots of possibilities of
94

graphic presentation of results, both in three-dimensional form and also in

the form of graphs, tables or descriptions. Results of such values as: dislocation, stress, temperatures distribution etc. are presented usually in the form
of colorful contour maps on the background of deformed model. A user has
the possibility of visualization of results in most suitable form allowing to
interpret them properly.
The development of modern numerical methods, especially in the scope of
non-linear methods, causes that CAE programming is more and more frequently
used, supporting engineering procedures in the process of designing in a wider and
wider scope. In lots of cases making numerical simulations can replace conduction
of more expensive and laborious scientific researches. Supporting the process of
designing in the scope of numerical calculations allows to eliminate incorrect
construction solutions, enlarging the possibility of getting optimal product.

2.

The bases of FEM linear and non-linear issues

Solving the problems of construction mechanics is based generally on linear

physical and geometrical relations, characterizing with proportionality of dislocations to external loads. Mathematical models of systems lead to linear differential
equations and in the case of discretization of an object, one gets a set of linear
algebraic equations. Also the boundary and initial conditions are described with
linear dependencies.
In reality, in case of non-linearities of constructions we deal almost from the
beginning with loading process or after crossing a certain value of external load
which may cause a low level of stresses. In such cases, for initial description of
deformation scope one uses the linear notation. Formulating of issues leading to
non-linear notations may be caused by many features, in construction working.
As the most frequent ones we may indicate big dislocations or deformations of
construction and non-linear characteristics of material, or of the knots put on the
construction. According to the above, we distinguish generally two basic kinds of
non-linearity: geometrically and physically non-linear issues [1-3].

2.1. Issues geometrically non-linear

In geometrically non-linear issues, relations between deformations and gradients of dislocations ale non-linear. We deal with the use of non-linearity of
this type in the cases of thin-wall load-bearing systems, slim constructions and
the ones vulnerable to flexible bearing. These issues are connected also with the
95

occurrence of various types of imprecision (imperfection) as also loads of working

destination dependent on deformation of a construction (tracking load). Examples
of geometrical non-linearity may be also the issues of contact mechanics.
Formulating of non-linear mathematical models is a much more complex process than solving the issues based on linear theory of flexibility. The fundamental
difference is the fact that in relation to non-linear equations one should distinguish
the initial configuration of construction from the deformed construction, as well
as the configuration of reference, to which we refer the calculated values. In linear
processes, balance equations are noted for deformed configuration, which causes
the omission of influence of geometry change on forces causing deformations, and
what follows the influence of deformation on balance conditions. In mechanics
of construction, the simplified Langranges description is used for description of
balance location [7].
The basic balance equation describing linear issues of deformable object statics,
analyzed with the aid of finite element method can be noted as follows:
{K}{U} = {P} (1)
In which:
{K} global matrix of a set stiffness
{P} knot forces vector
{U} knot dislocations vector
For description of geometrically non-linear issues in three-dimensional set,
relations between deformations and dislocations are in the form [6]:
2
2
2

u
1 u v w

x
2 x x x

2
2
2
v
1 u v w

x y
2 y y y

2
2
2
y
w
1 u v w

z z

2
z
z
z

(2)

xy u v
u u v v w w

yz y x x y x y x y

zx v w

u
u
v
v
w
w

z y y z y z y z
u w

u u v v w w

z x x
z x z x z

Or:
96

 L NL

(3)

Linear deformations {L} Greens deformations and non-linear deformations

{NL} are marks of higher level (squares, products of first derivatives), respectively
towards the directions x, y, z.
What results from the above dependency is the fact that in non-linear issues the
vector of deformations has been divided into linear part {L} corresponding to
infinitely small deformations, used n linear static analysis, and the non-linear part
{NL} allowing for non-linear deformations of a set.
As a result, non-linear description of issues with the aid of finite elements
method brings in a change of basic equation of statics (1) by adding non-linear
part to the set of equations. As a result we obtain:
{K}{U} + fN(U) = {P}

(4)

In which fN(U) is non-linear function of knot dislocations. Occurrence of this

function makes solving of set equations, in which one uses iterative methods more
complicated[5].
The most frequently used growth-iterative algorithm used in dislocation
methods, giving precise results and providing fast gain of convergence in most
of practical cases from the scope of mechanics of construction is the Newton
Raphson method [1,60].
The essence of Newton Raphson method is presented in the picture 2.1, in
which parameters occurring in the process of iteration are marked; a short description have been placed above in a simplified form.

Pic. 2.1. One-dimension interpretation of algorithm of the Newton Raphson method

97

The basic formulation of balance equations in the N-R method may be put in a
simple form as an equation [6]:
PI=0

(5)

In which: P generalized external force

I generalized internal force
Elaborating on the left side of equation in the Taylor sequence (5) in surrounding of the point (ua, Pa) we get:
P (ua ) I (ua ) {

P (ua ) I (ua )

}cb .....
0
u
u

(6)

With the next step we linearize the equation by eliminating all of parts of higher
levels:
K a cb P (ua ) I (ua ) R(ua )

In which
I (ua ) P (ua )

Ka

u
u

(7)

is the matrix of contact stiffness

R
(ua ) P (ua ) I (ua )

is residual force
Cb is the growth of dislocation. Upon solving the equation (7) well get:
cb (K a )1 R(ua )

(8)

In which: (Ka)-1 is the matrix opposite to Ka

The above description allows to formulate the algorithm of calculations for
separate calculation step steered by the growth of load:
1. Loading of construction in growth way (growth 1)
2. Calculation of dislocation growth ca on the basis of linear matrix of stiffness
Ko and vector uo and DP
3. Updating of configuration to ua
4. Calculation of the value of internal forces Ia
5. Calculation of residual force Ra
6. If residual force Ra is very small, the construction is in moderation (implicit
toleration in the program ABAQUS is specified so that the residual force is
smaller than 0,5% of growth load DP. The program loads the construction
with the next load growth (growth 2)
98

7. If iteration doesnt bring convergence (acceptable) solution, the program

makes another iteration in order to gain convergence:
In updated configuration ua comes formulating of contact stiffness
matrix Ka and calculations of another dislocation growth cb
New residual force Rb is compared to tolerations in order to make evaluation of whether the value ub is convergent
The procedure repeats itself until the moment when residual force Ri
doesnt decrease under the limit accepted previously.
The above algorithm is a description for the picture 1, in which the path of
states of balance has been presented with continuous line. It results from the description that a basic drawback of the Newton Raphson method is the necessity
for creating and reversing the matrix of stiffness and solving a set of equations with
new updated matrix of stiffness in each calculation step. It leads to a small efficiency of this method in solving large tasks and in issues in which non-symmetrical
matrices of stiffness occur, such as: tracking external loads, or some inflexible issues. In these cases, aiming at increasing the efficiency of set of equations solution,
one use relative growth-iterative methods, for which may we allow the simplified
N-R method and the quasi Newton method. The algorithm of calculations used
in these methods is similar to the one used in the N-R method; the difference is
the fact that the matrix of stiffness is marked only one time, at the beginning of
iterative process [8, 9]. As a result, it simplifies the process of calculations itself;
however, these methods are more slowly convergent than the Newton-Raphson
method.

2.2. Physically non-linear issues

In physically non-linear issues, constitutive equations describing relations
between stresses and deformations are non-linear. We deal with the issues of this
type in the case of occurrence of large deformations in the flexible scope after
crossing the boundary of proportionality, achieving plastic deformations, and also
while considering the phenomena of crawling.
Analysis of many sets requires allowing for changes of features of material
after crossing the boundary of plasticity. In analyses concerning the resistance of
construction, the most frequently used non-linear models of materials are various
kinds of flexible-plastic models, in which transforming of material from flexible
state into the plastic state occurs. In flexible-plastic materials, beside flexible deformations, permanent deformations also occur, which one may note as:

99

 S PL

(9)

Thus, full deformation is the sum of flexible deformation {S} and plastic
deformation {PL}.
The simplest model of flexible-plastic material is the material of bilinear characteristics, made of two segments of different angle of gradient towards the axis of
deformations pic. 2.2a.

Pic. 2.2. Model of flexible-plastic material: a) bilinear characteristics, b) multi-linear

characteristics

Model of material of bilinear characteristics is usually used for initial flexible-plastic calculations, in which we want to get information concerning the zones
of construction plasticity fast. In the case of a necessity of gaining more precise calculations, i.e. approaching to real (usually experienced) characteristics of material,
one uses the model of flexible-plastic material of multi-linear characteristics pic.
2.2b.

3.

Examples of FEM modeling in the ABAQUS program

The ABAQUS program of Dassaults Systemes company (www.simulia.com) is

a commercial calculation package using the finite element method. It enables realization of complex issues of solid state mechanics, heat transmission, mechanics
of liquids and coupled analyses in linear and non-linear scopes. In the Mechanics
Department of Lublin University of Technology the ABAQUS program is used
in didactic process both in the scope of subject classes and in transitional works,
engineer and MA theses and also in scientific activity of the workers of Mechanics
Department. With regard to the above, in the present chapter the examples of
numerical simulations of FEM of chosen engineer issues will be presented, with
the use of the ABAQUS programming packet.

100

3.1. Analysis of linear statics of a thin-wall U-shaped profile put

under axis squeezing
The issues connected with marking critical load for static buckling are based on
solving own issue. In the case of finite elements method, solving the issue of static
buckling of a construction is realized on the basis of so-called limited approach to
bifurcative loss of statics, allowing to mark the values of critical load and form of
buckling with the use of linear flexible analysis. In solution of the issue, there are
conditions for extreme of potential energy [1]. This means that for sequences of
static character, the second variation of potential energy has to be positive-marked.
In the present work, the critical state analysis was conducted with the use of
linear analysis of statics, the so-called buckling analysis, allowing to mark critical
loads of squeezed U-shaped profile an respective to them forms of constructions
buckling. The considered U-shaped profile is an example of typical thin-wall pole
constructions which one discretizes with finite element method with the use of
beam or layer elements.
The preparation stage of numerical model includes in this case working out
of geometrical model, definition of models material, and also specification of
boundary conditions and the way of loading, put down to the geometrical model
(independent on finite elements grid). The last stage is generation of FEM grid,
based on discretization of the geometrical model, with the use of taken parameters
of discretization process, which are included in as density and kind of finite elements grid, type of finite element method and level of taken function of elements
shape.
Geometrical model of the profile of U-shaped profile should be made as a
three-dimension layer part (3D,Shell), the solid of deformable features (Deformable) should be made with the stretch method (Extrusion) of profile section, of
which geometrical parameters are presented in the pic. 3.1a. The length of profie L
= 250 mm was measured and the thickness of wall g = 1mm.

Pic. 3.1. Geometrical model of U-shaped profile: a) profile section, b) 3D model

101

In calculations one should assume that the profile is made of aluminum alloy,
for which there will be a model of material defined, of linear-flexible characteristic.
(Mechanical/Elasticity/Elastic), by giving two independent material parameters, the Youngs module E = 70000MPa and the Poissons number v = 0.33. The
defined model of material is a physical linear issue in conducted calculations.
Numerical analysis will be conducted in the scope of calculations of own issue,
concerning the statics of construction. For this purpose one has to define the type
and parameters of calculations in the Step module, specifying the analysis as Linear
Perturbation with the Buckle option own issues, geometrically linear.
Formulated boundary conditions for numerical model correspond to realization of articulating support of end sections of a profile. The definition of boundary
conditions should be made through specification of translative and rotary levels
of latitude in proper knots of the model, or through coupling of levels of latitude
based on definition of the condition of constant, generalized knot dislocations. A
scheme of definition of boundary conditions is presented in the pic. 3.2.

Pic. 3.2. Discrete model of U-shaped profile, with proper boundary conditions and loads

Realization of the above boundary conditions is conducted through giving

zero-dislocations to the knots lying on the boundaries of upper and lower sections
of the profile, respectively on the directions perpendicular to the surface of each
wall (dislocations ux=0 i uy=0). Additionally, the possibility of dislocations in
102

perpendicular direction (u2 = 0) should be blocked for knots belonging to the edge
of upper end of the profile; the knots belonging to the edge of upper end should
be put down with equal dislocation u2 = const. through coupling of dislocations
in axis direction of the profile Interaction, Create Constraint Equation module.
Boundary conditions should be defined in the module Load in the stage Step:
Initial, choosing the procedure of blocking of latitude levels in the Displacement/
Rotation knot.
The load of the model will be realized by loading all of the edges of the upper
end of the profile, providing its even squeeze in perpendicular direction the Load
module, the kind of load Shell edge load. The value of total loading of the model is
1N, that is why each current millimeter of the edge will be loaded with the outlay
of 0,0125N/mm. Taking of a unit load of construction in the issues of statics leads
to acquirement of an own value corresponding directly to critical load.
In the process of discretization of geometrical model (the Mesh module), layer
finite elements of the SHELL type will be used, each of them having six levels of
latitude in each knot. The type of finite element taken for the construction of a
discrete model is an eight-nodal layer element with reduced integration of the S8R
marking, having the shape function of the second level. In the worked discrete
model one should take even density of the grid of finite elements of the dimensions
characteristic for a single element 2x2mm, which will provide an even separation
of respective walls of U-shaped profile with a grid of constant density. As a result
of the used method of discretization, one got a numerical model of the dimensions
equaling 5000 elements, which will provide the possibility of precise observation
of the forms of constructions buckling, while keeping the acceptable costs of
numerical analysis (the time of calculations lasting).
For providing additional possibilities of the further numerical analysis describing the work construction in post-critical state, one should note the results
concerning knot dislocations in a special file having the format *.fil. For this
purpose, one should choose the option Model/Edit Keywords in the upper menu
of the program. After editing a text file consisting of the data of model in the area
concerning entering of results OUTPUT REQUESTS, one should add the verses of
command in the way presented in the pic. 3.3:

103

Pic. 3.3. Edition of results of knot dislocations to the *.fil file

The solution of own issues concerning the linear statics of construction are
the own values which are directly the values of critical load and correspondent to
this forms of statics loss, by the taken unit load of the model. In the pic. 3.4 three
initial forms of U-shaped profiles buckling are presented, corresponding to the
three initial own values.

Pic. 3.4. Forms of U-shaped profiles buckling: a) first form Pkr = 9068 N (m=5), b) second
form Pkr = 9217 N (m=4), c) third form Pkr = 9478 N (m=6)

While evaluating the results one may state that with regards to the proportion
of U-shaped profiles dimensions towards the length of the whole profile, the
buckling of construction has the character of a local buckling of respective walls
104

of the profile, which is evinced by creation of a specified number of half-waves in

longitudinal direction of the profile. A practical meaning in this case has the first
form of statics loss, corresponding to the lowest own value. This means that in the
case of losing the statics of the profile, as a result of static squeezing, the construction will undergo the buckling of the value of load Pkr = 9068N, experiencing the
deformation which causes local folding of walls and web of profile according to the
gained form corresponding to the lowest value of critical force of the half-waves
amount m=5 pic. 3.4a.

3.2. Analysis of post-critical states of thin-walled U-shaped profile,

put to the axis squeezing
Thin-walled constructions are characterized by the possibility of work after losing the statics in the so-called post-critical flexible state [9,10]. In order to describe
the work of construction in post-critical state, it is necessary to make a non-linear
numerical analysis allowing for big dislocations of a construction non-linear
geometrical issue [1-3,5]. The solution of non-linear statics issue allows to specify
full description of the state of deformations and stresses of a construction after
crossing the value of critical load. Such calculations are led on discrete models,
with implemented geometrical imperfection corresponding usually to the lowest
own value, marked in linear analysis of own issue. The description of constructions
work in the post-critical state is usually made on the basis of so-called post-critical
path of balance, presenting the dependency of the load P on the folding U of chosen knot of a model, located most frequently in the area of the biggest folding of
a construction. Calculations of non-linear statics will be made on discrete model
used for own issue, in which indispensable modifications will be made, while
keeping the same grid of finite elements. It is a necessary condition, because the
results of knot dislocations were derived for the knots of the model in the *.fil file.
In order to work out a discrete model allowing to lead non-linear analysis, one
should copy a present model in the CAE base, with the use of a command from the
upper menu of the program Model/Copy Model. The following modifications will
be made in the copied model:
Step module:
one should change the type of analysis from the analysis of own issue
Buckle into non-linear static analysis Static General, with the option
NLGEOM on, which allows for geometrical non-linear issue (big dislocations in this case); as a value of an initial increment of load, one should
take Initial increment size = 0.1,
in order to mark post-critical path of balance in the knot on the wall
of profile in the area of biggest folding, one should create Set with the
105

name control point (the command from the upper menu: Tools/Set/
Create), and then derive results in the form of graph with the use of the
tool Create History Output by choosing the option Set: control point, for
which one should make the graphs of displacements Displacement in the
function of constructions load pic. 3.5,

Pic. 3.5. Post-critical path of balance control point

Load module: one should change the value of load Shell edge load from
the unit one (0,0125N/mm) into the value correspondent e.g. to 150%Pkr
equaling 170,025 N/mm,
In order to implement geometrical imperfections corresponding to the lowest form of buckling, gained in linear analysis of own issue, with the use of
option from the upper menu Model/Edit Keywords, after editing text file
consisting of data of a model one should add verses of commands presented
in the pic. 3.6 (the second line means: 1 number of buckling form, 0.1
value of imperfection meaning 0.1 mm),

106

Pic. 3.6. Import of introductory information corresponding to the lowest own value

Solution of the issue of non-linear statics gives total information allowing to

make qualitative and quantitative evaluation of constructions work in post-critical
state. Analysis of the gained results will be made on the basis of the distributions
of reduced stress, which are marked by the Huber-Mises-Henckys (H-M-H) resistance hypothesis and displacements of U-shaped profiles knots pic. 3.7.

Pic. 3.7. Results of calculations a) distribution of stress H-M-H, b) map of profiles folding

107

Well get the state of deformation of construction being in post-critical state; it

stands the deepening of initial deformations harmonious with the implemented
form buckling. Map of distribution of reduced stress H-M-H allows to evaluate
the level of constructions exertion and to identify the areas of the highest levels
of stress. As the most strained zones in the case analyzed, one should consider
the boundary areas of the profile. The specified post-critical path of balance P-U
allows to make evaluation of constructions stiffness in the full scope of the load
pic. 3.8. In the case analyzed, the gained characteristics keeps the static character, i.e. the increment of constructions folding is possible only by the increase of
external load. It confirms the legitimacy of the taken plate model for analysis of
post-critical states of the thin-wall construction examined.

Pic. 3.8. Post-critical characteristics of the P-U construction

4.

Summary

The analysis of static issue of the squeezed thin-wall section of U-shaped profile, presented in the chapter, is an example of the use of finite element method
in engineering issues. The presented numerical analysis concerns very essential
issues connected with designing thin-wall constructions, exposed to the loss of
statics in the scope of exploitation loads. Such phenomena, despite being observed
in real structures, e.g. aviation ones, are useless with regard to i.e. exhaustion resistance or aerodynamic characteristics of a structure. Thus, the abilities of describing
and analyzing of the problem of statics loss and the work of construction in the
post-critical scope belong to unusually important issues in thin-wall constructions
designing. Effective tools allowing to make this type of analyses are currently the
numerical programs using the finite element method. As it was shown in the
example of squeezed thin-wall U-shaped section, making numerical simulations
with FEM method makes the solution of non-linear statics issue possible, while
providing a great deal of important information allowing to describe the work
108

of construction in the full scope of load. The applied way of proceeding leads
to specification of the value of critical load, the form of statics loss, and also to
specification of stiffness characteristics of construction in post-critical state. The
non-linear incremental-iterative (the Newton-Raphson method) procedures used
in the process of calculation allow to analyze the issues with taking into consideration big displacements for which one should allow i.e. the loss of thin-wall
constructions statics.
The conducted numerical analysis of thin-wall construction stands an example
of solution of a classic engineering issue allowing in qualitative and quantitative
way to mark stiffness and resistance characteristics of constructions. The gained
results of numerical analyses provide a lot of important information allowing to
make current verification and optimization of constructional parameters, yet in
the stage of designing of a construction. It confirms very considerable usefulness
of finite element method in solving engineering issues, frequently very complex
ones.

109

Literature
1. Rusiski E., Czmochowski J., Smolnicki T., Zaawansowana metoda elementw
skoczonych w konstrukcjach nonych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Wrocawskiej, Wrocaw 2000.
2. Bk R., Burczyski T. Wytrzymao materiaw z elementami ujcia komputerowego. WNT, Warszawa 2001.
3. Rakowski G., Kacprzyk Z.: Metoda Elementw Skoczonych w mechanice konstrukcji, Oficyna Wydawnicza PW., Warszawa 2005.
4. Niezgoda T. Analizy numeryczne wybranych zagadnie mechaniki. WAT,
Warszawa 2007.
5. Osiski J.: Obliczenia wytrzymaociowe elementw maszyn z zastosowaniem
metody elementw skoczonych, Oficyna Wydawnicza PW., Warszawa 1997.
6. Abaqus HTML documentation.
7. Kleiber M., Metoda elementw skoczonych w nieliniowej mechanice kontinuum.
PWN, Warszawa-Pozna 1985.
8. M. Kleibera (red.), Komputerowe metody mechaniki cia staych, w ramach serii
Mechanika Techniczna t. XI, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1995.
9. Waszczyszyn Z. i inni, Metoda elementw skoczonych w statecznoci konstrukcji,
Arkady, Warszawa 1990.
10. Zara j., Krlak M., Koteko M.: Metody dowiadczalne wyznaczania obcie
krytycznych i analizy zachowania si elementw konstrukcji w stanie zakrytycznym. X Krajowa Konferencja Wytrzymaoci Materiaw i Badania Materiaw, Kudowa-Zdrj 20-22 wrzesie, 2006 (wersja elektroniczna).

110

Jzef Jonak

Chapter IV
Modern techniques of production accelerating
Techniques shortening the time of designing and producing
Features influencing products development [1,4,7]
Short time of products life, forcing shortening of their cycles of developments and production implementation
Increasing number of products variety
Frequent changes and modifications of products, focused on addressees
tastes,
New and original pattern lines of products,
Decreasing amounts of production series
Producing of short series and unit products to special order of a customer,
Minimization of production costs, which is their price.
Thus, in the process of designing one should examine many different solutions
and next create fast a prototype. One may do it thanks to computer techniques
shortening the time of designing and producing (Time Compression Technologies
TCT).
Techniques of accelerating production [1,4,7]:
Virtual prototyping (Virtual Prototyping) examination of prototype existing in computer),
Fast production of real prototypes of machines and devices (Rapid Prototyping),
Fast serial production (Rapid Manufacturing)
Fast production of tools (Rapid Tooling),
Backward engineering or in other words reverse engineering (Reverse engineering) creating solid model in computer on the basis of a real object.
Virtual prototyping (Virtual Prototyping) is creation and examinations concerning the virtual prototype, which is a fake creation existing only in computer.
It includes [1,4,7]:
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 Computer design of an object

Simulation of the process of creation (e.g. casting or mechanical working)
Simulative examinations of features, e.g.:
Resistance (analysis with Finite Element Method and others)
Functional (kinematics, dynamics, )
Ergonomic (service)
Possibilities of recycling
And so on
Researches on virtual object, which is a computer model, may include [1,4,7]:

Checking of many variants of solutions

Checking of feasibility (on numerical machine tool)
Simulations of casting process
Checking of possibilities of montage and collisions identification
Resistance examinations (FEM DEM) static and dynamic
Marking of heat transformation and distribution of temperature
Simulation of work: kinematic (movement) and dynamic (movement +
forces, moments, friction, )

Computer programs for virtual prototyping

Virtual prototyping programming allows to build a realistic model of moving prototype and to conduct examinations on it, which concern kinematics of
movement and also dynamics with taking into consideration masses, forces,
frictions, repressions, deformations, stresses, vibrations etc., allowing at the same
time to optimize a project before real construction of a prototype. Example systems for modeling and simulating examinations: Working Model simulation of
two-dimension objects, Visual Nastran simulations of three-dimension objects,
ADAMS (analysis of kinematics and dynamics), ADINA, ABAQUS (linear and
non-linear, static and dynamic analysis with finite element method). FLUENT
(analysis of transmissions), MATLAB + SIMULINK (modeling and simulation of
dynamic sequences including sequences of steering) [1]. Other programs which
one should enumerate here are e.g. CATIA, Solid works, Mechanical Desktop,
Inventor.

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1.

Fast production of prototypes Rapid Prototyping

Systems of fast production of prototypes (RPS) is a group of devices and

technologies included in CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing), which is
computer-aided production.
It is automatic production of machine elements or other objects, with the aid
of devices steered from computer on the basis of the solid model worked before.
Contrary to the deficit methods used by working machines, RP methods are
additive (incremental) it means that they are based on step-by-step putting
(adding, gluing) layers of material by gluing, fusing, fritting or hardening of various materials with the aid of laser or other radiation beams.
Thus: Rapid Prototyping = Generative, incremental, additive technologies.
In other words, RP is process of building physical models of plastic, metal,
ceramics or paper, based on virtual 3D models, consisting in computer-steered
layer merging of materials in the form of liquid, powder, or sheets [14].
Also the name Solid Freeform Fabrication (Formless Production of Permanent Shapes) is used [23].
a)

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b)

c)

Pic. 1.1. Division of RP techniques [8](b,c)

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Technological possibilities of fast prototyping systems

Fast production of prototypes, ready-made products and tools for their production
Possibility of market verification of a product, without engagement of costs
in preparation of tools for production of trial series
No technological limits in free shaping of products geometry, and at the
same time widening of market products patterning
Minimization of the risk of putting products on the market, while not meeting customers expectations
Tab. 1.1. Materials processed in chosen RP processes [7]
RP method

Form of initial
material

SLS
Selective Laser Sintering

Binding method

Processed
materials

sintering

Wax,
thermoplastics,
ceramics, metals

bonding

Ceramics, metals

Polymerization

epoxy resins and

acrylic

melting and curing

Wax,
thermoplastics

adhesive bonding

Paper (plastics)

powder
3DP
3D Printing
SLA
StereoLithography
SGC
Solid Ground Curring
FDM
Fused Deposition
Modeling

liquid

BPM
Ballistic Particle
Manufacturing
MM3DP
Model Maker 3D Plotting
LOM
Laminated Object
Manufacturing
LOM - SAHP
Selective Adhesive of Hot
Press

Solid object

First RP systems were introduced in 1980s, initially only for prototyping production, now they find wider and wider use, also in production of tools or short
series of high-quality elements.
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The word fast means in practice the period of at least tens of hours, depending
on method, used devices and complexity of a model. One also use various materials, e.g.: high-temperature-melting for final product and low-temperature-melting
as fillings separating respective parts.
Multiple production and correcting of physical models prototypes has been
possible thanks to the invention and use of fast fabrication technologies of prototyping in the production (eng. Rapid Prototyping RP) and fast fabrication of
tools, which are casting forms for short informative series (eng. Rapid Tooling
RT).
The fundamental aim of the uses of these technologies is physical modeling
(geometrical, functional, visual, assembly models, technical prototypes) on the
basis of 3D computer objects, mainly aiming at evaluation of usable functions,
aesthetics of products and marketing evaluation [1].
The disadvantage of prototypes made with RP and RT techniques is the fact
that they dont correspond fully to the requirements concerning functionality,
shape or quality of a real product. Their main task is marking of weak places in
products development, whose elimination without these technologies would entail
considerably higher costs that the costs incurred in the case of making prototypes
with RP and RT methods [1].
Tab. 1.2. Rapid Prototyping methods technology
Stereolithography

SLA

1986

utwardzanie fotopolimeru za pomoc

lasera UV

Fused Deposition
Modeling

FDM

1989

wtapianie porcji wypeniacza plastikowego lub drutu metalowego

Selective Laser
Sintering

SLS

1986

spiekanie za pomoc lasera czstek

plastiku, metalu, ceramiki lub szka

Electron Beam
Melting

EBM

1993

stapianie warstw metalu w komorze

prniowej za pomoc wizki
elektronowej

Laminated Object
Manufacturing

LOM

1996

sklejanie profilowanych arkuszy

plastiku, papieru lub metalu

Single Jet Inkjet

Inkjet

Three Dimensional
Printing

3DP

natryskiwanie roztopionego wosku,

metalu lub materiau utwardzanego
optycznie
1989

sklejanie materiau proszkowego za

pomoc natryskiwanego kleju

Process of fast fabrication of physical models with the use of stereolithography

method (SL).
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The process of stereolithography, use e.g. in the SLA machine consists in local
change of phase state of homogenous center (change from liquid into solid) under
the working of UV laser. The process of change of resin from liquid into the solid
one, under the influence of UV radiation, bears the name of photolymerization.
The essence of initiating of polymerization consists in creation of polymerizations
radicals by the light of laser, which react mutually on monomers molecules and
then they initiate the increase of polymeric chains. The path of lasers beam is
steered by dynamic mirror through the computer which also steers the work of
stereolithographic machine. Polimerization occurs only in the area of lightening
with lasers beam, in a precisely specified capacity. That is why this method is
characterized by comparatively high precision.

Pic. 1.2. The idea of prototypes fabrication process with the method of stereolithography [4,13]

117

A typical process of prototype fabrication with the method of stereolithography

may be divided into the following stages [4,7]:
Creating of geometrical model in CAD system,
Approximation of solid model with STL format,
Preparation of technological process, used for fabrication of physical prototype (model) on the machine, which is connected with:
Verification of data correctness saved in the STL format
Orientation of the model in labor space of machine
Creating of supports for the fabricated prototype
Specification of technological parameters of the process, which is:
Thickness of the layer which is put
Compensation of layers overexposure
Compensation of width of lasers beam
Number of transitions and speed of scrapers movement
Style of layers building
generating of files which steer the process of fabrication and sending them
to the sequence of machines steering
creation of prototype physical model in resin

Pic. 1.3. Stages of fast fabrication of prototype with the method of stereolithography (SLA) [7]

Creation of geometrical model in CAD system

The first and basic condition of fabrication in RP technology is gaining of
three-dimensional solid model in CAD system. Solid model ensures that geometry
of the model is always closed. However, such certainty is not provided by surface
model [7].
A model may be built of rectilinear solids (cylinder, cube, rectangular prism
etc.) It may also be made with the use of standard editing tools, such as: pulling
out, rotation, cutting off, phasing, rounding etc., by gaining through coordination
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measuring with measuring machines or 3D laser scanners, of the cumulus of

points, which allows to get solid model of the measured object, when processed
properly.
A certain kind of this method of measuring is the dimension with the use of
e.g. techniques know to medical diagnostics, which is Roentgen computer tomography or magnetic resonance. A proper processing of medical images allows to
distinguish contours of interesting areas which, while covered with layer parts,
make gaining the solid model possible.
A solid model may have various level of complexity. One of constraints for
stereolithography method is the thickness of models wall which cannot be smaller
than the diameter of lasers beam.
Approximation of solid model with STL format

The 3D solid model got in CAD system is approximated with triangular

elements connected with each other in the peaks. A characteristic trait of such
approximation is change of flexures (lines) of external contours and internal walls,
through the chords which are sides of triangular elements. While noting contours,
the distance between its curvature and chord is marked. Also the angle which is
made by both sides of triangle, i.e. (chords). The smaller are numeral values given
to this parameters, the higher number of triangular elements will the model be
described with. At the same time it boils down to increase of the size of data file.
Coordinates of peaks and normal vector elements, specifying orientation (swelling) of wall, are saved in this file.

Pic. 1.4. A opening surface, B triangulation surface, C tolerance, angle of elements

divergence [4]

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Pic. 1.5. Secant error in approximation of circle with secants (a) and influence of triangular
amount on sphere patterning (b) [18]

Pic. 1.6. Process of stereolithographic model fabrication: a) CAD model, b) STL model, c,d)
division of STL model into layers, e) ready-made SLA model, z thickness of separate
layer of SLA model, Ni normal vector [11]

Triangulars in STL file have to provide proper fitting with other triangulars in
the area of peaks and one should provide their proper orientation, so as to specify
which side of the triangular includes the interior of model. Orientation of surface
is specified by the turn of normal vector and normal order of knots (right-turn
sequence), in which peaks are enumerated (pic.).

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Pic. 1.7. Orientation of STL elements surface

In the taken procedure, the rule vertex-to-vertex is binding each triangle has
to have only two mutual peaks with each neighboring triangle.
Errors connected with construction of approximated geometrical models in
STL format:
a) turns of normal vectors, harmonious with general direction of triangle
pieces generation
b) opposite turn of one normal vector towards the direction of generated grid,
of triangle pieces
c) correct assignment of the edges of triangle pieces
d) incorrect assignment of the edges of triangle pieces
e) spaces in approximated surface of a virtual model

Pic. 1.8. Errors connected with construction of approximated geometrical models in STL format:
a) turns of normal vectors, harmonious with general direction of triangle pieces generation
b) opposite turn of one normal vector towards the direction of generated grid, of triangle
pieces c) correct assignment of the edges of triangle pieces d) incorrect assignment of the edges
of triangle pieces e) spaces in approximated surface of a virtual model [4]

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A huge part of search engines is able to read STL files so as to put them to
analysis and if need be correction, control of coherence, and procedure of gaps
identification in three-dimension environment made of triangles. This process is
fully automatic.
While creating models with techniques of fast prototyping, one should allow
for the following rules:
in the case of elements in which details are comparative to the thickness of
the put layers of material, one should expect that they will undergo deformations
the level of details deformations is hard to specify, because it depends mainly on the placement o triangles grid which creates structure of surface in
*.stl format, towards the layers of the built model
proper placement of an object during its fabrication may influence on precision of a models details production (pic. 1.9)

Pic. 1.9. Possibilities of reconstruction of parallel (a) and perpendicular to the layers (b) axis
in SL technology [16]

The course of typical process of fast prototyping in FDM method Fused Deposition Modeling extrusion settling of the fused material
Realization of the process of fast prototyping proceeds in the stages [1,7]:
creating of geometrical model of an object in CAD system or alternatively
digitalization of existent physical solid,
saving of file in STL format,
transfer of the file in STL format to the programming of the machine for fast
prototyping,
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 division of an object into profile sections of which product will be built, and
arranging of processing parameters: thickness of layer, width of layer etc.,
automatic creation of supporting constructions,
building of the product, consisting in distribution of fluidized material in
the form of thin thread, in turn on each layer (layers connect with each
other, creating a complete model),
removing of supporting constructions, and finishing treatment (if need be)
of the created model.

Pic. 1.10. Idea of FDM technology [8,17,20]

SLS (Selective Laser Sintering) method, SLM (Selective Laser Melting) sintering (melting) of powdered material
The rule of models building in SLS/SLM method is a mixture of SLA technology (stereolithography) and 3DP (3D Printing). STL file is divided by machines
programming into bitmaps and it is sent layer by layer to SLS device. A layer of
powder is put on the base of chamber, which is fused from the above with a beam
of laser of 30-100W power, according to the presented before bitmap. After fusing
the layer, the next layer is put on it and the process repeats from the beginning.

123

Pic. 1.11. Idea of models fabrication with the SLS method a) [19], and SLM method b,c) [18]

Similarly to 3DP technology, the support and the element separating respective
parts from each other is unsintered powder. After printing out, one should clean
the model of the powder remained and the piece is ready for use. Depending on
the kind of selective sintering system, the most frequent thickness of the put layer
is 100 microns (0,1 mm). It allows to gain the precision of models of the sequence
from 0,1 to 0,2 mm, which is the precision efficient both for creating prototypes
and unit ready-made products. Depending on the kind of powder and the thickness of the used sintered layer, one may create models of more than 99% of density.
The companies, which produce SLS systems, use various kinds of materials.
Polyamide powders prevail clear and with addition of glass fibre or coal fibre.
One may also use the powders basing on polystyrenes which work very well as
masers for the method of lost model. Designers who need the look reminding
of metal will be interested in the powder with addition of aluminum. All of the
powders are characterized by very good mechanical and physical features, owing
to which one can create not only testing model, but also a ready-made product
used as final product.
SLS systems are used practically in each branch of industry (functional, ergonomic, fit prototypes). Pieces created with the aid of sintering with laser are
exploited in motorization, aviation, packaging industry or industrial patterning.
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Thanks to the possibility of sterilization of a ready-made product, SLS spreads also

in medicine as pieces of medical equipment.
The variant of these technologies is also DMLS Direct Metal Laser Sintering
technology of direct fusion of metals powders.
Electron Beam Melting (EBM) electron, selective melting (of powder)
Building of models proceeds through putting layers of metal powder on
lowering platform, and next melting of each of layers with the aid of concentrate
beam of electrons in the way in which actual layer is fully melted and permanently
joined with the previous one. The process takes place in vacuum chamber, because
otherwise atoms of gas would disperse the electron beam. Owing to high vacuum
with minimal participation of helium, EBM machine can produce details with
complicated spatial structures, keeping at the same time the highest standards of
cleanness of melted metal alloys. Mainly because of high density and cleanness of
metal structure, Electron Beam Melting has found its use in implants production,
consisting of porous structures and making ostheointegration easier, which are
impossible to be made with cutting treatment. EBM is also much faster technology
than the DMLS and SLM ones; however, it offers much lower precision of the
built elements and worse quality of surface, which causes that most of engineering
pieces require additional processing with cutting.

Pic. 1.12. Scheme of EBM working [source Internet]

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Additive technologies based on powdered metals located in tank chambers

(Powder bed fusion):
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
Selective laser melting (SLM)
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Electron beam melting (EBM) .
Additive technologies based on powdered metals, given with the use of nozzles
(e.g. with the use of compressed gas) in the zone of melting and settling (Blown
powder)
Direct metal deposition (DMD)
Laser Metal Deposition (LMD), Direct Laser Deposition (DLD)
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)/ Direct Metal Deposition (DMD)
The method is based on dosing a proper amount of powder, along with immediate melting of it, directly on the built model. Laser of high power (from tens of
watts to 20KW) melts the provided coaxial powder with the beam of laser through
dosing head, on the model.

Pic. 1.13. Idea of LENS technology [8,22]

The dozed powder is gravitationally or under the pressure of carrying gases.

The environment of these gases is used for protection of melted material from
atmospheric environment, aiming a better control of features, and in order to
provide a better adherence between the alternate layers. Gases are, however, used
also in the cases when dosing of material doesnt require it, but in order to provide
better features and parameters, they are exploited. The fabricated models may be
already treated as the final ones; however, mechanical processing is advisable. They
126

are characterized by a good grain structure, and by parameters similar or even

better than the proper materials [8].

Pic. 1.14. The rule of EDM working [24]

Theoretically, the material used in sintering technologies with laser may be each
metal, which can be powdered. Currently, there are dozen or so of the powders
adapted to DMSL from simple metal powders, through stainless steel, to titan
powders, clean or with additions. In general uses, stainless steels and alloys of various metals (e.g. cobalt with chromium) are most frequently used ones. For medical
uses, the possibility of melting pure titan was worked out and implemented, owing
to which one can make e.g. implants [2].
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) Layer fabrication of objects [8]
It consists in setting of material which has the form of foil, in stack or most
frequently in gluing them with the aid of laser or heated shaft. Opening material
may be unrolled from the roll or it may have the form of sheets. It is covered
with glue from the bottom, one-sidedly. The first layer of the foil is a cut shape,
corresponding to a proper profile section of the fabrication. One make it with the
aid of laser or in certain kinds of LOM, called in short from English SAHP, with
the aid of numerically-steered knife. After cutting the shape, the stack lowers with
the thickness of further layer, and another layer is put on the previously put one. It
is pushed to the bottom layer with the aid of heated shaft, and in the next stage the
127

shape of profile section is cut out, but this time it corresponds to the new layer of
the future fabrication. The cycle repeats, until the whole model is built.

Pic. 1.15. The rule of LOM working [25]

3DP three-dimensional printing

3DP (Three Dimensional Printing) is a technology of three-dimensional
printing enabling to use powders from polymeric, through ceramic, to metal ones.
Solids built in that way have huge porosity and they sometimes require fulfillment
of free spaces with enforcing material. There is no problem with porosity if liquid
labor material is used for building. The benefits of 3DP are: inconsiderable sizes,
quiet work, low costs and very fast work.

Pic. 1.16. The essence of 3DP technology [8,17]

128

Spraying of materials cement is used for local transmission of glue, so the

connections of powders locally. Usually, two containers are used, the container in
which product is shaped and an additional box with fresh powder. A huge advantage of this technology is the fact that all kinds of powder can be exploited. It is
easy to add color to the printed final products.
IJP Ink Jet Printing
It is a technology belonging to the RP methods which patterns surface well and
it is characterized by a good print resolution. Not only labor material (thermoplastic material) is put on the layer, but also aiding substance, the so-called supporting
(wax), providing stability of solid while printing it.

Pic. 1.17. The rule of IJP printing method working

Possibilities and areas of use of generative technologies

In recent years, one observes an intense development of RP technologies, both
in the area of their technical possibilities and also in the area of use. That is why one
is saying rather about the third technical revolution. Cosmic technique, aviation
industry, medical technologies are the fields in which this advance is the most intensive one. Thus, e.g. zero-waste technologies, possibility of producing advanced
technologically metal products of the materials which may endure temperature to
3500oC are being tested (pic. 1.18).
129

Pic. 1.18. Example of production of titan powders, of ribbed element used in aviation technique [26]

The next group of issues concerns possibilities of building of crafts wings

elements, as also whole objects (e.g. drones), with the use of RP technology and
industrial robots.

Pic. 1.19. Fabrication of airplanes wings construction with the use of RP technology [12]

Possibilities of fabricating multifunctional material systems in which functional integration of the built in the structure: sensors, electric circuits, elements
producing and cumulating energy, tracks of communication occurs are tested (pic.
1.20, pic. 1.21)

Pic. 1.20 Building of elements with optimized internal cooling, contours (geometry) of details
impossible to be gained with traditional methods of shaping, decreasing of costs by maximization of efficiency [27]

130

Pic. 1.21. Engine and pump, wires and pistons integrated with grid structure for decrease of
mass of humanoid robots grab [6]

The emergent field numerical designing and producing of gradient materials

and structures, ultra-light, of programmed porosity and mechanical parameters
(pic. 1.22, pic. 1.23, pic. 1.24).

Pic. 1.22. Sintering of round structures of programmed porosity of material

Pic. 1.23. Building of tructures of programmed porosity with RP methods

131

Pic. 1.24. Materials of discrete structure and mechanical features gained in generative
technologies

They are undertaken in a wide scope of trials of systems (pieces) building of

multi-materials, e.g. steel, bronze (CuSi3%), and in the scope of massive production of elements in RP technologies trials of automation of these processes are
undertaken of constant fabrication (pic. 1.25).

Pic. 1.25 The device for serious production of elements in RP technology [28]

132

In the area of medical technologies, generative technologies are tested i.e. in the
scope of possibilities and fabrication of e.g. implants and also so-called bio-printing of human organs (pic. 1.26.).

Pic. 1.26. 3D printer for building of human organs a) [29], and example of integration of
materials in RP in intelligent fabrication of human organs [30]

Optimization in techniques of fast prototyping

Development of RP technology has proved that an especially important issue
is optimal designing both of construction and the process of fabrication itself. It is
reflected in mass, stiffness of construction and also in the costs and time of metals
fabrication. An especially important is a proper use of methods of constructions
optimization, including topological optimization.
A typical optimization issue, independently from chosen algorithmics, consists
of the following elements:
The MES model along with any number of loads states: resistance, vibration,
heating, and also acoustic; under certain conditions one may also define
non-linear issues,
Set of designing variables: material, topological, of shape, of dimension,
The function of purpose which is usually minimization of mass or reduction
of vulnerability,
Scalar limiting conditions; usually it is about not crossing permissible stresses and keeping of proper folding, or definition of boundary frequencies of
own vibrations,
Technological conditioning; HW/OS can force spatial repetition of found
distribution of masses, and also taking into consideration the kind of fabrication process,
Additional options, e.g. max. number of iteration or level of the so-called
discretition of target construction in topological optimization.
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The use of topological optimization in designing allows to restrain considerably

e.g the mass of detail (of construction), time of fabrication and energy inputs, which
is especially important, particularly in designing of crafts or cosmic constructions.
The idea of such optimization is illustrated in the pic. 27.

Pic. 1.27. The essence of topological optimization with the limit of mass details of titan alloys [31]

Topological optimization uses most frequently the discretization of construction space with the use of finite element method. Algorithm of optimization
assigns the parameter of density , called pseudodensity, to each of finite elements
of the construction. This parameter may change during optimization in the range
<0,1>. It is treated here as decisive variable. For each finite element the value 0 is
equivalent to its remove from the construction, which is connected with reduction
of an objects mass. The criterion of finite element remove may be connected with
e.g. elimination of the least deformating elements or the least swollen ones. Most
frequently the function of purpose for the problem of topological optimization is
minimization of the mass by limitations connected with the taken parameter of
state (stress or deformation. Searching of e.g. maximal stiffness of construction
and maximal frequency of vibrations are also possible [15].

Pic. 1.28. Example of shapes optimization procedure , the size and mass of elements of a
planes wing, fabricated in RP technology [32]

134

2.

Reverse engineering

The reverse engineering (RE, eng. Reverse Engineering) is a technology allowing to reconstruct construction rules of already existent objects. It is used for the
aim of recognition of rules, according to which an object has been designed and
then projected. In fabrication industry it consists in reconstruction of products
geometry, the rule of working and sometimes materials of which the object has
been made. Reverse engineering is also used in other fields, e.g. in IT, in which it
consists in analysis of existent program aiming at understanding of its work and/
or reconstruction of its source code [8].
Reverse engineering in reference to industry is most frequently identified
with digitalization of physical objects geometry. Its result is a numeral form of
model, being the basis of further construction works, computer analyses (e.g. with
finite element method) or comparisons of physical models with the computer one.
Gaining of numeral form of model allows also to use these data directly in wider
and wider used technologies of computer aided fabrication (deficiency processing
on machines steered numerically, fabrication with incremental method in Rapid
Prototyping, Rapid Tooling and Rapid Manufacturing methods etc.
Reverse engineering techniques are more and more widely used in industry,
not only as tools of development and products designing, but also as the systems of
production supervising. They provide a fast control dimension of practically each
produced fabrication. Such examination lasts from a couple to dozen or so seconds and it consists in digitalization of chosen fragments or the whole surface of a
fabrication, in comparison of the gained in that way data to a computer model. A
typical programming used in Reverse Engineering technologies (RE) are: Magics,
Mimics, Geomegic Studio etc.

Pic. 2.1. RP technology in the use of classic methods and RE [33]

135

Uses of reverse engineering in the industry

The process of objects geometry patterning finds its use in the tasks as:
Implementation of changes to prototypes or already produced elements,
Working out of production technology of fabrication on the basis of unified
product,
Quality control of the elements produced,
Reconstruction or generation of documentation of a respective product.
Digitalization methods [8]
Techniques of gaining information on 3D geometry are different with the way
of dimension and sometimes with the kind of data which are gained as a result of
their use. Taking into consideration the level of automation, the dimension can be
made in by-hand, half-automatic or automatic mode. The by-hand mode requiring
steering of dimension device by a user is used for reading dimensions of the models
of relatively simple geometry, most frequently the prism ones whose models may
be created from the bases in CAD system. In half-automatic mode, a measuring
device saves chosen by a user fragments of geometry of an examined object, which
requires initial definition of dimension area. In the case of dimension of the whole
object, scanning in few clampings may be required, and next connecting of respective fragments of scanned surface in one numeral model. In automatic model
geometry of the whole examined object may be intercepted without necessity of
manual interference of a user in the process of digitalization, and the initial data
reflect the full three-dimensional model of an examined object.

Pic. 2.2. Methods of digitalization

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Pic. 2.3. Procedure of reverse engineering process [36]

Data processing digitalization of object [36]

In each RE method problems connected with specification and processing of
data occur, e.g. hums, unimportant and incomplete data. Usually one cannot make
a full dimension of an object. The provided data are then irregular and burdened
with dimensionment error. The processing of large amount of dimensionment
data is program- or device- limited. That is why dimensionment data are put to the
process of reduction or filtration. They are the basis of approximation with curves
(e.g. B-spline) and stretching of surface (e.g. Beziera, B-spline or NURBS). In the
final stage, geometrical data are exported from 3D-CAD program (e.g to IGES,
STP, STL format) and used in fabrication process (CNC or RP).
Currently, one uses two fundamental ways of virtual elements model fabrication of complicated shape in RE process:
Processing of given model to the set of mathematical equations describing
modeled surface
Creating of model with interactional ways of processing of physical object
dimensionments results; one marks coordinates of points in 3D space, next
one uses proper algorithms connecting the points gained as a result of scanning dimensionments.
The surface of examined model is usually an unknown surface. For its diagnosing one may use the approach of surface (flat) digitalization. The digitalized
surfaces are divided into paths which are flat curves created by surfaces cutting
through each other (digitalization surfaces) curves are marked with paths of
digitalization.

137

Pic. 2.4. Typical devices used in contactless methods of digitalization: a) optical 3D scanner,
b) laser scanner, c) computer tomograph [36]

One of the most frequently exploited types of scanners in reverse engineering

are optical scanners based on the projection of structural light, so-called ridge
scanners. The projector of a scanner makes projection of a set of ridges of known
density, on an examined object. Straight lines undergo deformation adequate to
the size of deformation of objects surface; this image is registered by matrices of
cameras. Using initial data (structure of light, image registered by the camera and
its calibration parameters, angle between direction of projection and direction of
readout) and mathematical equations coordinates for each pixel of the camera are
calculated. The result of a separate dimensionment is the cloud of points whose
number is dependent directly on resolution of the used cameras [35]. Using the
initial data (structure of light, image registered by the camera and its calibration
parameters, angle between direction of projection and direction of readout) and
mathematical equations, coordinates for each pixel of the camera are calculated.
The result of a separate dimensionment is the cloud of points which number is
dependent directly on resolution of the used cameras (pic. 2.4).

138

Pic. 2.5. The rule of ridge scanner working [35]

The use of reverse engineering methods allows to:

Interoperate possibility of evaluation of machines pieces cooperation, e.g.
provided by many producers
Reproduction of device documentation, of which it doesnt have (loss of
documentation occurred or a producer hasnt made it available)
Analysis of an object as an aim of components structure specification, approximation of costs or claiming of patents breaking
Control revision of an object as regards keeping and maintenance of geometrical dimensions
Duplicates creating
Building of models aiming at numerical analysis of their work, resistance
and behavior of their elements, groups or whole objects

139

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