General Chemistry 1

Chemistry 16 Lecture

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Chemistry 16

Science: dubbed as “body of knowledge”

✔ Computational Chemistry – facilitating with drugs
✔ Biochemistry
✔ Biotechnological Research

Scientific Method: cut and dried approach

1. Observation

Types of Data:
a. Qualitative: numerical facts
b. Quantitative: non numerical facts

Law: of various statements of observation; convenient way of storage of very large

amount of data. It allows us to predict yet an untried experiment.
It is a conclusive or explicit statement of fact that is evident to anyone
making the same observation.

1. Propose a tentative explanation.

Hypothesis: A tentative model.
Theory: describe a model that has been tested many times.
*If the hypothesis is incorrect, it is discarded or modified.

Definition of Problem

Collection of Data LAW

Formulation of
Hypothesis

Testing Of Hypothesis
THEOR
By Predicting Results
Y
Of New Experiments

CHEMISTRY: is the study of matter, its composition, structure and properties, the
changes that it undergoes and the energy transformations accompanying these
changes.

Matter: anything that takes up space and has mass.

• Mass: a measure of its resistance to change in velocity
• Weight: measure to the force with which an object of a certain mass is
attracted by gravity to the earth or to some body near it.

Newton’s Equation:

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F = ma Force = Mass x Acceleration

W = mg Weight = Mass x Gravity

Composition: amount of components of matter; what is something is made of and

its quantities.

Structure: arrangement of particles that make up a substance.

Properties: Characteristics (Physical State, Mass, Color, Surface, Etc.)

A. Extensive: depend on size or amount of sample of matter
Ex.: mass, volume, length, heat
B. Intensive: independent of sample size
Ex.: physical state, color, hardness, melting point, density, specific gravity

Note: Density = Mass/Volume, is an intensive property (Ratio of two extensive

property)

A. Physical: observed without changing the chemical make-up of a substance.

a. Difficult to assign value – odor, taste, color
b. Can be expressed in definite numbers – melting, hardness
B. Chemical: Interaction between chemical substances.
Example: Fe + H20 = FeO2

Changes in Matter
A. Chemical Change: Results in disappearance of substances and formation of
new ones.
B. Physical Change: Does not result in formation of a new substance

Classification of Matter

A. Mixtures: consists of two or more substances and can be separated by

physical means.
Ex.: Blood, Air

Characteristics;
1. Consists of two or more substances
2. Has variable compositions
3. Can be separated by physical means

Types:
1. Homogeneous: also called solution. It has the same physical and
chemical properties through out; uniform
2. Heterogeneous: has physical and chemical properties that are not
uniform through out the sample; has two phases.
Ex.: Blood, Granite, Concrete

A. Pure Substances:
1. Have uniform properties

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Chemistry 16 Lecture

2. Has definite composition

3. Cannot be further separated into other components by physical
means

1. Elements: Substances that cannot be made from or decomposed into

simpler substances; building blocks of more complex substances.

2. Compounds: Composed of two or more elements in fixed proportion by

mass; can be decomposed by chemical means.

Some Separation Techniques:

1. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

FIGURE 1. Concept Map of Matter

MATTER

Mixture PHYSICAL CHANGE Pure Substances

Variable Compositions Constant composition

CHEMICAL CHANGE
Compounds Elements

MATTER
occurs as

Heterogeneous SUBDIVISIONS Homogeneous

Mixtures Mixtures

Solutions

SEPARATION BY PHASE Pure Substance

Chemical Elements

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Chemical Compounds

Energy: Capacity to do work.

An object can possess energy in just two ways

1. Kinetic Energy (KE)
2. Potential Energy (PE)

Total Energy of an object = KE + PE

A. Kinetic Energy: energy an object has when it is moving.

KE = 12mv2
Where: m = mass
v = velocity or speed

B. Potential Energy: Stored Energy

PE is not in used, but it is stored and has the capacity to do work when released
(Attractive or Repulsive)

An object attracted or repelled by some object has PE.

a)
Attracted

PE Increases

PE Decreases as the two balls come together

b) Repelled

PE Increases

PE decreases

Some Forms of Energy

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Radiant Energy: Electromagnetic Radiations (Ex.: Infrared)

Atomic or Nuclear Energy: Manner atoms are built

Note: Amount of energy released or absorbed depends upon the amount of matter
allowed to react. (Intensive Property)

Energy is transformed. Final energy transformations may be light, sound, electricity

or heat.

SI (System International) unit for Energy: Joules (1kg/sec2)

Heat Temperature
It is a form of energy that It is a measure of the
flows by itself from high to intensity of heat
low.

Temperature Scales: 0K, 0C, 0F

SI Unit: Kelvin Scale (0K)

Calorie: Amount of heat needed to raise 10C of water.

Kilocalorie: Larger and more appropriate unit when dealing with chemical
reactions.
1 calorie = 4.1840 J
1 kilocalorie = 4184.0 KJ

Law of Conservation of Energy: In an isolated system, like the universe, the total
energy is constant and energy is neither created nor destroyed but instead it can
only be transformed from one kind of energy to another.
Exothermic Reaction: Release of heat energy
Endothermic Reaction: Absorption of heat energy.

Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in any

transformation of matter.

Law of Conservation of Mass – Energy:

E = mc2 where: E = Energy
m = mass
c = speed of light
*The quantity of energy liberated or destroyed is exactly equal to the quantity of
matter destroyed or created.

Chemical Formula: shorthand way of writing names of compound. It has specified

composition of a complex chemical substance.

Atom: smallest particle of an element that can enter a chemical reaction.

Molecule: group of atoms that bond tightly together.

Chemical Equation: before and after picture of a chemical reaction.

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LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

A. Law of Conservation of Mass: The total mass of the starting materials in a

reaction is the same as the mass of the product.

B. Law of Definite Proportion or Composition: by Joseph Proust.

In 1799, he shows that copper carbonate prepared in the laboratory had the
same component as naturally occurring copper carbonate.

Ratio of Cu:O:C = 5:4:1

Statement: For any sample of a pure chemical substance, its constitute element
exist in the same definite proportion.

Problem:
A sample of Silicon dioxide was found to contain 4.61 g silicon and 5.27 g oxygen.
How much oxygen would be combined with 12.0 g Si in another sample of Silicon
Dioxide?

Let x = amount of Oxygen combined with 12.0 g Si

x12.0 g Si= 5.27 g O4.61 g O

x=5.27 g O(12.0 g Si)(4.61 g O)

x=13.7 g O

ATOMIC THEORY

Idea of Atom:
Leucippus (Greek) - ~490 BC - ?
Democritus (Grek) - ~470 – 380 BC

Atomos: meaning “indivisible”

Aristotle: Rejected the ides of atom. He believed that matter is continuous.

Epicurus: 341 – 270 BC

Lucretius: 95 – 55 BC, a Roman Poet. He wrote De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of
Things)

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John Dalton’s Atomic Theory (English, 1803)

Postulates:
1. Matter is composed of indivisible particles called ATOMS.
2. All atoms of a given elements have identical properties.
3. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4. A chemical reaction merely consists of reshuffling of atoms from one set of
combination to another. The individual atom themselves remains intact.
Atoms are not created, destroyed or change.
5. When atoms combine, they combine in fixed ratios of whole numbers forming
particles known as MOLECULES.

Billiard Ball Model: Dalton’s Atomic Model

– Tiny, hard, indestructible sphere.

A. Law of Multiple Proportions: When the mass of one element is the same in
two compounds, the masses of the second element are in a ratio of small whole
numbers.

To illustrate: NO, Nitric oxide and N2O, Nitrous oxide (laughing gas, for dental
anesthetic)

In NO, 0.875 g of N is present for every gram of O.

In N2O, 1.750 g of N is present for every gram of O.

0.875 g = 1, a small whole number ratio of N to O.

1.750 g 2

Example 2: Sulfur forms 2 compounds with Oxygen.

Compound A 1.0 g S 1.0 g O
Compound B 1.0 g S 1.5 g O

Mass of Compound A 1.0 g 2 2

O
x =
Mass of Compound B 1.5 g 2 3
O

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Discovery that overturned Dalton’s concept of atom:

X-rays 1895
Radioactivity 1896
Electron 1897
Radium 1898
FIGURE 2. Parts of a discharge tube.
 JJ Thomson: devised discharge tube,
subdivisions of electrical charge
particle
 Michael Faraday

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 Sir Humphry Davy

Properties of a Cathode Ray:

1. Consists of a stream of particles of definite mass.
2. Travel in a straight line away from the cathode.
3. Objects placed in their paths cast shadows on the end of discharge tube.
4. They are negatively charged, by the part that they are attracted to a
positively charged plate or attracted to a negative plate.
5. Nature of the cathode ray is the same irrespective of:
a. The material the cathode ray is made of.
b. Type of residual gas present in evacuated tube.
c. Kind of metal wire used to conduct electrical current.
d. The material used to produce current.

CHARGE TO MASS RATIO

JJ Thompson determine the charge to mass ratio of electron as
e -1.76 x 108
=
m coulumbs/gram

Where: e = charge of electron in coulumbs

m = electron mass in grams

Robert Andrews Millikan: (1868 – 1953) devised oil – drop experiment.

In 1909, he determined charge of an electron
e = -1.60 x 10-19 c
m = 9.1 x 10-28 g

Charge of an ē (for convenience): -1

Proton: Positive Particle; was found to be massive than electron and dependent on
the kind of gas present in tube. It is the lightest, mass nearly equal to Hydrogen.
– 1.67 x 10-24, 1840 times of electron (Rest Mass)
– Convenient Charge of 1+

Henri Becquerel: Radioactivity

Components of Radiation
a. Beta (β) Particles: as electrons
b. Alpha (α) Particles: Charge of 2+ and mass of 7300x of electron
c. Gamma (γ) Rays: Magnetic Radiation like visible light but of considerably
high energy

TABLE 1. Components of Radiation

Name Mass Relative to Hydrogen Relative Charge
Atom
Alpha (α) ~4 2+
Beta (β) 1/1837 1-
Gamma (γ) 0 0

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FIGURE 3. JJ Thomson’s Raisin Bread Model of

Atom
• Set of Positive Electrifications (+)
• Electrons (-)

Size of Nucleus: _______________

In 1908 to 1909, Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, used
gold in studying movement of atom and radioactivity.

Geiger counter: device used to count radioactivity

Nuclear Model of an Atom: formulated by Rutherford.
Mass Spectrograph: measure mass of atom.

In 1923, James Chadwick, discovered neutron (no charge). It has the mass same
as proton.

TABLE 2. Subatomic Particles

Charge Mass
Particle Location
Coulomb Charge Unit Gram AMU
+1.6022 x 1.6725 x 10
Proton +1 1.00728
10-19 -24
Nucleus
1.6725 x 10
Neutron 0 0 -24 1.00867
-
Around the -1.6022 x 10
Electron 19 -1 9.109 x 10-28 0.000549
Nucleus

QUARKS AND LEPTONS

Charge
2
Up (u) Quark /
+ 3
1
Down (d) Quark /
- 3

Protons 2 u quarks and 2 d quarks

Neutrons 1 u quarks and 2 d quarks
Electrons Structure less; belongs to a family of particle called LEPTONS

ATOMIC NUMBER: A concept of Henry Moseley.

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↓ Lower Wavelength (λ) Higher Atomic Mass (Inverse)

Shorter Wavelength (λ) Greater Energy of X-rays

✔ No. of positive charge – increases to another atom by one single electron unit.
(Atomic Number)

Atomic Number (Z): equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of a
particular element; also equal to the number of electrons

 Element: a substance of all whose atoms contains the same number of protons.
 Atom: extremely small, electrically neutral particle that has a tiny but massive
nucleus and one or more electrons relatively far from its nucleus.

Atomic Number = No. of Protons = No. of Electrons

Isotopes: Atoms of same element that has different atomic masses.

A nuclear symbol identifies an isotope of an element.

X = Atomic Symbol
Z = Atomic Number
A = Mass Number

Atomic Mass = Proton + Neutron

Atomic Mass = Atomic Number + Neutron
Atomic Mass = Electron + Neutron

816O - Oxygen Sixteen or O – 16

714N – Nitrogen – 14
715N – Nitrogen – 15
From name and symbol of each isotope, determine the number of nucleus.

Given: 612C
p=6
e=6
n=6

Consider 53131I, used in the treatment of cancer of thyroid gland and

hyperthyroidism.
A = 133
p = 53 n = 131 – 53 = 78
e = 53 e = 53 Nuclear Charge = 53 (Equal to
the No. of Protons)

Consider 3890Sr,
A = 90
p = 38 n = 90 – 38 = 52
e = 38 e = 38 Nuclear Charge = 38 (Equal to
the No. of Protons)

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ATOMIC MASS
Consider Carbon Monoxide (CO):

Mass O 16 g O 1.33
= =
Mass C 12 g C 1

Consider Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

Mass O 32 g O 2.66
= =
Mass C 12 g C 1

Relative Masses are called Atomic Masses

Reference: Carbon – 12, 12 amu
1 amu = 1/12 mass of C-12 atom.

Sample Problem: The average mass of Cu is 5.29 times greater than the mass of C-
12 atom. What is the atomic mass of Cu or Copper?

5.29 Ave. mass of Cu atom

=
1 Ave. mass of C-12 atom

Cu Mass = 5.29 x 12 amu

= 63.5 amu

Sample Problem 2: An isotope of an element is ½ times as heavy as a C-12 atom.

Find the atomic mass of the element

At. Mass = ½ x 12
= 6 amu

Given the isotopes of Mg and relative abundances, calculate the Average Atomic
Mass.

Isotop Isotopic Isotopic Abundance Proportional Contribution to

e Mass (%) Mass
Mg – 24 23.985 78.99% 18.95
Mg – 25 24.986 10.00% 2.499
Mg – 26 25.983 11.01% 2.860
Ave. Atomic Mass 24.309

Isotopic Mass x Relative Abundance = Proportional Contribution to Mass

Average Atomic Mass = ∑ Proportional Contribution to Mass

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NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Radioactivity: discovered in 1896 by Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852 – 1908), a

French Chemist. Ex.: Uranium
 Atoms of some elements are not stable
 They spontaneously disintegrate and emit radiation of various types –
RADIOACTIVITY.
 Radioactive isotopes or Radioisotopes: Change of Nuclei
 Transmutation: Change from one element to another (Rutherford and Sodi
Carnot)

Ex.: 88226Ra → 24He Alpha Particles+ 86222Rn

 Nuclear Reaction: involves a change in Atomic Number and/or the Mass

numbers
 In a typical radioactive decay reaction, mass numbers are conserved.
○ Charge is conserved. Thus, the sum of Z of the reacting nuclei and
the particles must be equal to the sum of the atomic numbers of the
product.

1327Al+24He → 01n+ 1530P

92240U→-10β+ 93243Np* (High Energy State)
93243Np*→γ+ 93243Np

Types of Radiation:
1. Alpha (α) radiation: composed of He2+ ions called alpha particles (α)
2. Beta (β) radiations: consists of electrons (β)
3. Gamma (γ) radiations: highly energetic, very penetrating light waves.

Small Particles involved in Nuclear Particles and Symbols

Alpha 24He or α
Electron or Beta -10e or -10β
Positron (+e) +10e or +10β
Proton (Hydrogen nuclei) 11H or 11p
Neutron 01n

Nuclear Stability: Zone or Belt of Stability

✔ Above: Unstable; too many neutron, spontaneous β- production
✔ Below: Unstable; too many protons, spontaneous positron production

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RADIOACTIVE DECAY
A. Decay of neutron rich nuclei
– Above the belt; excess of neutron and few protons

1. Β or Beta Decay: stability is achieved by emitting β particles.

01n → 11p+-10β

Ex.: 614C → 114N+-10β

C n 8 =1.3 N n 7 =1.0
= =
= p 6 3 = p 7 0↓

3687Kr → 3787Rb+-10β

5 5
n n
Kr 1 =1.4 Rb 0 =1.33
= =
= 3 2 = 3 ↓
p p
6 7

2. Neutron Emission

3687Kr → 3686Kr+01n

5 5
n n
Kr - 1 =1.4 Kr - 36 0 =1.39
= =
87= 3 2 = 3 ↓
p p
6 6

A. Decay Processes for Neutron poor Nuclei

1. Positron Emission: One less Proton and one more neutron

3578Br → 3478Se++10β

4 4
n n
Br 3 =1.2 Se 4 =1.29
= =
= 3 2 = 3 ↑
p p
5 4

2. Proton Emission: results in one less proton.

2143Sc → 2042Ca+11H

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3. Alpha Emission: Results in two less protons and two less neutrons

84208Po → 82204Pb+24He

4. Electron Capture or K – Capture: one less proton, one more neutron.

79195Au+e- → 78195Pb+γ

82205Pb+e- → 81205Pb+γ

Radiation Protection:
To prevent skin damage due to Beta particles, heavy clothing and wearing gloves is
encouraged.
For Gamma rays, lead or concrete can only prevent from emission. It is the most
hazardous among rays.

Radioactivity and Living Organisms

Cellular Damage by Radiation

1. Formation of ION PAIRS
H2O  H2O+ + e-
2. Formation of FREE RADICALS (unpaired electrons and quite unstable)
H2O  HO* + O*

Free radicals can:

1. Recombine to form H2O, which is harmless
2. Combine to form H2, tolerated in small amounts
3. Combine to form H2O2, which is highly toxic
4. React with oxygen in cell to produce a free radical that is even more
undesirable than H2O2

Half Life or Radioisotopes

Half Life or T½: time it takes ½ of a radioactive sample to decay

Sample: Consider 131I, with a half life of 8 days. If 200 mg of the radioisotope is left
to decomposed, how many mg will be left after 4 half life?

200 mg 0 day
100 mg 8 days 1
50 mg 16 days 2
25 mg 24 days 3
12.5 mg 32 days 4

Naturally Occurring Isotopes with long T ½

Half - life Emitting Particles

C – 14 5760 yrs. β
K – 40 1.3 x 109 yrs β, γ

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Ra – 226 1600 yrs α, γ

U – 238 4.5 x 109 yrs α, γ

Medical Radioisotopes
C -11 20 mins β+
Cr -51 28 days γ
I – 131 8 days β, γ
K – 42 12 hrs β, γ
Sr – 85 64 days γ
Tc -99 8 hrs
Formula for Half – Life
lo N 0.30 T
g 0 1
=
N T
½

where: N0 = Initial Mass

N = Mass of Sample at Time t
T ½ = Half life

Sample: Se -75 has a T ½ of 120 days. If we begin at 8.00 g of Se-75, how may
grams would remain after 240 days?

Given: No = 8.00 g Se-75

T ½ = 120 days
t = 240 days
N=?

lo N 0.30 T
g 0 1
=
N T
½

log 8.0 0.30 (240

0 = 1 )

N 120

log 8.0
0 0.60
=
2
N

8.0 = antilog0.60

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0
2
N

8.0
0 3.9
=
9
N

8.0
0
N =
3.9
9

N = 2.00 g

Atomic Dating: not accurate for more than 50,000 yrs old due to less carbon
atoms.
➢ U -238 decomposes to Pb-206 in a series of steps
○ Half Life of U-238 is 4.5 B years
➢ After one T ½ of a sample of 1.0 g U, it would contain 0.50 g U and 0.43 g
Pb.
➢ Amount of lead is calculated from the atomic masses based on the 0.50 g U
that decomposed.
207 g/mol
Pb X 0.50 g U 0.43 g
238 g/mol = Pb
U

A rock sample that contains U – 238 and Pb – 206 in the ratio

0.50 g U is 4.5 B
0.43 g Pb years

If the sample has larger values, it is younger. When the values are smaller, it is
older.
Nuclear Binding Energy:
E = mc2
where: E = Energy
m = mass
e = energy
✔ Energy needed to decompose the nucleus (or the energy released when it is
formed)

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Mass Defect: Difference between the actual mass of the nucleus and the
individual sum of protons and neutrons.

Sample Problem: A 24He atom is composed of 2p, 2n and 2e. The individual
particles of the ff. masses:
p = 1.00728
n = 1.00867
e = 0.000549

Calculated Mass:
(2 x 1.007277) + (2 x 1.008665) + (2 x 0.000549) = 4.032981 amu

Mass spectrometer of a 24He atom mass = 4.002603 amu

Mass Defect = Calculated Mass – Actual Mass

= 4.032981 – 4.002603
= 0.030378 amu (Converted to Energy)

How much energy is this?

Consider 1 mol of He atom

Total mass lost = 0.030378 g or 3.0378 x 10-5 kg

Speed of light = 2.9979 x108 m/s

E = mc2
E = (3.0378 x 10-5 kg) (2.9979 x108 m/s) 2
E = 2.7303 x 1012 kg m2/s2

In SI Units, 1 joule = 1 kg m2/s2

.:. 2.73 x 1012 J/mol
or 2.73 x 109 KJ/mol

Combustion of 1 mole CH4 liberates only 8.9 x 102 KJ/mol

Fission and Fusion Reactions

➢ Nuclear Fission: Splitting of nucleus of heavy elements into 2 or more light

elements
➢ Nuclear Fusion: formation of an element from 2 element of very low mass.

Nuclear Fission
– Extremely exothermic
– Produces about 106 times as much energy as ordinary reactions

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– Otto Hahn and Fritz Strossman, German chemists, 1939: When U was
bombarded by slow moving neutrons, unexpected product was produced.
– Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, discovered that it was U -235 that
absorbed neutron.
○ Fission produces chain reaction and also a source of power.
– Fissile Isotopes: capable of undergoing nuclear fission
○ Ex.: U -235, has a natural abundance of 0.72 and produces Pu -239
and U -233
– Critical Mass: the minimum amount of fissile isotopes required to sustain
the chain reaction.
○ Uranium in nuclear reactions has low purity
Nuclear Fusion
– Formation of an element of very low mass
– Requires an extremely hot temperature (40, 000, 000 0C)
– Occurs in the sun

Steps proposed to account the reaction:

12H+12H →23He+ 01n

12H+12H →13H+ 11H

13H+11H →24He+ 01n

THE PERIODIC TABLE

John Dobereiner: group elements into triads. (The Average of the atomic masses
of the first and last element will be equal to the atomic mass of the middle element)
Ex.: Fe, Co, Ni
Cl, Br, I
Basis: Occurrence of similar chemical and physical properties.

John Newlands: a scientist and a music lover; arranged based on the increasing
masses in octaves.

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Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do

Law of Octaves: True for lighter elements

Dmitri Mendeleev: (1834 – 1907), Russian Chemist; listed elements in increasing

atomic masses and in early 1869, reported to the Russian Chemical Society

Julius Lothar Meyer: (1830 – 1895), German Chemist; published his own
interpretation in Dec. 1869

Periodic Law: properties of elements vary periodically with their atomic number.

The Modern Periodic Table or the Long Form

Atomic
2
Number

X Atomic Symbol

Atomic
Mass

Rows: Periods or Series (7)

Columns: Group or Family of Elements (18)

Classification of Elements
1. Representatives: Family A (Groups 1,2,13-18)
2. Transitions: Family B (3-12)
3. Inner Transition: Actinides and Lanthanides( Rare Earth Elements)

Common Names for Family of Elements

Group 1 - Alkali Metals
Group 2 - Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 17 - Halogens or Salt Formers (Greek)
Group 18 - Noble or Inert Gasses (low degree of chemical activity)

Types of Solids

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1. Amorphous Solids: arranged in a disordered form or non crystalline

structure.
Ex.: Glass and Clays

2. Crystalline Solids: particles are arranged in an orderly fashion, occupy a fix

position called crystalline lattice.
Ex.: Quartz and Table Salt

Simple Cubic Body Centered Type Face – centered cubic

i. Metallic
ii.Ionic
iii.Covalent Molecular
iv.Covalent Network

Elements in the Periodic Table

a. Metals
b. Non – Metals
c. Metalloids

Properties of Elements:
A. Metals
a. Shiny
b. Dense
c. Malleable
d. Ductile
e. High Melting Point
f. Good Conductor of Electricity
B. Non – Metals
a. Tend to have low densities
b. Brittle when solid
c. Most have low melting point (Some are liquid/gases at room temp)
d. Poor Conductors of electricity

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C. Metalloids
a. Exhibits the same properties of metals and non-metals
b. Electrical conductivity but not the same extent to metals; semi
conductors

METALS or METALLIC SUBSTANCES

➢ Minerals: Naturally occurring compounds of metals
○ Oxides and sulfides
○ Ore: large amount of minerals, worth mining

Physical Properties
1. High degree of electrical conductivity: delocalized electron
2. High degree of thermal conductivity: delocalized electron
3. Definite luster: presence of free electrons
4. High melting point:
Exception: Mercury (Hg) has a low melting point when solid in room temp.
Tungsten (W): has a high melting point
5. High density: distance between ions
6. Relatively strong: strong attraction between ions/ metallic bonding
7. Malleable
8. Ductile

Electron Sea Model of Metals

– Metallic Bonding still operates after distortion.

Alloys: When different metals are melted together, stirred and cooled; mixture of
metals and solid solution

Two Types of Solid Solutions

1. Substitutional Solid Solution or Alloy

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Examples:
a. Brass: 1/3 Cu (host) replaced by Zn
b. Sterling Silver: 93% Ag; 7% Co
c. Pewter: 85% Sn, 7% Cu, 6% Bi, 2% Sb
d. Plumber’s Solder: 67% Pb, 33% Sn

1. Interstitial Solid Solution or Alloy

Examples:
a. WC or Tungsten Carbide: extremely hard, used to make cutting tools
for marking steel
b. Steel: C Atoms in the interstices of iron crystals
i. Mild Steels: 0.2% C, relatively ductile and malleable; nails, cables
and chains
ii. Medium Steels: 0.2 – 0.6% C; Relatively higher than mild steel; Rails
and structural steel beams
iii. High Carbon Steels: 0.6 – 16.5%; rough and hard; Springs, tools and
cutlery

Properties of Alloys
1. Melting point: Alloy composed of 2 metals is usually lower than the melting
point of either pure component. An extended melting range exists rather than
a sharp melting point.
Ex.: Wood’s Metal (m.p. = 70 0C)

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Bi = 271.3 0C
Pb = 327.4 0C
Sn = 182 0C
Cd = 320.9 0C

 Used in sprinklers where it plug a water outlet. In case of fire,

the plug melts and water comes out to douse the fire.
1. An alloy is harder than any of the metal component
2. Electrical Conductivity: Generally lower than that of the pure metals
3. Many alloys are resistant in chemical corrosion better than their components
taken separately.

Other Alloys:
1. Stellite:
 Co and Cr;
 Used to make high speed, high cutting tools for industry
 Retain hardness even at high temperature and remains sharp
1. Stainless Steel (SS)
 Cr and Ni, Common Alloy
 Corrosion Resistant
1. 18.8 Stainless Steel
 18 % Cr ,8% Nickel,
 High corrosion resistant: Formation of Cr2O3 (Chromium (III) oxide), a
stable film. This film however is readily destroyed by Cl
 S.S. which contains Mo have higher resistance; used in salt water
1. Bronze: Cu – Zn Alloy

IONIC SUBSTANCES
✔ No discrete molecules
✔ Large Crystal Energies
✔ Hard
✔ High Melting point
✔ Brittle: repulsive charges; movement of ions
✔ Tend to shatter when struck: repulsive charges; movement of ions
✔ Solid: poor conductor of electricity
✔ Molten: good conductor of electricity

Ex.: Sodium Chloride(NaCl)

Potassium Chloride (KCl)
+ + +

+ + + +

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+ + +

+ + + +

+ + +

+ + + +

+ + +

NaCl

Lattice Point: Ions

Cl- ions – Surrounded by 6 Na+
Strong Electrostatic reactions between + and – ions: Ionic Bonding
Group 1 or 2 + Group 16, 17 or 15 = Ionic Substances

COVALENT MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES

✔ Atoms sharing electrons
✔ Strong Bond
✔ Soft
✔ Low Melting point: Weak attraction
✔ Poor Conductors of Electricity: No Moving Charges

Ex.: Solid Carbon or Dry Ice O=C=O CO2

Hydrogen H–H H2

COVALENT NETWORK SUBSTANCES

✔ Held by strong covalent bonds
✔ High melting point
✔ Extremely hard
✔ Poor conductor of heat
✔ Quite brittle
✔ High boiling point
✔ Low volatility
✔ Non conductors of electricity

Ex.: Diamond, Silicon carbide or carborundum

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Allotropism: Existence of an element in more than one form, either as a result of

difference in molecular structure like O2 or O3, or as a consequence of different
packing of atom molecule in solid
Allotropic Form of Carbon:
1. Diamond: Continuous Lattice of Carbon
C
|
C C
C | C C
C C
2. Graphite: Special Type of Covalent Network
Ex.: Lead Pencil
Properties:
a. Soft: Weak intermolecular forces
b. Conducts Electricity: Delocalized Electron
c. Possesses Metallic Luster: Delocalized Electron
1. Buckminsterfullerene or Bucky Ball
 Soot: Incomplete Combustion of Wood or Charcoal
 In 1985, Smalley and co workers, reported that large molecules have
been discovered by vaporizing molecules of graphite by lasers
 Mass Spectrometer Data: (Types of Molecules)
 Common Group of C – Magic Number
11, 15, 19 or 23
 Second group: 40- 70 C atoms
• Unusual Structure
 Arrangement of 60 – C atom was a truncated icosahedrons; a ball
shape and hollow inside
 Named after an American architect, R. Buckminster Fuller (after
geodesic domes)
 Importance: Molecule of the year 1990 – 1991
 As carrier of drugs, hollow
• Ca, La, U inserted
• Fe – cannot be inserted
 Carbon atoms can be replaced by fluorine
• Teflon: Non stick pans ; super lubricants

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LIQUID CRYSTALS: Substances that exhibit solid and liquid properties in a range
of temperature just above their melting point
 Friedrich Reintzer, Austrian botanist
○ Prepared the compound, cholesteryl benzoate
1. At room temp.: White crystalline Solid
- Heating at 145 0C, crystal structure collapses to form a turbid
liquid (liquid crystal)
- At 179 0C, turbid structure collapses to a liquid
- On cooling, the process reverses itself
2. The turbid liquid change color as temperature changes
- From red to blue with increase in temperature and vice versa
- Not all liquid crystalline compounds show color change in temp.

Kinds of Liquid Crystals

1. Nematic type

Rod like, loosely packed

2. Smectic type

3. Cholesteric

Molecule in Layer (Nematic)

Rotate spatial at a perpendicular axis
Helical structure

Uses:
Potential useful in reflecting light
– Color Mapping
Ex.: locating the vein, (warmer than the surrounding)

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