22 January 2005

TRAINING REPORT

COMPANY: - FESTO CONTROLS PVT LTD.

PLACE: - MUMBAI

PERSON: Amit M. Rampure

FACULTY: - V. A. Kowshik

PURPOSE: - Festo Didactic Training Program on Basics of Pneumatics.

AIM: To familiarize with fundamentals of pneumatics and develop skills required to

design, maintain and troubleshoot systems that works purely on air.

CONTENT:
• Elements in pneumatic systems
• Air preparation and distribution
• Cylinders and valves
• Special purpose valves
• Port numbering systems
• Design and construction of pneumatic circuits
• Pneumatic latches and their applications
• Maintenance and troubleshooting
• Safety considerations
• Air consumption calculations
• Cylinder force calculations.

DATE: - 17~21 January 2005

TIMING: - 9.00am to 5.00 pm
 INTRODUCTION
In morning Peoples from BFL and Festo introduced each other. After
introduction the purpose of training and courseware of training (Text book of Basic
Pneumatics) is given.

 Pneumatics is system of fluid power in which Compressed air is used for doing
certain work.
Pneumatic components can perform following types of motion:
• Linear
• Swivel
• Rotary.
 Basic difference in Hydraulic and Pneumatic
Consider the characteristics of hydraulic and pneumatic system.
The graph of pressure v/s Volume of air pumped into cylinder for both the systems is
as shown.
1. Without load

HYDRAULICS
PNEUMATICS

Explanation: In Hydraulic systems, the pressure rises suddenly after the certain volume
of air is filled into cylinder; which develops a large force.

In Pneumatic systems the pressure rises slowly as compared to the hydraulic

system; therefore the it does not develop large force.
 2. With load

Explanation: In Hydraulic systems, the pressure rises to a value at which load can be
momentarily moved after that the pressure suddenly rises which gives large force
In Pneumatic systems the pressure rises slowly as air is filled into the
cylinder but due to load the small layer near to the piston is get compressed due to
which pressure doesn’t rise even if volume is increasing. When the air pressure is
sufficient to move the load is built the load moves which creates a space therefore the
air is expanded and pressure doesn’t built as much after pumping more air into
cylinder the pressure rises slowly and load moves. This gives rise to jerky motion at
rod end.

Sr
HYDRAULICS PNEUMATICS
no.
1. Media used Oil Compressed Air
2. Force developed Very high force Force is lower than hydraulics
3. Speed Slow Very high
4. Safety Less than pneumatics Very safe.
5. Transport of media Oil cannot be transferred Air can be easily transported in
over large distances pipelines over large distances.
6. Explosion proof Oil can cause explosion Compressed air offers no risk
of explosion or fire
7. Environmental Leakage oils can cause air Air cannot cause any air
effects pollution lubrication
8. Temperature effects The oil is sensitive to temp. Compressed air is relatively
effects, insensitive to temperature
 fluctuations.

9. Cost Relatively high cost Relatively low cost

 Disadvantages of Pneumatic system

• PREPARATION
Compressed air requires good preparation; dirt and condensate should not be
present.

• COMPRESSION
It is not always possible to achieve uniform constant piston speeds with
compressed air

• FORCE REQUIREMENT
Compressed air is economical only up to certain force requirement under normal
working pressure of 6 to 7 bar and dependent on travel and speed , the output
limits between 40000 and 50000 N.

• NOISE LEVEL
The exhaust level is loud. This problem is now solved due to sound absorption
materials silencers.

 SELECTION CRITERIA
1. Working media-
• Electricity
• Fluids (hydraulics)
• Compressed air (pneumatics)
• Combination of above

2. Working section requirements

• Force
• Stroke
• Type of motion
• Speed
• Service life
• Safety and reliability
• Energy costs

3. Control section
• Mechanical
• Electrical/electronics
• Fluids
• Compressed air
 Development of pneumatic system
 The following points considered while developing any pneumatic circuits:
• Reliability
• Ease of maintenance
• Cost of spare parts
• Assembly and connections
• Maintenance and repair costs
• Interchangeability and adaptability
• Compact design
• Economic

 PERFECT GAS LAWS

Because pneumatics involves gases, the laws that govern gases are very important.
The "Perfect Gas Laws" express the relationships between pressure, volume, and
temperature. When applying these laws, remember that only absolute values of pressure
and temperature can be used.

1) Boyle's Law - This law expresses the relationship between pressure and volume when
temperature is held constant. According to Boyle's Law, the volume of gas in a container is
inversely proportional to the absolute pressure on the gas. Or,
P1V1 = P2V2

2) Charles' Law - This law expresses the relationship between volume and temperature
when pressure is held constant. According to Charles' Law, the volume of gas in an
expendable container is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. Or,
V1T2 = V2T1

3) Gay-Lussac's Law - This law states that if the volume of a gas is held constant (i.e.,
confined in a rigid container), the absolute pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature. Or,
P1T2 = P2T1

 AIR LEAKAGES AND ITS EFFECTS

• SOURCES

1. Pipe joints and flanges

2. Connections fittings
3. Cracked tubes
4. Loose components
5. Defective gaskets and O-rings

• EFFECTS
1. Increased power consumption.
2. Drop of pressure
3. Pressure fluctuations
 4. Additional cost for repairing

 AIR PREPARATION AND DISTRIBUTION.

The compressed air supply to a pneumatic system is adequately calculated

and of required quality as per application. The air is compressed by the compressor
and supplied to distribution system. The various malfunctions can be reduced by
preparing good quality air.
A number of aspects are considered for preparation of air.
1. Quantity of air required.
2. Type of compressor used
3. Pressure requirements
4. Air cleanliness
5. Lubrication requirements
6. Drainage points and exhaust in the distribution system
7. Correct layout of the distribution system

A reservoir should be used to reduce the pressure fluctuations. The pipe

diameter is selected such that it should compensate for the pressure loss from
reservoir to application.
RING circuit is most frequently used as main lines. This method
achieves a constant supply in case of high air consumption. The pipelines must be
installed in direction of flow with gradient of 1 to 2º. The condensate is removed
from line at the lowest point. Any branching of air consumption should always
installed on upper side of main line. Branching for condensate is to be installed on
lower side of main line.

• Air Service Unit

This consist of
1. Air filter (with water separator)
2. Air pressure regulator.
3. Air Lubricator.

The air filter has to remove the contaminants dust dirt from the compressed
air as well as water, which has condensed. The air filter should be appropriately
selected as the too fine mesh filter clog easily and frequently as compared to
standard filter.

The purpose of regulator is to keep operating pressure of the circuit

virtually constant regardless of fluctuations in the line pressure and air
consumption.

The lubricator is used to deliver the meted quantity of oil mist into leg of
air distribution system.

 Air Dryers.
 When pneumatic components wear or become corroded as a result of
moisture, they consume more compressed air - and lose energy efficiency. When
this wear or corrosion becomes great enough, components must be repaired or
replaced - increasing operating expense.

Dryers remove water vapor from the air, which lowers its dew point - the
temperature to which air can be cooled before water vapor begins to condense.

There are basic three types of dryers:

1. Refrigeration dryers.

Refrigeration dryers condense moisture from compressed air

by cooling the air in heat exchangers chilled by refrigerants. These
dryers produce dew points in a range from 35° to 50° F at system
operating pressure.

2. Adsorption dryers

Deliquescent dryers contain a chemical desiccant, which

absorbs moisture contained in the air, whether the moisture has
already condensed or is still a vapor. The desiccant is consumed in
the water-removal process and must be replenished periodically.

3. Adsorption dryers.

Regenerative desiccant dryers remove water from air by

adsorbing it on the surface of a microscopically porous desiccant,
usually silica gel, activated alumina, or molecular sieve. The
desiccant does not react chemically with the water, so it need not be
replenished. However, it must be dried, or regenerated, periodically.

 ELEMENTS IN PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

 POWER COMPONENT
COMMAND EXECUTION Pneumatic cylinders,
Motors

SIGNAL OUTPUT CONTROL ELEMENTS

D. C. valves

PROCESSING
ELEMENTS
SIGNAL PROCESSING D. C. valves
Non-Return valves
Pressure control valves
Timers, Sequencers

INPUT ELEMENTS
Push button valves
Roller lever valves
SIGNAL OUTPUT
Proximity switches

SUPPLY ELEMENTS
Compressor
ENERGY SUPPLY Reservoir
FRL unit

NOTE: Direction control valves can be used as input processing, output elements.

 VALVES
 The function of valves is to control the pressure and/or flow rate on media.
Depending on design they are divided in following categories:

1. Direction Control valves.

2. Non-Return valves
3. Flow control valves
4. Pressure control valves
5. Shut-off valves.

• Direction Control valves

These valves are described by

• Numbers of ports openings. eg 2 way, 3 way.
• Numbers of positions eg 2 positions 3 positions.
• Method of actuations. eg manually actuated, electrically actuated.
• Method of return actuation. eg spring return, air return.

• 2/2 valve
The 2/2 valves have 2 ports 2 positions. This is on off valve. Its
function is to enable signal only in one direction.

• 3/2 way valve

The 3/2-way valve has three ports and two positions. In the
normal position the valve closes P against A, exhausts A to R.
The pressure applied to the plunger closes the pressure
exhaust line before the valve disc lifts from its seat thereby opening
P to A.

• 4/2 way valve

The 4/2-way valve has four ports and two positions

• 4/3 way valve

The 4/3-way valve has four ports and three positions

• 5/2 way valve

The 5/2-way valve has five ports and two positions
5/2-way directional control valves are used to control double-acting
cylinders. Spool valves have low actuating forces and permit flow in both
directions.
Unoperated:
P connected with B
A exhausted to R
S closed
Operated:
P connected with A
B exhausted to S
R closed
• 5/3 way valve
The 5/3-way valve has five ports and three positions
 3/2-Way Directional Control Valve
5/2-Way Directional Control Valve

Flow Control valve

• Speed of cylinder depends on rate of flow of air entering or leaving the system.
 • Slowing down the rate of flow of air entering or leaving; slows down the cylinder.
• Air that is entering into cylinder is known as Inlet air.
• Air that is leaving the cylinder is known as Exhaust air.

• There are two methods of flow control as follows:

1. Inlet Flow control

The inlet flow control method controls the inlet flow to cylinder (flow
passes through restriction only) while exhaust flow passes freely. This method
is not very efficient as it gives slow jerky motion during load; hence not
preferred.

2. Exhaust flow control.

In this method the inlet flow passes into cylinder without any restriction
while the exhaust flow passes through restriction. This method is efficient as it
gives slow and continuous motion.

4 2

14 23
12

5 1 3

 Actuators and Output devices

 An actuator is an output device for conversion of energy supply to useful
work. The output signal is controlled by control element. The pneumatic actuators can be
classified as:
 Linear
1. Single acting cylinder
2. Double acting cylinder
 Rotary
1. Air motor
2. Rotary cylinders
3. Rotary actuators.

1. Single acting Cylinder.

The compressed air can be applied on only one side. This cylinder
produces motion in only one direction only. This cylinder has spring return.

2. Double acting cylinder.

This cylinder is used when there is substantial load in both the
directions.

3. Rotary Cylinders.
4. Rotary actuator

5. Rodless cylinder
 Cylinder Mountings.
The type of mounting is to be decided by as per application and how the
cylinder is fitted on the machine.
 DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS
 General procedure for designing of circuits.

• Understand the application correctly.

• List down all the inputs. (May be operator inputs or machine inputs)
• List down all outputs and required conditions.
• Understand the safety interlocks, Sequential interlocks, and process interlocks.
• The structure of the circuit diagram should corresponds to the control chain
whereby signal flows from top to bottom.
• The simplified or detailed symbols may be used for representation of circuit.
• The circuit is built by taking into considerations 1,2,3,4 points.
• Upon completion of the circuits, final circuit is evaluated and all inputs and
outputs are verified.

1. AND circuit

2. OR circuit

3. NOT CIRCUIT
 4. NAND CIRCUIT

5. NOR CIRCUIT

 Pneumatic latches.
 1. This is on/off circuit. If start push button is pressed the circuit will
operate and stop is pushed it will stop the working.

STOP
START

2. Dominant Set circuit-if both start and stop push buttons pressed at a
time then it is called as Dominant set. This circuit resets its original
position when power becomes on and off.

STOP
START
 3. Dominant Rest circuit

STOP

START

 Creating 3/2 valve from 5/2 valve

Blocked Blocked
4 2 4 2

5 1 3 5 1 3

Normally closed 3/2 way valve Normally open 3/2-way valve

 HIERARCHY OF ELEMENTS

Flow Control Valve Flow Control Valve

Quick exhaust Valve Quick exhaust Valve

Direction Control Valve

(Power valve)

Direction Control Valve

Direction Control Valve
Pressure Sequence Valve
Pressure Sequence Valve
Pneumatic Timers
Pneumatic Timers Service unit Dual Pressure (AND) Valve
Dual Pressure (AND) Valve Pressure regulator Shuttle (OR) Valve
Shuttle (OR) Valve
Limit Switches
Limit Switches
Push Buttons
Push Buttons
Pneumatic Sensors
Pneumatic Sensors
Low Pressure
Low Pressure Main Air Supply Low Flow rate
Low Flow rate Zone < 4 bar
Zone < 4 bar
High Pressure
High Floe rate
Zone > 4 bar
 Common Symbology in Pneumatics

2/2 Valve; 2 Ports, 2 3/2 Valve; 3 Ports, 2 4/2 Valve; 4 Ports, 2

Positions Positions Positions

4/3 Valve; 4 Ports, 3 5/2 Valve; 5 Ports, 2 5/3 Valve; 5 Ports, 3

Positions Positions Positions

Air Motor (One

Accumulator Air Dryer
Directional Flow)

Air Motor (Two Check Valve (Spring

Compressor
Directional Flows) Loaded)

Cylinder (Spring Cylinder Double Acting Cylinder Double Acting

Return) (Double Rod) (Single Fixed Cushion)

Cylinder Double Acting

(Two Adjustable Differential Pressure Direction of Flow
Cushions)

Exhaust Line or Control

Filters and Regulators Filter (Automatic Drain)
Line

Filter (Manual Drain) Fixed Restriction Flexible Line

Flow Control Valve Flow Gauge Lever

 Lines Connected Lines Crossing Lubricator

One Bypass Flow Path

Muscular Control and One Flow Path
Two Closed Ports

Pilot Pressure
Pedal or Treadle Pilot Pressure (Internal)
(External)

Plunger or Position
Plugged Port Pneumatic
Indicator Pin

Pressure Actuated
Pressure Gauge Pressure Regulator
Electric Switch
(Adjustable, Non-
Relieving)

Pressure Regulator Pushbutton Quick Acting Coupling

(Adjustable, Self-
Relieving)

Roller Roller (One-Way) Shuttle Valve

Solenoid and Pilot;

Silencer Single Square Manual Override and
Pilot

Solenoid
Spring Two Closed Ports

 PORT NUMBERING AND LETERING SYSTEMS.

 NUMBER LETTER SIGNIFICANCE
1 P Pressure source
2, 4 B, A Working /Output ports
3, 5 S, R Exhaust port

2 A
23
Z Y
12

1 3 P S

3/2 Valve; 3 Ports, 2 Positions

4 2 A B
Y
14 12 Z

5 1 3 RP S

5/2 Valve; 5 Ports, 2 Positions

NOTES:

 The port at which supply is given is termed as 1 or P.

 Generally Odd numbers are at bottom and Even numbers are at top of the valve
symbol.
 The actuations are numbered in the fashion as numbers from supply port and the
port to which it is connected is combined in respected actuated positions. Eg in 3/2
way valve if push button is pressed then actuated number is 12
 In lettering system the left side actuator is termed as ‘Z’ and right side actuator is
termed as ‘Y’.

 MAINTENANCE OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

A systemic procedure for finding and eliminating faults reduces the downtime of
pneumatic systems. Faults generally occur by
 External failures of machine components
 Internal failures within control system.

• Causes of Failures

1. Wear and tear

2. Ambient Conditions (Temperature, Humidity etc.)
3. Quality of Compressed air used.
4. Relative motion of components.
5. Incorrect and insufficient Maintenance.
6. Absence of Lubrication.
7. Incorrect mountings, loading, connections.
8. Certain components are never supplied with Lubricated air.

• Effects of failures
1. Blocking of lines
2. Seizure of units
3. Breakages
4. Leakages
5. Pressure drop
6. Incorrect switching.

• Short Term Preventive Maintenance

1. Adjust and Refill the Lubricators.
2. Drain water from Piping and water Separator.
3. Clean Filter element with Compressed air.
4. Regular maintenance of FRL unit.

• Long Term Preventive Maintenance

1. Check Seals of connectors for leak.
2. Replace tubes connected to moving parts.
3. Check and replace Filter elements.
4. Check and replace Rod end Bearing.
5. Check function of Safety valves.
6. Develop and Continuously update Long Term Strategy for Maintenance.

• Symptoms of Incorrect Maintenance

1. Frequent Rod Breakage.
2. Gumming of moving parts.
3. Frequent leaks and Blockages.
4. Seizures.
5. Long switching time.
6. Non-uniform movement of piston.
7. Loss of force in the cylinder.

• Breakdown Maintenance
1. Perform Root Cause analysis.
 2. Take Preventive steps to ensure that problem does not occur again.
3. Isolate area of Problem and offending components.
4. Replace and repair Defective/Weak components.

• Air Usage
1. Leakages in Joins and hose Connection.
2. Air distribution does not follow specific strategy.
3. Bending of pipes are not done properly.
4. Absence of reservoir, dial gauges at critical locations.

• General Maintenance faults.

1. Pressure valves are mounted in open without protection enclosure.

2. No silencers on valve exhaust ports,
3. Lubricators misadjusted or defective.

• Troubleshooting of pneumatic systems.

1. Understand the circuit function and component symbols.
2. Understand port-numbering system of valves.
3. Troubleshoot from Bottom to top of the circuit.
4. Analysis of circuit problems.

• Typical problems in pneumatic system.

1. Seal wear.
• Due to internal friction.

When small pressure air (1~1.2 bar) is supplied at the rear end
of cylinder the cylinder moves in slow or irregular fashion.

Slow /irregular motion

1~1.2 bar
 • Internal leakage.

To detect internal leakage, the compressed air is supplied

(about4 bar) from the rod side and dial gauge is connected on the
rear side of the piston.; in case of leakage, the dial gauge shows a
high reading.

• Rod end seals

The leakage of air can easily detected.

2. Valve seal wear.

Block the output port 2, 4 and provide supply of pressure of

4 bar to input port. The dial gauge is connected to other input port 5.
If there is leakage of air; dial gauge shows the fluctuations of
pressure.

4 2

5 1

4 bar

 Cylinder force calculations.

 The piston force exerted by cylinder is dependent on the air pressure P, cylinder
diameter D and frictional resistance FR.

See graph of piston diameter v/s force on page no 171; we can find for certain pressure
and diameter what is the force.

*{For single acting cylinder,

Theoretical piston force

Fth= A x P
Actual piston force
Feff = (A x P)-(FR + Fspring)

For double acting cylinder,

Feff = (A x P)-FR ----Forward stroke

Feff = (A’ x P)-FR ---Return stroke
}

 Air Consumption
Air consumption is directly proportional to the Pressure and stroke Volume.

See graph of piston diameter v/s Air Consumption on page no 174;

we can find for certain pressure and diameter what is the air Consumption.

*{Air Consumption = Compression ratio x Piston surface x stroke x strokes no. per minute

Compression ratio = 101.3 + operating pressure (in Kpa)

101.3
}