WHC Nomination Documentation

File Name: 173Rev.pdf

UNESCO Region: AFRICA
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
SITE NAME:

The Stone Town of Zanzibar

DATE OF INSCRIPTION:

2nd December 2000

STATE PARTY: UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

CRITERIA: C (ii)(iv)

DECISION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE COMMITTEE:

Criterion (ii): The Stone Town of Zanzibar is an outstanding material manifestation of cultural fusion and harmonization.
Criterion (iii): For many centuries there was intense seaborne trading activity between Asia and Africa, and this is
illustrated in an exceptional manner by the architecture and urban structure of the Stone Town.
Criterion (vi): Zanzibar has great symbolic importance in the suppression of slavery, since it was one of the main slavetrading ports in East Africa and also the base from which its opponents such as David Livingstone conducted their
campaign.
The Committee requested the State Party to report to the twenty-sixth session of the Committee on the progress made in
clarifying the co-ordinating and supervisory role and strengthening of the Stone Town Conservation and Development
Authority.
BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS
The Stone Town of Zanzibar is a fine example of the Swahili coastal trading towns of East Africa. It retains its urban fabric
and townscape virtually intact and contains many fine buildings that reflect its particular culture, which has brought
together and homogenized disparate elements of the cultures of Africa, the Arab region, India, and Europe over more
than a millennium.

1.b State, Province or Region: Zanzibar

1.d Exact location:

6 10' S, 39 12' E

2. Justification for Inscription

a) Statement of significance

Zanzibar Stone Town is the last and best, as well as the largest
preserved living towin testifying the evolution of Swahili
civilization, itself a product of many cultural streams and strong
maritime economic transformation. The Swahili - according to
Encyclopedia Britannic - are essentially a mixed people, the result
of long crossing between the Negro's of the East African coast and
the Arabs with an admixture of slave blood from nearly all the East
African tribes.
The definition is, however. missing the substantial assimilation of
European, Indian, and oriental bloods in the Swahili culture. Its
language, the Swahili is currently spoken by almost half the
African continent, prompting many politicians and linguists to
seriously consider it as an official Pan-African lingua-franca. Its
other manifestations: customs, architecture, music, rituals and
dressing are currently not only predominant along the East African
coast, but covers considerable portions of Central, East and
Southern African hinterland.
This confluence of may different cultures and religions has created
a unique urban environment of Stone Town characterized by its
exotic architecture. While there has been an on going synthesis
and indigenisation of the various cultures, distinct building types
originating from Oman, India, East Africa and Europe can still be
discerned.
Stone Town furthermore bears the memories of all slaves sold in
Zanzibar as well as the memory of European explorers such as
Vasco da Gama. Livingstone, Speke, Stanley, Burton and others.
The Stone Town is therefore an outstanding tangible and
intangible manifestation of this interaction through several
millennia hence bears unique universal values.
b) Possible Comparative analysis

The Swahili civilization is to a large extent spread on the contours

of the Zenj bar (Rlack Empire), an gth - loth century loose
confederation of East African coastal city states. Just as the name

Zanzibar (contraction of the name Zenj - bar) finally became

confined to the geographical and logistics Centre of that empire,
(the present day Zanzibar), it is in Zanzibar that most of the
physical cultural aspects of that civilization remain. lJnlike the
other city states, Zanzibar Stone Town is still a living town and is
the seat of a government, visited by scholars routinely and
frequently (secular and religious). Unfortunately, other similar
former city states such as Mombasa, Kilwa, Lamu, and Bagamoyo
have been reduced to ruins or dwindled in both population and
si~mificanceto such an extent that the built cultural heritage is
mainly ruins andlor isolate monuments.
The number of carved doors remaining, an important architectural
feature in the Swahili towns helps to elaborate this further.
Whereas Zanzibar for instance has over five hundred carved doors,
Lamu has roughly two hundred and Mombasa about a hundred.
Many of the lesser towns of the area boast a few decorative doors
in the major buildings and mosques for instance at Mikindani,
Kilwa Kivinje, Bagamoyo, Vanga, Takaungu, Faza, Siyu and other
towns of the Lamu archipelago.
Elsewhere outside the region, similar slave strongholds may still
be existing; yet they convey a far different example and have a
different story to tell. The Gor'ee island, for instance, might have
been a slave stronghold which exemplified both man's inhumanity
on one hand, and man's courage in tracing their humanity back
through slave-trade abolition on the other. This, however was
more of an isolated slave station with no normal residential life,
thus missing the important testimony of how the resident
community was affected and influenced by the slave trade, how
was city-planning regulated to contain this trade and how it was
de-regulated to combat the trade. Fortunately, the Stone Towserved as both a slave market and a residential town.

Speaking of authenticity in an African context, the close link

between tangible and intangible must be considered as well as the
link between the symbolic and functional character of the heritage.
African or East African principles on authenticity have not yet
been formulated. In the absence of these African and East African
principles on authenticity we believe that the Stone Town meets
the test on authenticity by the following reasons:

1) From its creation until 1964, the Stone Town has been currently
maintained in the traditional way of the region, by its inhabitants
as well as landlords.
The political upheavals following the 1964 Revolution forced
many landlords and property owners to flee the country. As a
result, the Stone Town was left as a ghost town only later to be
inhabited by desperate rural migrants. Considered as a relic of
colonialism, little attention and hence little disturbance was paid to
the town, in favour of ambitious socialist-bloc-inspired housing
schemes beyond the Stone Town. This had an enormous advantage
to the authenticity of the Town, as the only major tempering came
with the collapse of some of the buildings due to lack of
maintenance.
2) The materials and skills used in Stone Town construction are
still widely used in Zanzibar. Naturally, any mason in Zanzibar
must be capable of building in both concrete blockwork and the
traditional lime - laterite-sand masonry. In fact, a combination of
both types of construction is not uncommon in most of
contemporary structures. Thus both as a process and in terms of
materials, the town is still strongly authentic. Due to heavy rains
early failure of masonry flat roofs which originated from Arabia
resulted in such roofs being covered by pitched corrugated iron
roofs, sometimes badly hampering architectural features such as
the crenellated parapets. This, however, is an authentic process,
even if the covering is being currently done in very few cases.
As a matter of fact the pitched corrugated roofs which have been
used as roofing for the last hundred years, has become a traditional
material of the Stone Town.
d) Criteria under which inscription is proposed

Stone Town evolved through several millennia of maritime

mercantile interaction, the surviving town is a physical reflection
and testimony of this long-term inter-change of human values
within the coastal region of East Africa; an authentic impression of
the living Swahili culture. And is the only and best preserved
example of its kind.
The lay-out technology and design of the Stone Town buildings,
expertly blending imported and local ideas, materials and

techniques, makes the Stone Town an example of indigenous

creativity of its own.
Its continuous use as a residential/commercial town is by itself a
powerful media in the manifestation of memories of the slave
trade and of explorers like Vasco da Gama, Stanley and others.
With this in mind, in our opinion the Stone Town meets the
following criteria as per the operational guidelines:
(-ill),(iv) and (vi).

3. Description
a) Description of the Property
The Stone Town of Zanzibar fonns a unique urban settlement due
to a combination of geographical and historical circumstances.
The town of Zanzibar developed on Unguja island, the main island
of Zanzibar archipelago whose strategic position, natural harbour,
tropical climate, fertile soil, plentiful sweet water and ready supply
of buildings materials offered all that was needed for urban
development. The town grew at the western tip of a triangular
peninsula projecting into the Zanzibar Channel, about halfway
down the island's western coastline. The peninsula was separated
from the main island by a creek to the east, and connected to it by
a neck of land to the south. The maps on appendix 3 show the
development of Zanzibar Town, from 1849.
The Stone town conservation area covers a total surface area of
125 hectares comprising the built-up portion of the Stone Towin
and the open areas along its eastern border plus the older part of
Darajani Street. This comprises about 5% of the municipality's
total area of 1600 hectares. The current population is estimated to
be 16,000 about 8.2% of Zanzibar Town's population. The
property in the stone town can be classified into:

1) 60% of the properties are mostly commercial and residential.

2) The rest are mainly religious building like churches, mosques
and public structures like markets, offices, schools and hospitals.

early 12th century mosque at Kizimkazi. These are among

the many sites that have produced evidence of the existence
in the 8th-15th centuries of an extensive and highly
developed civilization that probably reached its apogee at
Kilwa in the 14th century.

Zanzibar (Tanzania)
No 173rev

The Swahili economy was destabilized with the arrival of the

Portuguese at the end of the 15th century. Following Vasco
de Gamas visit in 1499 on his return from India, the
Portuguese established a loose suzerainty over the Swahili
coast as part of their trading activities. They were forced to
settle it permanently when they were challenged by the Turks
and later by rival European powers. A church and some
merchants houses were built at Zanzibar, where there had
been a fishing village (Shangani) of simple wattle-and-daub
houses thatched with palm leaves since the 10th century.
They later added a massive fort on the sea front. However,
Portuguese influence was limited, and came to an end at the
end of the 17th century, when they were driven out of Fort
Jesus at Mombasa.

Identification
Nomination

The Stone Town of Zanzibar

Location

Zanzibar

State Party

United Republic of Tanzania

Date

18 June 1999

The Portuguese trading role was gradually taken over by

Omani Arabs, dealing in grain, dried fish, ivory, and slaves.
The Omani ruler, Seyyid Said, made it the capital of his
domain. There was a great increase in the number of
buildings in stone, a technique ultimately deriving from the
Shirazis of Persia via the great trading centre of Kilwa.

Justification by State Party

The Stone Town evolved through several millennia of
maritime mercantile interaction. The surviving town is a
physical reflection of testimony to this long-term interchange
of human values within the coastal region of East Africa. It
gives an authentic impression of the living Swahili culture
and it is the best preserved example of its kind.

The slave trade did not assume large proportions until the
later 18th century, when they were required in large numbers
for the French sugar plantations in the islands of the Indian
Ocean and the Caribbean. Dislocation of the slave trade as a
result of wars between the English and the French in the
early 19th century led to a substantial proportion of them
being used in the clove plantations on Zanzibar Island.

The layout, technology, and design of the Stone Town

buildings, expertly blending imported and local ideas,
materials, and techniques, makes the Stone Town an example
of indigenous creativity.

The 19th century also saw a great expansion in trade in the

Indian Ocean region. The ruling Islamic dynasty of Zanzibar
and its merchants (Indian, Swahili, Arab, and Africans from
the interior) became very rich and embellished the Stone
Town with palaces and fine mansions. These were built in a
variety of styles and traditions, which were amalgamated and
homogenized into a characteristic Swahili architecture.

Its continuous use as a residential and commercial town is a

powerful medium for manifesting the memories of the slave
trade and of explorers such as Vasco de Gama and David
Livingstone.
Criteria iii, iv, and v

The earliest phase developed after the departure of the

Portuguese, when the ruler, Mwinyi Mkuu Hasan, cleared
the land on the peninsula beyond his palace. It was settled by
Swahili immigrants from other parts of the coast and by
Arabs from the Hadhramaut, who built residences in an
indigenous style. The Minaret Mosque dates from this
period.

Category of property
In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in
Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this is a
group of buildings.

In the 19th century this Swahili tradition was overwhelmed

by new styles brought in by the floods of immigrants. It was
at this time that the so-called Swahili house emerged,
based on the earlier style but with imported details and
techniques.

History and Description

History
Two major cultural traditions merge to form the Swahili
civilization on the East African coast. A series of harbour
towns developed under influences from the interior of Africa
and from the lands across the Indian Ocean. There was a
loose confederation of small coastal city states known as the
Zenj bar (Black Empire) which operated in the 8th-10th
centuries. The best preserved of these towns is Zanzibar, the
name of which is derived from the Perso-Arabic word
meaning the coast of the blacks.

The Omanis introduced a completely different tradition, that

of massively built multi-storey blocks built in mortared coral
and with flat roofs. However, the wet climate of Zanzibar
resulted in these roofs being quickly replaced by pitched
roofs of corrugated iron or tiles. They were plain in
appearance, the only striking external feature being the
elaborately carved wooden doors. By contrast, the interiors
were richly decorated and furnished.

The earliest of these towns has been excavated at Unguja

Ukuu on Zanzibar Island, where 5th century CE Roman and
Sassanian-Islamic pottery has been found. Nearby is the

The third architectural component came from India. The

Indian traders began by buying Omani houses and adding

159

unclassified, where the construction technique is traditional

but the architectural origins are unclear, and contemporary,
built during the past thirty years and not conforming with the
traditional fabric of the Stone Town.

wide verandahs, but by the latter half of the 19th century

they were constructing elaborately decorated houses
reminiscent of the Gujarati haveli. However, the
characteristic Indian house had a shop on the street frontage,
with living quarters in the rear. As the owners became more
affluent, they often added a second storey, the residential
section being entirely on the upper floor and the lower
confined to commercial activities.

The historical evolution of the Stone Town is illustrated by

the street pattern. This is one of narrow winding streets
resulting from unplanned building of houses and shops.
There are few public open spaces, since many of the houses
have their own enclosed spaces.

Modern urban development may be deemed to have begun

during the reign of Sultan Barghash (1870-88). He had been
impressed by the towns of India during his exile there in
1860 and those of Europe in 1875, and he sought to emulate
them. His most notable contribution to the architecture of the
Stone Town was the House of Wonders, but his greatest
legacy was the provision of piped water to the town.

The principal construction material is coralline ragstone set

in a thick lime mortar and then plastered and lime-washed.
The vernacular architecture is preponderantly of two-storey
buildings with long narrow rooms disposed round an open
courtyard, reached through a narrow corridor. The
dimensions of buildings and rooms are determined by the
length of the locally grown boritis, the mangrove poles used
to support the massive stone ceilings; these are generally 2.53m long.

The final phase of architectural development came with the

arrival of the British in 1890, when Zanzibar became a
British protectorate. They imported their colonial
architecture but, under the influence of the architect John
Sinclair, introduced a number of features derived from the
Islamic architecture of Istanbul and Morocco. The British
introduced strict building regulations and expanded the
public services. Urban planning measures were promulgated
from the 1920s onwards.

The following are among the most important monuments in

the Stone Town.
-

The Old Fort

The plan of the original fort, built in the 18th century on the
site of a Portuguese church, was an irregular quadrilateral
with square gateways and towers (only four of which
survive) linked by crenellated walls. It has recently been
renovated and is now a cultural centre.

The last quarter of the 19th century saw increased European

missionary activity, resulting in the construction of Anglican
and Roman Catholic cathedrals, in the Gothic and
Romanesque styles respectively. The Anglican cathedral was
inspired by David Livingstone and built on the site of the last
slave market, the slave trade having been brought to an end
by the British.

The House of Wonders

The House of Wonders (Beit al Ajaib) was built by Sultan

Barghash in 1883 for ceremonial use to the design of a
British engineer. It is unique in East Africa for its size and
dominates the sea-front. It contains many unique
architectural features; the decorated verandah and other
rooms are fitted with fretted cedar and teak panelling and the
carved doors are covered with gilded texts from the Koran. It
became a government office and it is now houses the
Museum of History and Swahili Culture. Its present state of
conservation is poor.

The Arab ascendancy came to an end with the 1964

revolution and the creation of the United Republic of
Tanzania. It led to many profound social and economic
changes. Many of the wealthiest Arab and Indian merchants
and craftsmen left the country, abandoning their fine houses
and commercial buildings. Immigrants from rural areas and
the neighbouring island of Pemba were settled by the
government in these buildings, which deteriorated as a result
of lack of maintenance. New construction in the Stone Town
came to an end in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when
development was concentrated in the expansion areas. In the
1980s building began again, introducing contemporary styles
and materials that were out of harmony with the historic
fabric. Only since the creation of the Stone Town
Conservation and Development Authority in 1985 has any
form of coordination of building been exercised.

The Old Dispensary

The design of this former hospital, built by a wealthy Ismaili

business to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of the British
Queen Victoria in 1887, is Anglo-Indian. The centre-piece of
this elaborate structure is its projecting double balcony with
carved uprights and tracery barge-boards. It has been
restored and is now the Zanzibar Cultural Centre.

Description

The Stone Town is located on a triangular promontory

jutting out into the Indian Ocean about halfway down the
western side of Unguja island, the main island of the
Zanzibar archipelago. The Stone Town Conservation Area,
which is nominated for inscription on the World Heritage
List, consists of the built-up streets of the Stone Town and
the open areas along its eastern border together with the
older part of Darjani Street, covers 125ha .

The cathedral was built in 1896, in French Neo-Romanesque

style, to the plans of the architect of Notre-Dame de
Marseille. It is cruciform in plan with basilican apse,
octagonal dome, nave pierced by clerestory lights, and two
lofty towers at the west end.
-

St Josephs Roman Catholic Cathedral

Christ Church Anglican Cathedral

The Anglican cathedral is in part a monument

commemorating the abolition of the slave trade in the
Sultans dominions. The foundation stone was laid in 1873
and it was consecrated in 1903, named after Canterbury
Cathedral. It is basilican in plan with an unusual combination
of Perpendicular Gothic and Islamic details.

Of the properties in the Stone Town 60% are commercial

and residential and the remainder religious and public
buildings (schools, markets, hospitals, etc). The largest class
of traditional structures (32%) is that of shop-front buildings
derived from Indian models. A further 25% are derived from
Arab models. The remainder are either traditional

160

in the custody of the Waqf and Trust Commission, an

Islamic endowment.

The Tippu Tip House

The residence of the notorious slave trader from which it

takes its name, this is a fine example of the vernacular Arab
town house. Its noteworthy features include the steps in
black and white marble and the fine carved door.
-

The Stone Town Conservation Plan was formulated between

1992 and 1994 and became operational with the
implementation of the 1994 Act. There is an overall Zanzibar
Municipality Land Use Plan which came into effect in 1985.
The whole Zanzibar Municipality is divided into zones, one
of which is the Stone Town, for which conservation is
strongly advocated, without going into detail. A
comprehensive Zanzibar Tourism Plan is currently being
prepared, which will take account of the special needs of the
Stone Town among other tourist centres in Zanzibar.

Malindi Bamnara Mosque

This Sunni mosque was built around 1831 by Mohammed

Abdul-Qadir el-Mansabi, whose remains are buried in front
of the mihrab. It is one of the few mosques in Zanzibar with
a minaret, decorated with a double chevron pattern. The
minaret is thought to be considerably older than the mosque
itself.
-

The Stone Town Conservation and Development Authority

(STCDA) has a coordinating and supervisory role in respect
of the conservation and maintenance of all the properties. It
deals directly with private owners, but the ministries and the
Waqf and Trust Commission as government bodies are
expected to carry out works in conformity with the
conservation plan.

Jamat Khan

The central feature of this imposing architectural work, built

in 1907 for the Ismaili sect, is its great hall. The ceiling is
supported by massive stone pillars with exquisite carved
capitals. It is in a poor state of conservation.
-

The Royal Cemetery

The historic area is divided into several zones, each with an

inspector, who is charged with handling matters relating to
all the properties, whether public or private, in that zone at
every stage from project application to implementation.

In the royal cemetery adjoining the Beit el Sahil Palace there

is a half-finished tomb with delicately fluted columns, begun
by Seyyid Majid during his Sultanate (1856-70). Work was
suspended following objections from the Ibadhi sect, to
which the royal house belongs. It contains the tombs of a
number of members of the royal house.
-

So far as gazetted monuments are concerned, responsibility

for monitoring is the responsibility of the Department of
Archives, Monuments and Museums. Authorization of any
interventions relating to land development and registration is
the responsibility of the Commission for Lands and
Environment, which acts on the recommendations of the
STCDA.

The Persian Baths

There are two sets of Persian baths in the Stone Town. The
most elaborate are the Hamamni baths, built during the
Sultanate of Seyyid Barghash (1870-88).

Conservation and Authenticity

Management and Protection

Conservation history

Legal status

Following the 1964 revolution and the emigration of the

owners of many of the most important historical buildings
and monuments, little, if any, conservation took place. As a
result many are in a poor state of conservation. The STCDA
was established to correct this lamentable situation. A certain
amount of restoration work has been possible since that time,
funded from the sale of government-owned properties and a
UNDP grant programme which operated between 1989 and
1992.

The protection of cultural property in Zanzibar is covered by

the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, which dates from
1948, during the British Protectorate. However, this applies
only to individual gazetted monuments and sites. The
Stone Town and its surroundings were designated a
Conservation Area by the Stone Town Conservation and
Development Authority Act 1994. This was rendered
possible by the powers given to the Minister of Local
Government under the Town and Country Planning Act
1955 to appoint planning authorities for specific planning
areas.

However, the STCDA is largely dependent upon its own

fund-raising activities to further the work. There has been
support from bodies such as the Aga Khan Trust for specific
properties, but the funding is inadequate for the tasks in
hand. It is also confronted with strong commercial
development pressures, which are having an adverse impact
on the open spaces and on the general historic urban fabric.

Since it forms part of the Zanzibar Municipality, the Stone

Town is covered by the general local authority and land
tenure legislation.
Management

Authenticity

The properties that make up this nomination of the Stone

Town are owned by a variety of individuals and
organizations, both public and private. A number of public
buildings belong to the Ministry of Water, Construction,
Energy, Lands and Museums. The port and its associated
buildings are owned by the Zanzibar Ports Authority. The
Zanzibar Municipal Council is the owner of all designated
open and public spaces, the market, and the sewerage and
drainage system. Some buildings, mainly mosques,
cemeteries, and some commercial and private buildings are

The authenticity of the historic ensemble is largely intact,

preserving the historic urban fabric and townscape and many
historic public and private buildings. Traditional materials
and construction techniques are still being employed to a
large extent, though there is growing competition from
modern materials, designs, and techniques.

161

Evaluation

Brief description

Action by ICOMOS

The Stone Town of Zanzibar is a fine example of the Swahili

coastal trading towns of East Africa. It retains its urban fabric
and townscape virtually intact and contains many fine
buildings that reflect its particular culture, which has brought
together and homogenized disparate elements of the cultures
of Africa, Arabia, India, and Europe over more than a
millennium.

An ICOMOS expert mission visited the Stone Town in

January 2000.
Qualities
The Stone Town of Zanzibar is an outstanding example of a
Swahili trading town. This type of town developed on the
coast of East Africa under Arab, Indian, and European
influences, but retained its indigenous elements, to form an
urban cultural unit unique to this region.

Recommendation
That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on
the basis of criteria ii, iii, and vi:

Comparative analysis
A number of coastal towns developed from the Zenj bar and
flourished as a result of the intensive trade that built up under
Portuguese and Omani rule. Some of these have survived,
either as modern ports or in ruins, such as Mombasa, Kilwa,
Lamu, and Bagamoyo. However, none of these can be
compared directly with Zanzibar, which has retained a higher
proportion of its historic buildings than any of the others and
still has an important administrative and economic function.

Criterion ii
The Stone Town of Zanzibar is an
outstanding material manifestation of cultural fusion and
harmonization.
Criterion iii
For many centuries there was intense
seaborne trading activity between Asia and Africa, and
this is illustrated in an exceptional manner by the
architecture and urban structure of the Stone Town.

ICOMOS recommendations for future action

Criterion vi Zanzibar has great symbolic importance in

the suppression of slavery, since it was one of the main
slave-trading ports in East Africa and also the base from
which its opponents such as David Livingstone
conducted their campaign.

ICOMOS is concerned that the somewhat large number of

players involved in the management and conservation of
the Stone Town means that there are ambiguities and
duplications of responsibility. As a result some developments
that are incompatible with the historic quality of the Stone
Town have occurred in recent years. It feels that these may
increase under the increasing development pressure being
exerted on Zanzibar at the present time.

ICOMOS, September 2000

In theory the coordinating and supervisory role of the

STCDA should prevent such abuses. However, its notional
overriding powers have largely been neglected. It is essential
that it should be recognized as the sole executing agency,
with appropriate powers, financial support, and professional
staffing. It is suggested that the Attorney General should
convene a meeting of all the stakeholders in order to clarify
this situation and establish effective lines of communication
and executive responsibility.
It is not necessary, in the opinion of ICOMOS, for
inscription of the Stone Town on the World Heritage List to
await the completion of this action. It suggests, however, that
in inscribing the property the World Heritage Committee
should require the State Party to report on progress within
one or two years.
ICOMOS further suggests that the Tanzanian authorities
should be invited to study other comparable projects which
have achieved success. It has in mind in particular the work
of the Central Cultural Fund in Sri Lanka, which worked on
two historic towns (Galle and Kandy) where similar
situations to that in the Stone Town had developed in the
post-colonial period.
Whilst ICOMOS recognizes the significance of the Stone
Town as the best and most complete example of the Swahili
coastal trading town, it feels that there are good reasons, in
the light of the Global Strategy, for a comparative study to be
carried out on all the towns of that group, including Lamu,
Mombasa, Mogadishu, and Kilwa in particular.

162

La plus ancienne de ces villes a fait lobjet de fouilles

Unguja Ukuu, sur lle de Zanzibar, o des poteries romaines
et sassanides du Ve sicle de lre chrtienne ont t
dcouvertes en quantit. proximit se trouve la mosque
de Kizimkazi, du XIIe sicle. Elle sinscrit parmi les
nombreux sites qui attestent de lexistence, entre le VIIIe et
le XVe sicle, dune vaste civilisation, hautement
dveloppe, qui connut probablement son apoge Kilwa,
au XIVe sicle.

Zanzibar (Tanzanie)
No 173rev

Larrive des Portugais, la fin du XVe sicle, dstabilisa

lconomie swahilie. Aprs la visite de Vasco de Gama, de
retour dInde, en 1499, les Portugais instaurrent, dans le
cadre de leurs activits commerciales, une suzerainet peu
structure sur la cte swahilie. Toutefois, ils se virent forcer
de la prenniser quand les Turcs, puis, plus tard, les
puissances europennes rivales, dfirent leur autorit. Une
glise et quelques maisons de marchands furent construites
Zanzibar, lendroit o se dressait depuis le Xe sicle un
village de pcheurs (Shangani), de simples maisons aux murs
en clayonnage et torchis et aux toits de feuilles de palmier.
Ils ajoutrent ensuite un imposant fort sur le bord de mer.
Toutefois, linfluence portugaise nen resta pas moins
limite, et prit fin la fin du XVIIe sicle, avec la chute de
Fort Jsus, Mombasa.

Identification
Bien propos

La ville de pierre de Zanzibar

Lieu

Zanzibar

tat partie

Rpublique Unie de Tanzanie

Date

18 juin 1999

Justification manant de ltat partie

La ville de pierre de Zanzibar a volu sur plusieurs
millnaires dinteractions commerciales maritimes. Ce quil
en reste reprsente le tmoignage physique de ces durables
changes de valeurs humaines sur la cte de lAfrique
orientale. Elle est lauthentique illustration dune culture
swahilie vivante, et lexemple le mieux prserv de son
genre.

Progressivement, les Arabes omanais assumrent le rle

commercial jusque-l dvolu aux Portugais, changeant du
grain, du poisson sch, de livoire et des esclaves. Le
souverain omanais, Seyyid Sad, fit de Zanzibar la capitale
de son domaine. Les difices de pierre, technique emprunte
aux Shirazi de Perse, via limportant centre dchanges de
Kilwa, connurent un essor norme.

La disposition, la technologie et le style des difices de la

ville de pierre, en un savant mlange dides, de matriaux et
de techniques imports et locaux, font de la ville de pierre le
reflet de la crativit autochtone.

Ce nest qu la fin du XVIIIe sicle que la traite des

esclaves prit une grande envergure : il en fallait beaucoup
pour les plantations de cannes sucre franaises situes dans
les les de lOcan indien et des Carabes. Au dbut du XIXe
sicle, la dislocation de la traite des Noirs suite aux guerres
entre Anglais et Franais fit que beaucoup dentre eux furent
utiliss dans les plantations de girofliers de lle de Zanzibar.

Son usage continu en tant que ville rsidentielle et

commerciale est un puissant rappel des souvenirs du
commerce du bois dbne et des explorateurs comme
Vasco de Gama et David Livingstone.
Critres iii, iv et v

Le XIXe sicle fut galement le thtre dune importante

expansion du commerce dans la rgion de lOcan indien. La
dynastie islamique rgnante de Zanzibar et ses marchands
(Indiens, Swahili, Arabes et Africains de lintrieur des
terres) devinrent trs riches et embellirent la ville de pierre de
palais et de magnifiques demeures. De styles et de traditions
varies, ces structures furent amalgames et intgres une
architecture swahilie caractristique.

Catgorie de bien
En termes de catgories de biens culturels, telles quelles
sont dfinies larticle premier de la Convention du
Patrimoine mondial de 1972, il sagit dun ensemble.
Histoire et description

La premire phase se dveloppa aprs le dpart des

Portugais, lorsque le souverain Mwinyi Mkuu Hasan fit
dgager les terres de la pninsule derrire son palais. Elle fut
peuple par des immigrants swahilis venus dautres rgions
ctires et par des Arabes du Hadhramawt, qui construisirent
des rsidences de style indigne. Cest de cette poque que
date la mosque au minaret.

Histoire
Deux grandes traditions culturelles ont fusionn pour former
la civilisation swahilie sur la cte orientale de lAfrique. Une
srie de villes portuaires se dvelopprent sous des
influences originaires de lintrieur de lAfrique et des terres
situes de lautre ct de lOcan indien. Quelques petites
villes tats ctires taient rassembles sous lgide dune
confdration peu structure, connue sous le nom de Zenj
bar (Empire noir), du VIIIe au Xe sicle. La mieux prserve
de ces villes, cest Zanzibar, nom qui tire sa racine du mot
arabo-persan signifiant la cte des Noirs .

Au XIXe sicle, cette tradition swahilie se vit supplanter par

de nouveaux styles, apports par les vagues dimmigrants.
On vit alors merger la demeure swahilie , toujours base
sur le style antrieur, mais faisant figurer des dtails et des
techniques dimportation.

154

pierre, en 1985, quune certaine coordination de la

construction a t mise en place.

Les Omanais introduisirent une tradition radicalement

diffrente : des demeures massives, slevant sur plusieurs
tages, faites de corail et de mortier, et dotes de toits plats.
Cependant, Zanzibar jouit dun climat humide, et ces toits
furent donc rapidement remplacs par dautres, en pente,
faits de tle ondule ou de tuiles. Seul trait marquant de ces
maisons, daspect sobre lextrieur, les portes de bois
magnifiquement sculptes. linverse, les intrieurs taient
richement dcors et meubls.

Description
La ville de pierre se dresse sur un promontoire triangulaire,
dans lOcan indien, mi-chemin environ de la cte
occidentale de lle dUnguja, principale le de larchipel de
Zanzibar. La zone de conservation de la ville de pierre,
propose pour inscription sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial,
comprend les rues bties de la ville de pierre et les espaces
dcouverts qui en bordent le ct est, ainsi que la partie la
plus ancienne de Darjani Street, et couvre 125 hectares.

La troisime composante architecturale est originaire dInde.

Les marchands indiens commencrent par racheter des
maisons omanaises et y ajouter de grandes vrandas mais,
ds la deuxime moiti du XIXe sicle, ils construisirent
leurs propres maisons, la dcoration labore, rappelant les
haveli du Gujarati. Toutefois, la maison indienne typique
possdait une choppe donnant sur la rue, le lieu de vie
proprement parler se trouvant en arrire-boutique. Au fur et
mesure que les propritaires prospraient, ils ajoutaient
souvent un tage, ce dernier devenant alors la partie
rsidentielle et les activits commerciales tant confines au
rez-de-chausse.

Dans la ville de pierre, 60 % des proprits sont des difices

commerciaux et rsidentiels, le reste des btiments religieux
et publics (coles, marchs, hpitaux, etc.). Les difices
comportant une choppe en faade, sur le modle indien,
constituent la plus grande partie des structures traditionnelles
(32 %). Ving-cinq pour cent sont dinfluence arabe. Pour le
reste, il sagit soit ddifices traditionnels non classifis ,
o la technique de construction est traditionnelle mais les
origines architecturales douteuses, soit ddifices
contemporains , construits sur les 30 dernires annes et
non conformes au tissu traditionnel de la ville de pierre.

Cest sous le rgne du sultan Barghash (1870-1888) que lon

peut vritablement parler de premiers dveloppements
urbains modernes. Impressionn par les villes dInde lors de
son sjour en exil en 1860, et par celles dEurope en 1875, il
chercha les imiter. Sa contribution la plus notable
larchitecture de la ville de pierre : la maison des Merveilles,
mais son plus grand legs fut linstallation de canalisations
deau dans la ville.

Le trac des rues de cette ville

historique. troites et sinueuses,
construction alatoire des maisons
espaces ouverts publics sont rares,
disposant de leur propre espace clt.

illustre son volution

elles rsultent de la
et des boutiques. Les
beaucoup de maisons

Le principal matriau de construction est une maonnerie

base de blocs extraits du massif de corail, lie laide dun
pais mortier de chaux, puis enduite de pltre et de chaux.
Larchitecture vernaculaire consiste principalement en
btiments sur deux tages, avec de longues pices troites
disposes autour dune cour ouverte, auxquelles on accde
via un troit couloir. Les dimensions des btiments et des
pices sont fonction de la longueur des boritis locaux, les
piliers en bois de mangrove supportant les massifs plafonds
de pierre. Ceux-ci font gnralement entre 2,5 et 3 mtres de
long.

Larrive des Britanniques en 1890, poque laquelle

Zanzibar devint un protectorat britannique, marqua la phase
finale du dveloppement architectural. Ils importrent leur
architecture coloniale mais, sous linfluence de larchitecte
John Sinclair, introduisirent plusieurs particularits drives
de larchitecture musulmane dIstanbul et du Maroc. Les
Britanniques mirent en uvre des rglementations de
construction strictes, et largirent les services publics. Les
premires mesures durbanisme furent promulgues ds les
annes 20.
Le dernier quart du XIXe sicle fut le tmoin dun
accroissement de lactivit missionnaire europenne,
aboutissant la construction des cathdrales anglicane et
catholique romaine, respectivement de style gothique et
roman. La cathdrale anglicane, inspire par David
Livingstone, fut rige sur le site de lancien march aux
esclaves, les Britanniques ayant mis fin la traite des Noirs.

Voici quelques-uns des plus importants monuments de la

ville de pierre.
-

Lancien fort

Le plan du fort original, construit au XVIIIe sicle sur le site

dune glise portugaise, tait un quadrilatre irrgulier, dot
de portes et de tours carres (dont quatre seulement
subsistent), relies par des murs crnels. Il a rcemment t
rnov et abrite aujourdhui un centre culturel.

La rvolution de 1964 marqua la fin de linfluence arabe et

lavnement de la Rpublique unie de Tanzanie. Elle
entrana nombre de profonds changements sociaux et
conomiques. Beaucoup des marchands et artisans arabes et
indiens les plus riches quittrent le pays, laissant derrire eux
leurs demeures et leurs boutiques. Le gouvernement y
installa les immigrants des zones rurales et de lle voisine de
Pemba, et les btiments se dgradrent du fait du manque de
maintenance. La nouvelle vague de construction dans la ville
de pierre prit fin la fin des annes 60 et au dbut des annes
70, le dveloppement se concentrant dans les zones en
expansion. Dans les annes 80, la construction reprit, avec
des styles et des matriaux contemporains en discordance
avec le tissu historique. Ce nest que depuis la cration de
lAutorit de conservation et de dveloppement de la ville de

La maison des Merveilles

La maison des Merveilles (Beit al Ajaib), usage

crmoniel, a t construite par le sultan Barghash en 1883
sur la base des plans dun ingnieur britannique. De par sa
taille, elle na pas son pareil en Afrique de lEst, et
surplombe le bord de mer. Elle comporte beaucoup de traits
architecturaux uniques ; ainsi, la vranda et les autres pices
prsentent des panneaux en cdre et en tek chantourns, et
les portes sculptes sont couvertes de textes dors issus du
Coran. Elle est devenue un btiment gouvernemental, et

155

abrite maintenant le muse de lHistoire et de la Culture

swahilie. Elle est actuellement dans un tat de conservation
mdiocre.
-

La ville de pierre compte deux Bains perses. Les plus

labors sont sans conteste les bains Hamamni, construits
sous le sultanat de Seyyid Barghash (1870-1888).

Lancien dispensaire

Cet ancien hpital, construit par un riche ngociant Ismalien

pour commmorer le jubil dOr de la reine dAngleterre
Victoria en 1887, est de style anglo-indien. La pice
matresse de cette structure labore est son double balcon en
projection, avec ses montants sculpts et ses planches de rive
remplage. Il a t restaur, et cest maintenant le centre
culturel de Zanzibar.
-

Gestion et protection
Statut juridique
La protection des biens culturels de Zanzibar est assure par
la loi sur la prservation des monuments anciens,
promulgue en 1948, lpoque du protectorat britannique.
Toutefois, elle ne sapplique quaux monuments et sites
individuels classs. La ville de pierre et ses environs ont t
nomms zone de conservation par la loi de 1994 de
lAutorit de conservation et de dveloppement de la ville de
pierre. Cela a t rendu possible par les pouvoirs accords au
ministre du gouvernement local aux termes de la loi de 1955
sur lurbanisme et le ruralisme, lui permettant de nommer
des autorits durbanisme pour certaines zones spcifiques.

Cathdrale catholique romaine de Saint-Joseph

Construite en 1896, cette cathdrale, de style no-roman

franais, est luvre de larchitecte qui lon doit NotreDame de Marseille. De plan cruciforme, elle prsente une
abside basilicale, une coupole octogonale, une nef perce de
claires-voies, et deux hautes tours lextrmit occidentale.
-

Cathdrale anglicane
Puisquelle fait partie de la municipalit de Zanzibar, la ville
de pierre est couverte par les autorits locales et la lgislation
gnrale doccupation des sols.

La cathdrale anglicane est en partie un monument

commmorant labolition de lesclavage dans le sultanat. La
pierre angulaire fut pose en 1873 et ldifice fut consacr en
1903, et baptis daprs la cathdrale de Canterbury. Elle
prsente un plan basilical, avec une combinaison inhabituelle
de dtails gothiques perpendiculaires et islamiques.
-

Gestion
Les biens qui composent la proposition dinscription de la
ville de pierre appartiennent divers individus et
organismes, tant publics que privs. Plusieurs btiments
publics appartiennent au ministre de lEau, de la
Construction, de lnergie, des Sols et des Muses. Le port
et ses btiments annexes appartiennent aux autorits
portuaires de Zanzibar. Le conseil municipal de Zanzibar est
propritaire de tous les espaces ouverts et publics classs, du
march, et du systme dgouts et de drainage. Certains
btiments, principalement des mosques, des cimetires et
quelques difices commerciaux et privs, sont sous la
responsabilit de la Commission Waqf and Trust, fonds
islamique.

La maison Tippu Tip

Rsidence du ngrier notoire dont elle tire son nom, cette

maison est un bel exemple de larchitecture arabe
vernaculaire. Elle compte, parmi ses traits les plus
remarquables, des escaliers en marbre noir et blanc et une
magnifique porte sculpte.
-

La mosque de Malindi Bamnara

Cette mosque sunnite fut construite aux alentours de 1831

par Mohammed Abdul-Qadir el-Mansabi, dont la dpouille
est enterre devant le mihrab. Cest lune des rares mosques
de Zanzibar dotes dun minaret, dcor dun motif
doubles chevrons. Il est probable que le minaret soit
considrablement plus ancien que la mosque elle-mme.
-

Le plan de conservation de la ville de pierre a t labor

entre 1992 et 1994 ; il est devenu oprationnel avec la mise
en uvre de la loi de 1994. Un plan gnral doccupation
des sols de la municipalit de Zanzibar est entr en vigueur
en 1985. Toute la municipalit de Zanzibar est divise en
zones, dont lune est la ville de pierre, pour lesquelles la
conservation est fortement recommande, sans plus de
dtails. Un plan gnral pour le tourisme Zanzibar est en
cours de prparation ; il prendra en compte les besoins
particuliers de la ville de pierre, entre autres centres
touristiques de Zanzibar.

Jamat Khan

La principale caractristique de cet imposant ouvrage

architectural, rig en 1907 pour la secte des Ismaliens est
son immense hall. Dnormes colonnes de pierre, aux
chapiteaux magnifiquement sculpts, soutiennent le plafond.
Il est dans un tat de conservation mdiocre.
-

Les Bains perses

Lautorit de conservation et de dveloppement de la ville de

pierre (STCDA) joue un rle de coordination et de
supervision eu gard la conservation et la maintenance de
lensemble des biens. Elle traite directement avec les
propritaires privs, mais les ministres et la Commission
Waqf and Trust, en tant quinstances gouvernementales, sont
censs raliser les travaux conformment au plan de
conservation.

Le cimetire royal

Le cimetire royal adjacent au palais Beit el Sahil abrite un

tombeau inachev, aux colonnes dlicatement canneles,
commenc par Seyyid Majid lpoque de son sultanat
(1856-1870). Les travaux furent suspendus suite des
objections de la secte Ibadhi, qui appartient la demeure
royale. Il abrite les tombes de plusieurs membres de la
demeure royale.

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Analyse comparative

La zone historique est elle-mme divise en plusieurs zones,

chacune dote dun inspecteur charg de tous les biens dans
sa zone, quils soient publics ou privs, et ce tous les stades
jusqu la mise en uvre du projet.

Plusieurs villes ctires sont nes du Zenj bar et ont prospr

grce au commerce intensif qui se dveloppa sous la frule
des Portugais et des Omanais. Certaines dentre elles ont
survcu, soit sous la forme de ports modernes soit sous celles
de ruines : tel est le cas pour Mombasa, Kilwa, Lamu et
Bagamoyo. Cependant, aucune nest directement comparable
Zanzibar, qui a conserv plus de ses btiments historiques
quaucune autre, et qui assume toujours aujourdhui
dimportantes fonctions administratives et conomiques.

En ce qui concerne les monuments classs, la responsabilit

de leur supervision incombe au dpartement des Archives,
des Monuments et des Muses. Lautorisation de toutes les
interventions relatives au dveloppement des sols et
lenregistrement est du ressort de la commission des Sols et
de lEnvironnement, qui agit sur les recommandations de la
STCDA.

Recommandations de lICOMOS pour des actions futures

LICOMOS est proccup par le nombre important
d acteurs impliqus dans la gestion et la conservation de
la ville de pierre, qui pourrait occasionner des ambiguts et
des doublons dans laffectation des responsabilits. Cest
cela que lon doit ainsi certains rcents dveloppements,
incompatibles avec la qualit historique de la ville de pierre.
LICOMOS juge en outre que cette situation risque
dempirer, au vu des pressions de dveloppement
grandissantes actuellement exerces sur Zanzibar.

Conservation et authenticit
Historique de la conservation
Suite la rvolution de 1964 et lmigration des
propritaires de beaucoup des difices et monuments
historiques, les travaux de conservation ont t rares, voire
inexistants. En consquence, beaucoup de ces structures sont
dans un tat de conservation mdiocre. La STCDA a t
fonde pour remdier cette lamentable situation. Certains
travaux de restauration ont pu tre mens bien depuis cette
poque, financs par la vente de biens appartenant ltat et
par un programme de subvention du PNUD entre 1989 et
1992.

En thorie, le rle de coordinateur et de superviseur de la

STCDA devrait empcher de tels abus. Cependant, ses
prrogatives thoriques ont largement t ngliges. Il est
fondamental quelle soit reconnue comme la seule agence
excutive, et dote des pouvoirs, du soutien financier et du
personnel comptent qui sont ncessaires. Il est suggr que
le procureur gnral runisse tous les acteurs concerns pour
clarifier cette situation et dfinir des lignes de
communication efficaces, ainsi que la responsabilit
excutive.

Toutefois, la STDCA, dans une grande mesure, ne peut

compter que sur ses propres activits pour lever les fonds
ncessaires la poursuite des travaux. Certains organismes,
comme la Fondation de lAga Khan, ont apport leur soutien
pour des biens particuliers, mais le financement est
largement insuffisant pour les tches accomplir. Elle doit
galement affronter de fortes pressions de dveloppement
commercial, qui ont un impact nfaste sur les espaces
ouverts et le tissu urbain historique en gnral.

Toutefois, lICOMOS nest pas davis quil convienne

dattendre que ces mesures soient prises pour inscrire la ville
de pierre sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial. Il suggre
toutefois que le Comit du patrimoine mondial, en inscrivant
le bien, devrait exiger de ltat partie de lui soumettre un
rapport sur les progrs dici un ou deux ans.

Authenticit
Lauthenticit de lensemble historique est dans une grande
mesure intacte, prservant le tissu et le paysage urbain
historique, ainsi que bon nombre des btiments historiques,
publics ou privs. Les matriaux et les techniques de
construction traditionnels sont toujours largement employs,
bien quils doivent faire face la concurrence grandissante
des matriaux, des conceptions et des techniques modernes.

LICOMOS suggre en outre que les autorits tanzaniennes

soient invites tudier les projets comparables qui ont t
mens avec succs. Il a tout particulirement lesprit le
travail du Fonds Culturel Central au Sri Lanka, qui a uvr
sur deux villes historiques (Galle et Kandy), o des situations
analogues celle de la ville de pierre avaient vu le jour
lpoque post-coloniale.
Si lICOMOS ne met pas en doute limportance de la ville de
pierre en tant quexemple le plus achev et le plus complet
des villes marchandes ctires swahilies, il estime nanmoins
quil serait tout fait justifi, la lumire de la stratgie
globale, de mener une tude comparative sur toutes les villes
de ce groupe, et en particulier sur Lamu, Mombasa,
Mogadiscio et Kilwa.

valuation
Action de lICOMOS
Une mission dexpertise de lICOMOS a visit la ville de
pierre en janvier 2000.
Caractristiques
La ville de pierre, Zanzibar, est un exemple exceptionnel
de ville marchande swahilie. Ce type dagglomration sest
dvelopp sur la cte Est de lAfrique sous les influences
arabes, indiennes et europennes, sans pour autant
abandonner ses lments indignes, formant ainsi une unit
culturelle urbaine que lon ne trouve que dans cette rgion.

Brve description
La ville de pierre, Zanzibar, est un magnifique exemple des
villes marchandes ctires swahilies dAfrique de lEst. Elle
a conserv un tissu et un paysage urbain quasiment intacts, et
beaucoup de btiments superbes qui refltent sa culture
particulire, fusion dlments disparates des cultures

157

africaines, arabes, indiennes et europennes sur plus dun

millnaire.

Recommandation
Que ce bien soit inscrit sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial
sur la base des critres ii, iii et vi :
Critre ii La ville de pierre, Zanzibar, est une
exceptionnelle manifestation matrielle de fusion et
dharmonisation culturelle.
Critre iii Pendant plusieurs sicles, une intense
activit commerciale maritime a reli lAsie et lAfrique,
ce quillustrent de faon exceptionnelle larchitecture et
la structure urbaine de la ville de pierre.
Critre vi Zanzibar est dune grande importance
symbolique dans le cadre de labolition de lesclavage :
en effet, ctait lun des principaux ports dAfrique de
lEst pour la traite des Noirs, et galement la base de ses
opposants, tel David Livingstone, qui y ont men leur
campagne.

ICOMOS, septembre 2000

158