GE2023

UNIT I

FUNDAMENTALS OF NANOSCIENCE

L T P C3 0 0 3

INTRODUCTION

Nanoscale Science and Technology- Implications for Physics, Chemistry, Biology and
Engineering-Classifications of nanostructured materials- nano particles- quantum dots,
nanowires-ultra-thinfilms-multilayered materials. Length Scales involved and effect on
properties: Mechanical, Electronic, Optical, Magnetic and Thermal properties.
Introduction to properties and motivation for study (qualitative only).
UNIT II

PREPARATION METHODS

10

Bottom-up Synthesis-Top-down Approach: Precipitation, Mechanical Milling, Colloidal

routes, Self-assembly, Vapour phase deposition, MOCVD, Sputtering, Evaporation,
Molecular Beam Epitaxy, Atomic Layer Epitaxy, MOMBE.
UNITIII PATTERNING AND LITHOGRAPHY FOR NANOSCALE DEVICES

Introduction to optical/UV electron beam and X-ray Lithography systems and processes,
Wet etching, dry (Plasma /reactive ion) etching, Etch resists-dip pen lithography
UNIT IV

PREPARATION ENVIRONMENTS

Clean rooms: specifications and design, air and water purity, requirements for particular
processes, Vibration free environments: Services and facilities required. Working practices,
sample cleaning, Chemical purification, chemical and biological contamination, Safety issues,
flammable and toxic hazards, biohazards.
UNIT V

CHARECTERISATION TECHNIQUES

10

X-ray diffraction technique, Scanning Electron Microscopy - environmental techniques,

Transmission Electron Microscopy including high-resolution imaging, Surface Analysis
techniques- AFM, SPM, STM, SNOM, ESCA, SIMS-Nanoindentation

UNIT I INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Nanoscience, a field of science which has emerged during the last three
decades, nowadays comprises many different fields and starts to play an important
role as key technology in application and business. The term nano, derived from
the Greek word nanos which means dwarf, designates a billionth fraction of a unit,
e.g., of a meter. Thus the science of nanostructures is often defined as dealing with
objects on a size scale of 1100 nm. Nanostructures may be compared to a human
hair which is 50,000 nm thick whereas the diameters of nanostructures are 0.3
nm for a water molecule, 1.2 nm for a single-wall carbon nanotube, and 20 nm for
a small transistor. DNA molecules are 2.5 nm wide, proteins about 10 nm, and an
ATPase biochemical motor about 10 nm. This is the ultimate manufacturing length
scale at present with building blocks of atoms, molecules, and supramolecules as
well as integration along several length scales. In addition, living systems work at
the nanoscale.
The investigation of nanostructures and the development of nanoscience started
around 1980 when the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) was invented and the
concept of nanostructured solids was suggested .More than 20 years earlier R.
Feynman had emphasized that . . . there is plenty of room at the bottom . . . in the
science of ultra-small structures Clearly, nanostructures were available much
earlier. Albert Einstein calculated in his doctoral dissertation from the experimental
diffusion data of sugar in water the size of a single sugar molecule to about 1 nm .
Michael Faraday remarked during a lecture on the optical properties of gold in
1857 that . . . a mere variation in the size of the (nano) particles gave rise to a

variety of resultant colors . In fact, nanostructures already existed in the early

solar nebula or in the presolar dust (4.5 billion years ago) as deduced from the
detection of nanosized C60 molecules in the Allende meteorite . From its early
infancy the field of nanoscience has more and more grown up
and enjoys worldwide scientific popularity and importance. For the
characterization of this research field the notations Nanostructured Science or
Nanotechnology

CLASSIFICATION OF NANO STRUCTURED MATERIALS

To properly understand and appreciate the diversity of nanomaterials, some
form of categorization is required. Currently, the most typical way of classifying
nano materials is to identify them according to their dimensions.

Nano materials can be classified as (based on dimensions)

Zero Dimensional (0 D)
One Dimensional (1 D)
Two Dimensional (2 D)
Three Dimensional (3 D)
Zero Dimensional (0-D) Nano materials .

Beginning with the most clearly defined category, zero-dimensional

nanomaterials are materials, wherein all the dimensions are measured with in the
nano scale (no dimensions, or 0-D, are larger than 100 nm). The most common
representation of zero materials are nanoparticles. These nano particles
No dimensions or O D nano materials are nano particles.
Larger than 100 nm are measured nano scale.

The most common representation of Zero-Dimensional nano materials are

nano particles.
These nano particles can:
Be amorphous or crystalline
Be single crystalline or poly crystalline
Be composed of single or multichemical elements
Exhibit various shapes and forms
Exist individually or incorporated in a matrix
Be metallic, ceramic or polymeric
One Dimensional (1 D) Nano materials

1-D nano materials leads to needle like-shaped nano materials.

 It include nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.

These 1-D nano particles can be:
Amorphous or crystalline
Single crystalline or poly crystalline
Chemically pure or impure
Standalone materials or embedded in within another medium
Metallic, ceramic or polymeric
Two Dimensional (2-D) Nano materials
Two Dimensional (2 D) nano materials are materials in which two of the
dimensions are not confined to the nano scale.

It include nanofilms, nanolayers and nano coatings.

These materials can be:
Amorphous or crystalline

Made up of various chemical compositions

Used as a single layer or as a multi layer structures
Deposited on a substrate
Integrated in a surrounding matrix material
Metallic, ceramic, or polymeric
Three Dimensional (3-D) Nano materials
Three Dimensional (3-D) nano materials, also known as bulk materials.

Having three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm. Despite their nano scale
dimensions, these materials posses a nanocrystalline structure or involve the
presence of features at the nano scale.

Three Dimensional (3-D) nano materials can be:

Amorphous or crystalline
Chemically pure or impure
Composite materials
Composed of multinanolayers
Metallic, ceramic, or polymeric
NANOPARTICLE
Nanoparticle research is currently an area of intense scientific research, due to a
wide variety of potential applications in biomedical, optical, and electronic fields.
Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are effectively a bridge
between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures.A bulk material should
have constant physical properties regardless of its size, but at the nano-scale this is
often not the case. Size-dependent properties are observed such as quantum
confinement in semiconductor particles, surface plasmon resonance in some metal
particles and superparamagnetism in magnetic materials. The properties of
materials change as their size approaches the nanoscale and as the percentage of
atoms at the surface of a material becomes significant.For bulk materials larger
than one micrometre the percentage of atoms at the surface is minuscule relative to
the total number of atoms of the material.The interesting and sometimes
unexpected properties of nanoparticles are not partly due to the aspects of the
surface of the material dominating the properties in lieu of the bulk properties.
Nanoparticles exhibit a number of special properties relative to bulk material.

For example, the bending of bulk copper (wire, ribbon, etc.) occurs with movement
of copper atoms/clusters at about the 50 nm scale.
Copper nanoparticles smaller than 50 nm are considered super hard materials that
do not exhibit the same malleability and ductility as bulk copper.The change in
properties is not always desirable. Ferroelectric materials smaller than 10 nm can
switch their magnetisation direction using room temperature thermal energy, thus
making them useless for memory storage. Suspensions of nanoparticles are
possible because the interaction of the particle surface with the solvent is strong
enough to overcome differences in density, which usually result in a material either
sinking or floating in a liquid. Nanoparticles often have unexpected visible
properties because they are small enough to confine their electrons and produce
quantum effects. For example gold nanoparticles appear deep red to black in
solution. Nanoparticles have a very high surface area to volume ratio. This
provides a tremendous driving force for diffusion, especially at elevated
temperatures. Sintering can take place at lower temperatures, over shorter time
scales than for larger particles. This theoretically does not affect the density of the
final product, though flow difficulties and the tendency of nanoparticles to
agglomerate complicates matters. The large surface area to volume ratio also
reduces the incipient melting temperature of nanoparticles.
QUANTUM DOTS
Semiconductor quantum dots are signify a class of materials in which quantum
confinement effects can be investigated.
Also referred to as Semi conductor nano crystals.
In a macroscopic semiconductor crystal, the energy levels form bands is
completely empty in O K. The bands are separated with a specific energy gap, Eg.

Thermal excitations-> Electrons gets excited-> Electron pair

Electron in conduction band and Hole in the valence band can be boundExcitation . (Delocalized).
Bohr radius of the excitation can be given as:
a=h2/42e2[1/me +1/mh ]

The electronic structure of materials is strongly related to the nature of the

material. In a 3-D object of large size, the electronic structure is not restricted by
the dimension of the material. The wave length of electrons is much smaller than
the typical length of the material. When the electronic motion is confined to 1-D,
and it is free in the other two dimensions, it results in creation of Quantum wells or
Quantum films.

NANOWIRES
1-D materials leads to needle like-shaped materials. It also includes nano tubes
and nano rods.
These 1-D nano materials can be:
Amorphous or crystalline
Single crystalline or poly crystalline
Chemically pure or impure
Standalone materials or embedded in within another medium
Metallic, ceramic or polymeric
Methods of making:
Liquid phase method
Self assembly method
CVD and catalyst nano particles are used to promote nucleation
Nanowires of materials such as silicon(Si) or Germanium(Ge) are grown by
Vapour-Liquid-solid(VLS) methods.
Catalyst seed-Gold is deposited on a substrate.
Vapour phase with the desired composition is brought in contact with the seed at a
controlled temperature.Vapour diffuses in to catalyst , changing its composition

and

lowering

its

melting

point

until

melts.

The liquid surface has a large coefficient of accommodation and therefore acts as
a preferred site for absorption of the gas vapour.
The liquid becomes supersaturated and a solid nano wire or whisker then grows
from it with a diameter equal to the diameter of the catalyst seed.

Nanowires with a diameter around 10 nm and a length of 1 micron can be grown

in this way.
ULTRA-THIN MATERIALS
Ultra thin films are prepared from low-water-content solutions.
The technology of solgel thin films has been around for over 30 years. The
process is exceedingly simple.
A solution containing the desired oxide precursors is applied to a substrate by
spinning, dipping, or draining.
The process is able to apply a coating to the inside and outside of complex shapes
simultaneously.
The equipment is inexpensive, especially in comparison to any deposition
techniques that involve a vacuum. Typically, the coatings are applied at room
temperature, though most need to be calcined and densified with heating.

The physical properties of the coating solutions that are monitored are viscosity,
surface tension, and time-to-gel.
Two simple relationships are that the film thickness increases with increasing
withdrawal rate and, for a given withdrawal speed,.

The film thickness increases with an increase in oxide content. When it comes to
dip coatings, 50500 nm coatings are easy to make but thicker coatings are more
difficult.

MULTILAYERED MATERIALS

With the advent of advanced thin-film processing methods, it has become

possible to produce artificially multilayered materials with precise control of the
composition and the thickness of the layers. In contrast to conventional bulk
laminate composites, the individual layer thickness in multilayered thin films can
be reduced to atomic dimensions and therefore becomes the smallest and most
important microstructural length scale. It is this length scale control that makes
artificially multilayered thin films the epitome of microstructural engineering.

Nanoscale thin films, often called nanofilms, can be deposited on the surface of
another base material by any one of several physical and chemical processes.
Multiple nanoscale layers can be built up to form multilayered or laminate
structures. Total thickness often lies in the submicron range. These layered
structures serve an astonishing array of functions.They are relatively easy to
deposit on a surface and can impart many qualities on it. Various thin layers can be
deposited on one another to build up a variety of functionalities (multicoatings or
laminates) .Many of these structures provide us with remarkable optical effects
and properties and are often use to change light transmission characteristics. They
can be conductive or non-conductive. Conductive layers can be deposited on nonconductive base materials an d thus serve a variety of purposes (including static
discharge). Multilayered composites films are also widely used for magnetic
recording media. The films are typically composed of a substrate on to metallic
layer followed by a magnetic layer are deposited , both with nano scale thickness.
Applications are found in flat-panel displays, touch panels, disk drives and
antireflection glasses.

LENGTH SCALE EFFECT ON PROPERTIES

Almost all properties of the thin layer of atoms that lie in the surface , interface of
things behave in a different way than those in the interior.
Surfaces have their own properties.
It experiences in their propensity to corrode, to stick (or) not to stick to things, or
release electrons in plasma display.
Most of the useful properties- stiffness, strength, thermal, electrical conductivity
and magnetism come from the inside atoms that lie in the surface in minuscule.

In the approach of the nanoscale and a large fraction of Surface atom gives a
property set that can be very different from that of the bulk.
Nanomaterials can offer strong wear resisting coatings .
It can change the ways in which heat and electricity are conducted.
Though their chemical behaviour used catalyze chemical reactions, distribute
drugs in the human body.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
One of the very basic results of the physics and chemistry of solids is the insight
that most properties of solids depend on the microstructure, i.e. the chemical
composition, the arrangement of the atoms (the atomic structure) and the size of a
solid in one, two or three dimensions. In other words, if one changes one or several
of these parameters, the properties of a solid vary. The most well-known example
of the correlation between the atomic structure and the properties of a bulk material
is probably the spectacular variation in the hardness of carbon when it transforms
from diamond to graphite. The important aspects related to structure are:
atomic defects, dislocations and strains
grain boundaries and interfaces
porosity
connectivity and percolation
short range order
Defects are usually absent in either metallic or ceramic clusters of nanoparticles
because dislocations are basically unstable or mobile. The stress field around a
dislocation (or the electrostatic potential around charges and currents) have to

satisfy the Laplace equation: 2 = 0. When these clusters are assembled under
uniaxial pressure into a pellet, for example, it is found that the individual clusters
are packed very tightly into a polycrystalline solid. Cluster assembled materials
often show close to 100% density. A fully consolidated nanophase material
looks very much like a normal, dense polycrystalline aggregate, but at a far smaller
scale.

Metals
The microstructure of a material is controlled by the processing steps chosen
for its fabrication. Such microstructural design affects the nature of the phases
present, their topology (i.e. geometrical distribution and interconnection) and their
dispersion (described by relevant size parameters). The full characterization of
these parameters is the domain of quantitative metallurgy. Most of these size
effects come about because of the microstructural constraint to which a particular
physical mechanism is subjected. Consider the classic case of strengthening a
metallic matrix by particles or grain boundaries: lattice dislocations are forced, by
the microstructural constraint, to bow out or pile up, which requires an external
stress characteristic of a microstructural parameter. The wall thickness relative to
the size of the microstructural inhomogeneity can control the macroscopic
behaviour. In general, it is therefore the competition or coupling between two
different size dependencies that determines the properties of a material. One thus
has to deal with the interaction of two length scales:
(1) is the dimension characteristic of the physical phenomenon involved, called the
characteristic length.
(2) is some microstructural dimension, denoted as the size parameter.
Grain size effects in plasticity and creep- Hall-Petch effects.

Strengthening of polycrystalline materials by grain size refinement is

technologically attractive because it generally does not adversely affect ductility
and toughness. The classical effect of grain size on yield stress ( ) can, among
other possibilities, be explained by a model invoking a pileup of dislocations
against grain boundaries, which results in a dependence of the hardening increment
kHP on the square root of the grain size D .
= kHP / D
Where kHP is a constant. This is the classical HallPetch effect.

Inverse Hall-Petch behaviour in nanocrystalline Cu (H-H0 denotes the hardness

increment,
D the grain size)

Grain Size effects in Stress and Strain

The bond between the atoms at like springs.
Elastic modulus -> Strength
Assume to occupy a cube of side ao, so that a force F acting on the cube is
equivalent to a stress.
= F/ ao ^ 2
The force stretches the bond from its initial strength ao to a new length a ,
giving a strain
= (ao a)/ a

Figure shows the strain rate versus the inverse of the grain size for the Ni and Cu
samples. The strain rates under these conditions are high compared with actual
experimental values, but for these small sample sizes (1025 nm) any relative
velocity is still four orders of magnitude smaller than the velocity of sound.

At the smallest grain sizes explored the strain rate for a given applied stress
increases with decreasing grain sizes.
An energy balance indicates that at these sizes the total amount of grain boundary
remains constant during deformation. These observations suggest an important
characteristic of plasticity in nanophase metals under the present conditions:
There is no damage accumulation during deformation, similar to the case of
superplasticity.
Careful examination of the samples confirms the absence of intragrain defects.

ELECTRONIC PROPERTY
Nanocrystalline particles represent a state of matter in the transition region
between bulk solid and single molecule. As a consequence, their physical and
chemical properties gradually change from solid state to molecular behaviour with
decreasing particle size. The reasons for this behaviour can be summarised as two
basic phenomena:
First,

owing to their small dimensions, the surface-to-volume ratio

increases, and the number of surface atoms may be similar to or higher than those
located in the crystalline lattice core, and the surface properties are no longer
negligible. When no other molecules are adsorbed onto the nanocrystallites, the
surface atoms are highly unsaturated and their electronic contribution to the
behaviour of the particles is totally different from that of the inner atoms. These
effects may be even more marked when the surface atoms are ligated.
This leads to different electronic transport and catalytic properties of the

nanocrystalline particles
The second phenomenon, which occurs in metal and semiconductor
nanoparticles, is totally an electronic effect. The band structure gradually evolves
with increasing particle size, i. e., molecular orbital convert into delocalised band
states. Figure 1-1, shows the size quantization effect responsible for the transition
between a bulk metal or semiconductor, and cluster species. In a metal, the quasicontinuous density of states in the valence and the conduction bands splits into
discrete electronic levels, the spacing between these levels and the band gap
increasing with decreasing particle size.
In the case of semiconductors, the phenomenon is slightly different, since a
band gap already exists in the bulk state. However, this band gap also increases
when the particle size is decreased and the energy bands gradually convert into
discrete molecular electronic levels.v If the particle size is less than the De Broglie
wavelength of the electrons, the charge carriers may be treated quantum
mechanically as "particles in a box", where the size of the box is given by the
dimensions of the crystallites. vi In semiconductors, the quantization effect that
enhances the optical gap is routinely observed for clusters ranging from 1 nm to
almost 10 nm. Metal particles consisting of 50 to 100 atoms with a diameter
between 1 and 2 nm start to loose their metallic behaviour and tend to become
semiconductors.vii Particles that show this size quantization effect are sometimes
called Q-particles or quantum dots that we will discuss later in this chapter. At
very small particle sizes, also called clusters, determined by the so-called magic
numbers, which are more frequently observed than others. Metals have a cubic or
hexagonal close-packed structure consisting of one central atom, which is
surrounded in the first shell by 12 atoms, in the second shell by 42 atoms, or in

principle by 10n2+2 atoms in the nth shell.viii For example, one of the most
famous ligand stabilized metal clusters is a gold particle with 55 atoms (Au55) first
reported by G. Schmid in 1981.

Electron States in Dependence of Size and Dimensionality

Standard quantum mechanical texts show that for an electron in an infinitely deep
square potential well of width a in one dimension, the coordinate is the groundstate energy and the quantum number n assumes the values n = 1, 2, 3, . . . This
shows that, when the free electrons in a solid are confined to particle sizes smaller
the Fermi wavelength (quantum confinement), the electron energy shifts to higher
values (blue shift) with shrinking size as of the well which is of importance for
many electronic or optical properties of nanostructures. In addition to quantum
confinement effects, quantization effects appear in nanoparticles because the
charge of the electron is quantized in units of e [1.84, 1.85]. When the electron
with the quantized charge tunnels to an island with the capacitance C the
electrostatic potential of the island changes by discrete values of the charging
energy Ec = e2/C. This can be detected at low temperatures when the energies
fluctuations kBT << e2/C are small, and when the resistance Rt of the tunneling
barriers is sufficiently high.
From the charging time t = Rt C of the island and the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle E t = (e2/C)RtC > h it can be estimated that Rt >> h/e2 should be much
higher than the resistance quantum h/e2 = 25.813k These conditions can be met by
small dots with low C values and weak tunneling coupling. For a quantum dot
sphere with a 1 m diameter the value Ec=3meV is found which can be easily
resolved at low temperatures. If a voltage Vg is applied to the gate capacitor Cg a
charge is induced on the island which leads to the so-called Coulomb oscillations
of the source-drain conductance as a function of Vg at a fixed source-drain voltage
Vsd . In the valleys between the oscillations, the number of electrons on the dots is

fixed to the integer N with zero conductance (Coulomb blockade). Between the
two stable configurations N and N+1 a charge degeneracy appears where the
number of electrons can alternate between N an N+1. This produces a current flow
and results in the observed current peaks.

(a) Schematics of a quantum dot (island) connected to three terminals: source, drain,
and gate. The terminals and the sland are separated by thin insulating layers. (b)
Coulomb oscillations for illustrating the effect of single electronic charges on the
macroscopic conductance I/Vsd. The period in the gate voltage is about e/Cg

An alternative measurement with fixed gate voltage Vg and varying sourcedrain voltage shows nonlinear currentvoltage characteristics exhibiting a
Coulomb staircase . A new current step occurs at a threshold voltage e2/C at
which an extra electron is energetically allowed to enter the island. This
threshold voltage is periodic in the gate voltage in accordance with the
Coulomb oscillations. Quantum confinement with spacing E between the
energy levels and effects of charge quantization can be observed
simultaneously. Electrons in a semiconductor hetero-interface quantum dot
with a diameter of 100 nm yield a level spacing of 0.03 mV which can be
detected at dilution refrigeration temperatures. The change of the gate voltage
Vg between current oscillations in a quantum dot is given by

where Cg is the gate capacitance . By sweeping Vg, a peak structure in the

current is observed for kBT << E << e2/C. where the peakto- peak distance is
ascribed to the addition energy e2/C+E and the separation of the minipeaks to
the level spacing @E
The Electron Density of States D(E)
The electron density of states D(E) depends dramatically on the dimensionality of
nanostructures (see Fig.). Whereas for bulk systems a square-root dependence of
energy prevails, a staircase behavior is characteristic for 2D-quantum well
structures, spikes are found in 1D quantum wires, and discrete features appear in
0D quantum dots. Since many solid-state properties are dominated by the electron
density of states, these properties, such as the electronic specific heat Cel, the Pauli
conduction electron magnetic susceptibility el, the thermopower, the

superconducting energy gap, etc., are sensitive to dimensional changes.

ELECTRONIC AND OPTICAL PROPERTY OF NANO MATERIALS

Nanocrystalline particles represent a state of matter in the transition region

between bulk solid and single molecule.
As a consequence, their physical and chemical properties gradually change from
solid state to molecular behaviour with decreasing particle size. The reasons for
this behaviour can be summarised as two basic phenomena:
The surface-to-volume ratio increases, and the number of surface atoms may be
similar to or higher than those located in the crystalline lattice core.
When no other molecules are adsorbed onto the nanocrystallites, the surface
atoms are highly unsaturated and their electronic contribution to the behaviour of
the particles is totally different from that of the inner atoms.
The second phenomenon, which occurs in metal and semiconductor nanoparticles,
is totally an electronic effect. The band structure gradually evolves with increasing
particle size, i. e., molecular orbital convert into delocalized band states.
Figure 1-1, shows the size quantization effect responsible for the transition
between a bulk metal or semiconductor, and cluster species.

In a metal, the quasi-continuous density of states in the valence and the

conduction bands splits into discrete electronic levels, the spacing between these
levels and the band gap increasing with decreasing particle size.

Band gap also increases Particle size is decreased

Energy bands Discrete molecular electronic levels.
In semiconductors, the quantization effect that enhances the optical gap is
routinely observed for clusters ranging from 1 nm to almost 10 nm.
Metal particles consisting of 50 to 100 atoms with a diameter between 1 and 2 nm
start to loose their metallic behaviour and tend to become semiconductors.
Particles that show this size quantization effect are sometimes called
Q-particles or quantum dots

An electric current can flow through the conductor because some electrons are free
to move through the lattice of atomic nuclei.
The current is determined by the charge transferred through the conductor.
Surprisingly this transferred charge can have practically any value, in particular, a
fraction of the charge of a single electron. Hence, it is not quantized.

If a tunnel junction interrupts an ordinary conductor, electric charge will move

through the system by both a continuous and discrete process. Since only discrete
electrons can tunnel through junctions, charge will accumulate at the surface of the
electrode against the isolating layer, until a high enough bias has built up across the
tunnel junction Dripping Trap

The top oxide layer is thin enough for electrons to tunnel through. To transfer one
electron onto the particle, the Coulomb energy
EC = e2/2C
Where, C is the particles capacitance, is required.
Neglecting thermal and other forms of energy, the only energy source available is
the bias voltage Vb.
As long as the bias voltage is small enough, smaller than a threshold
Vth = e/C, no electron can tunnel,
because not enough energy is available to charge the island. This behavior is called
the Coulomb blockade.
As Coulomb oscillations and Coulomb blockade, only matter, if the Coulomb
energy is bigger than the thermal energy.
Otherwise thermal fluctuations will disturb the motion of electrons and will wash
out the quantization effects.
The necessary condition is,

interesting devices are possible, such as precise current standard, x very sensitive
electrometers, logic gates and memories with ultra low power consumption, downscalability to atomic dimensions, and high speed of operation
MAGNETIC PROPERTY
The basic magnetic properties of a material are often described by a B-Hcurve.
(B Magnetic flux density or mag. Induction (Gauss or Tesla), H Magnetic field
strength.
Materials either slightly reject magnetic fields (diamagnetism) or reinforce

them (paramagnetism).
A limited set of materials (Fe,Co,Ni,Gd and some transition metal oxides) exhibit
ferromagnetism, i.e. spontaneous alignment of atomic spins.

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Thermal point is a fundamental point because it directly correlates with the bond
strength.
In bulk systems, Surface-to-volume ratio is tool small and the curvature of the
surface is negligible., So, for a solid in bulk form, surface effects can be
disregarded.
In, nano scale solids, the ratio of surface to mass is large ,the system may be
regarded as containing surface phases in addition to the typical volume phases.
For O-D and 1-D nano materials, the curvature of the surface is usually very
pronounced.

G Total = G Bulk + G Surface

Where, G Bulk = Lo (To T)/ To X VL and G Surface =A
In addition to the melting temperature, many of the current applications require
knowledge about thermal transport.
Heat is transported in materials by two different mechanisms.
Lattice vibration waves (Phonons)
Free electrons
In materials , the electron mechanism of heat is significantly more efficient than
phonon process due to fact that metals posses a high number of free electrons and
because electrons are not easily scattered.