Case Concerning Rights of Nationals of The United States of America in Morocco
Case Concerning Rights of Nationals of The United States of America in Morocco
Case Concerning Rights of Nationals of The United States of America in Morocco
REPORTS O F JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
CASE CONCERNING
RIGHTS OF NATIONALS OF
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
IN MOROCCO
(FRANCE v. UNITED STATES O F AMERICA)
JUDGMENT
A F F A I R E RELATIVE A U X DROITS D E S
RESSORTISSANTS DES TATS-UNIS D'AMRIQUE
AU MAROC
(FRANCE c. TATS-UNIS D'AMRIQUE)
August 27th
General List :
No. I I
YEAR 1952
CASE CONCERNING
RIGHTS OF NATIONALS OF
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
IN MOROCCO
(FRANCE v. UNITED STATES O F AMERICA)
Economic liberty u ' i t l ~ o u ta n y inequality i n ilforocco in the Getzeral
Act of A1gcciras.-Eoect of establishment of Protectorate thereon.-Egect
of discrimination o n validity of Hesidential Decree of December 30th.
1948, regulating imports.
C o n s z ~ l a rjurisdiction in French Z o n e of Alorocco a s based On bilateral
trcatics, most-favoured-nation claztses a d multilateral treaties.-Aifeaning
of "dispute" i n T r e a t y of 1836 between illorocco and the United
of
States ; whetl~er applicable to criminal and cioil nzatters.-Eflect
of Conrenunciation by oiher States of ccnsular jurisdiction.-Eflect
vention of M a d r i d and Act of Algeciras o n consular jurisdiction.C z ~ s t o mand usage.
" R i g h t of assent" to hlooccan l ~ ~ i s l a t i oans corollary of consular
jurisdictio~z.-dsscnt necessary for application of Moroccan laws in
consular courts.-Local
laws contrary to treaty rights.
Fiscal irnmuzity a s based o n Convention of Aladrid and Act of
Algeciras and most-favoured-natio~zclauscs.
Interpvetation of Article 95 of Act of Algccirus.
JUDGMEN'T
L'rescrit : President Sir Arnold MCNAIR; Jzddges BASDEVANT,
HACKWORTH,ZORICIC, KLAESTAD,BADAWI, READ,
H s u Mo, LEVI CARNEIRO,Sir Benegal RAU, ARMANDC ~ o ;s I<egistrar H x ~ i i < i ~ .
Le 2 7 aot
Rle gnral
n3 I I
27 aot
1952
PrLsewls : Sir
composed as above,
delizlers fhe /oZlowing Jzidgrnent :
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178
M. Edwin L. Smith, conseiller juridique de la lgation des
tats-Unis Tanger,
M. John E . Utter, premier secrtaire l'ambassade des tatsUnis Paris,
comme experts,
ainsi compose,
180
JUDGMENT OF
27 VIII 52
That the decree of December 3oth, 1948, concerning the regulation of imports not involving an allocation of currency, is in conformity with the economic system which is applicable to Morocco,
according to the conventions which bind France and the United
States ;
That Article 95 of the Act of Algeciras defines value for
customs piirposes as the value of the merchandise a t the time and
a t the place where it is presented for customs clearance ;
That no treaty has conferred on the United States fiscal immunity
for its nationals in Morocco, either directly or through the effect of
the most-favoured-nation clause ;
That the laws and regulations on fiscal matters which have been
put into force in the Shereefian Empire are applicable to the nationals
of the United States without the prior consent of the Government
of the United States ;
That, consequently, consumption taxes provided by the Dahir of
February 28th, 1948, have been legally collected from the nationals
of the United States, and should not be refunded to them."
Such jurisdiction has nevcr been renounced, expressly or impliedly, by the United States.
4. Under the regime of extraterritorial jurisdiction now exerciscd
by the United States in Morocco, United States citizens are not
siibject, in principle, to the application of Moroccan laws.
Such laws become applicable to the United States citizens only
if they are submitted to the prior assent of the United States
Government and if this Government agrees to make theni applicable
to its citizens. The Dahir of December 30, 1948, not having been
submitted to the prior assent of the United States Government,
cannot be made applicable to United States citizens.
As a counter-claim :
I. Under Article 95 of the Act of Algeciras, the value of imports
from the United States must be determined for the purpose of
customs assessments by adding to the purchase value of the imported
merchandise in the United States the expenses incidental to its
transportation to the custom-house in Morocco, exclusive of al1
expenses following its delivery to the custom-house, such as customs
duties and storage fees.
I t is a violation of the Act of Algeciras and a breach of iriternational law for the customs authorities to depart from the method
of valuation so defined and to determine the value of imported
merchandise for customs purposes by relying on the value of the
imported merchandise on the local Moroccan market.
2. The treaties exempt American nationals from taxes, except as
specifically provided by the same treaties ; to collect taxes rom
American nationals in violation of the terms of the treaties is a
breach of international law.
Such taxes can legally be collected from American nationals only
with the previous consent of the United States which operates to
waive temporarily its treaty right, and from the date upon which
such consent is given, unless otherwise specified by the terms of the
conscnt.
Consumption taxes provided by the Dahir of February 28, 1948,
which were collected from American nationals up to August 15, 19.50,
the date on which the United States consented to these taxes, were
illegally collected and should be refunded to them.
3. Since Moroccan laws do not become applicable to American
citizens until they have received the prior assent of the United
States Government, the lack of assent of the United States Government to the Dahir of February 28, 1948, rendered illegal the collection of the consumptioil taxes provided by that Dahir."
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dans la zone franaise du Maroc. Les Parties o n t prsent les conclusions suivantes :
Au nom du Gouvernement d e la Rpublique franaise :
(( Que I'arret du 30 dcembre 1948 portant rglementation des
importations sans devises est conforme au rgime 6conomique
appljcable au Maroc selon les conventions qui lient la France et
les Etats-Unis.
son application au Maroc, tre envisag dans le cadre des dispositions conventionnelles alors existantes et visant le commerce et
l'galit de traitement en matire conomique.
Par le trait de commerce du 9 dcembre 1856 avec la GrandeBretagne, comme par les traits du 20 novembre 1861 avec l'Espagne,
et du rer juin 1890 avec l'Allemagne, le Sultan du Maroc a garanti
certains droits en matire de commerce, y compris les importations
au Maroc. Ces Etats, avec certains autres parmi lesquels les EtatsUnis, ont reu la garantie de l'galit de traitement par l'effet des
clauses de la nation la plus favorise figurant dans leurs traits
avec le Maroc. A ].a veille de la confrence d'Algsiras, les trois
principes mentionns plus haut, y compris celui de ((la libert
conomique sans aucune ingalit n, ont t expressment accepts
par la France et l'Allemagne, dans un change de lettres du 8 juillet
1905 relatives leur attitude l'gard du Maroc. Ainsi, ce principe,
pour son application au Maroc, tait dj bien tabli quand la
confrence l'a raffirm et l'a insr dans le prambule de l'acte de
1906. Vu la lumire des circonstances prcites, le principe apparat clairement comme ayant t destin avoir le caractre d'une
obligation, et non rester seulement formule vide. L'article 105
le confirme, lorsqu'il applique expressment ce principe en ce qui
concerne les services publics au Maroc. On en trouve galement
la confirmation daris les dclarations faites .la confrence par le
reprsentant de l'Espagne, qui mentionne 1'((galit de traitement
en matire commerciale n, ainsi que par le reprsentant de la France.
L'tablissement du protectorat franais sur le Maroc par le
trait du 30 mars 1912 entre la France et le Maroc n'a pas entran
de modification c:et gard. Dans la convention du 4 novembre
1911 entre la France et l'Allemagne, concernant l'tablissement
de ce protectorat, le Gouvernement allemand a nonc, dans l'article premier, la rscrve que l'action de la France sauvegardera au
Maroc l'galit conomique entre les nations .D'autre part, le Gouvernement de la Rkpublique franaise a dclar l'article 4 qu'il
s'emploierait auprs. du Gouvernement marocain afin d'empcher
tout traitement diffrentiel entre les ressortissants des diffrentes
Puissances N.
Les autres tats au nom desquels a t sign l'acte d'Algsiras
ont, l'exception des Etats-Unis, adhr par la suite la convcntion franco-allemande de 1911, acceptant ainsi nouveau le principe de l'galit de traitement en matire conomique au Maroc.
Le France s'est efforce d'obtenir galement l'adhsion des EtatsUnis, et, dans une note du 3 novembre 1911 de l'?mbassadeur de
France Washington au secrtaire dJEtat des Etats-Unis, une
rfrence est faite la convention franco-allemande. Il y est dit
que la France s'emploierait auprs du Gouvernement marocain
afin d'empcher tout traitement diffrentiel des ressortissants des
14 novembre 1918, de 1'ainl)nsPuissances. Dans une autre note
sadeur de Frarice au sccrtairc d'Etat, il est dclar que lc biii.fice
((
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186
JUDGMENT OF
I N MOROCCO)
* * *
The Court will now consider the extent of the consular jurisdiction of the United States of America in the French Zone of Morocco.
The French Submission in this regard reads as follows :
"That the privileges of the nationals of the United States of
America in Morocco are only those which result from the text of
Articles 20 and 21 of the Treaty of September 16th, 1836, and that
since the most-favoured-nation clause contained in Article 24 of the
said Treaty can no longer be invoked by the United States in the
present state of the international obligations of the Shereefian
Empire, there is nothing to justify the granting to the nationals of
the United States of preferential treatment which would be contrary
to the provisions of the treaties."
The United States Submission concerning consular jurisdiction
reads as follows :
"3. The jurisdiction conferred upon the United States by the
Treaties of 1787 and 1836 was jurisdiction, civil and criminal, in
al1 cases arising between American citizens.
In addition, the United States acquired in Morocco jurisdiction
in al1 cases in which an American citizen or protg was defendant
through the effect of the most-favoured-nation clause and through
custom and usage.
Such jurisdiction was not affected by the surrender by Great
Britain in 1937 of its rights of jurisdiction in the French Zone of
Morocco.
Siich jiirisdiction has never lxcn renounced, expressly or impliedly,
114' tlic Lriitt~tlStatc's."
It is comrnon ground between the Parties that the prescnt (Iisputc
is limited to the French Zone of Morocco. It is an this groiind that
ARRT D U
27 V I I i
5 2 (RESSORTISSANTS DES
6.-U. AU
BIAROC)
186
* *
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There is a common element to be found in the most-favourednation clauses which have brought about and maintained a situation in which there could be no discrimination as between any of
the Powers in Morocco, regardless of specific grants of treaty rights.
When the most extensive privileges as regards consular jurisdiction
were granted by Morocco to Great Britain in 1856 and to Spain in
1861, these enured automatically and immediately to the benefit of
the other Powers by virtue of the operation of the most-favourednation clauses.
The second group consisted of multilateral treaties, the Madrid
Convention of 1880 and the Act of Algeciras of 1906. The method
of relying on individual action by interested Powers, equalized by
the operation of the most-favoured-nation clauses, had led to abuse
and it had become necessary not merely to ensure economic liberty
without discrimination, but also to impose an element of restraint
upon the Powers and to take steps to render possible the development of Morocco into a modern State. Accordingly, the rights of
protection were restricted, and some of the limitations on the powers
of the Siiltan as regards foreigners, which had resulted frorp the
provisions of the earlier bilateral treaties, were abated. The possi-
t plaid. Par corisquent, la Cour ne saurait statuer sur la situation juridique en d'autres parties du Maroc.,
Pour examiner l'tendue des droits des Etats-Unis relatifs
la juridiction consulaire, il est ncessaire de prendre en considration trois groupes de traits.
Le premier groupe comprend les traits bilatraux conclus par
le Maroc avec la France, les Pays-Bas, la Grande-Bretagne, le
Danemark, l'Espagne, les tats-unis, la Sardaigne, l'Autriche, la
Belgique et lJAllernagne et qui s'tendent sur la priode de 1631
1892.
Ces traits, qui se rapportaient principalement au commerce,
y compris les droits et privilges des ngociants trangers au
Maroc, traitaient (de trois manires diffrentes la question de la
juridiction consulaire :
Certains comportaient l'octroi exprs aux Puissances intresses de droits tendus en matire de juridiction consulaire ;
par exemple, les traits de 1856 avec la Grande-Bretagne et
de 1799 et de 1861 avec l'Espagne ;
2) D'autres comportaient l'octroi de privilges strictement
limits en matire de juridiction consulaire ; par exemple,
les traits de 1787 et de 1836 avec les Etats-Unis ;
3) D'autres encore ne dfinissaient pas en termes exprs les
droits converitionnels accords par le Maroc, mais, au lieu
de cela, octroyaient aux nations trangres, par le moyen
cies clauses de la nation la plus favorise, les avantages e t
privilges dj accords ou qui seraient accords d'autres
nations.
1)
188
JUDGMENT O F
27 VI11 5 2 (u.s.
NATIONALS I N IVIOKOCCO)
16
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(RESSORTISSANTS
D E S .-U. A U MAROC)
188
trangers par suite des dispositions des traits bilatraux antrieurs furent supprimes. On prit soin de prvenir les possibilits
d'un abus de la part du Maroc dans l'exercice des pouvoirs ainsi
accrus en rservant au Corps diplomatique Tanger certaines
attributions de surveillance et de contrle.
Le troisime groupe de traits concerne l'tablissement du
protectorat. Il comprend les accords qui prcdrent l'tablissement par la France d'un protectorat sur le Maroc, ainsi que le
traif de Fez de 1912. En vertu de ce trait, le Maroc demeurait
un Etat souverain, mais il concluait un accord de caractre contractuel par lequel la France s'engageait exercer certains pouvoirs
souverains au noni et pour le compte di1 Maroc, et se charger,
en principe, de toutes les relations internationales du Maroc.
Dans l'exercice de cette fonction, la France est lie non seulement
par les dispositions du trait de Fez, mais galement par toutes
les obligations conventionnelles auxquelles le Maroc avait t
soumis avant le protectorat et qui, depuis lors, n'?nt pas pris fin
ou n'ont pas t suspendues par accord avec les Etats intresss.
1,'tablissement du protectorat et l'organisation des tribunaux
du protectorat garantissant aux trangers l'galit judiciaire
amenrent une situation essentiellement diffrente de celle qui
avait conduit l'tablissement de la juridiction consulaire en
vertu des traits antrieurs. En consquence, la France a entam
des ngociations el1 vue d'obtenir des Puissances exerant la juridiction consulaire dans la zone franaise qu'elles renoncent au
rpime
des canituliitions. En ce aui concerne toutes les Puissances.
"
l'exceptionldes tats-unis, cs ngociations aboutirent uni
renonciation aux droits et privilges capitulaires, renonciation
qui, pour la Grande-Bretagne, tait cpntenue dans la convention
du 29 juillet 1937. Dans le cas des Etats-Unis, des ngociations
eurent lieu au cours desquelles les Etats-Unis ont rserv leurs
droits conventionriels.
La conclusion di! Gouvernement franais est fonde sur le trait
conclu entre les fStats-Unis et le Maroc, le 16 septembre 1836,
et les Parties sont d'accord pour admettre que les Etats-Unis ont
le droit d'exercer une juridiction consulaire en matire de diffrends entre leurs citoyens ou protgs. Il n'y a donc pas de doute
sur l'existence, dans ce cas, d'une juridiction consulaire. La seule
question trancher est celle de l'tendue de cette juridiction en
1950, date du dpt de la requte.
cntrc eux
1111
--
~diff~rcntl,
lc consul statuera cntre les partics ; et
other, the Consul shall decide between the parties ; and whenever
the Consul shall require any aid, or assistance from Our government,
to enforce his decisions, it shall be immediately granted to him.
Article 21.-If
a citizen of the United States should kill or wound
a Moor, or, on the contrary, if a Moor shall kill or wound a citizen
of the United States, the law of the country shall take place, and
equal justice shall be rendered, the Consul assisting at the trial ;
and if any delinquent shall make his escape, the Consul shall not
be answerable for him in any manner whatever."
~
The second point arises out of the United States Submission that
consular jurisdiction was acquired "in al1 cases in which an American
citizen or protg was defendant through the effect of the mostfavoured-nation clause and through custom and usage" and that
such jurisdiction was not affected by the surrender by Great Britain
in 1937 of its rights of jurisrlictioil in the French Zone and has never
been renounced expressly or impliedly by the United States.
chaque fois que, pour l'excution de ses dcisions, le consul demandera l'aide ou. l'assistance de notre gouvernement, celles-ci lui
seront immdiatement fournies.
Article 21. -- Si un citoyen des tats-Unis tue ou blesse un Maure
ou si, l'inverse, un Maure tue ou blesse un citoyen des Etats-Unis,
la loi du pays s'appliquera et justice gale sera rendue, le consul
assistant au procs ; au cas o un dlinquant s'chapperait, le
consul n'en sera responsable en aucune manire.
11 est soutenu que l'article 20 doit tre interprt comine confrant une juridiction consulaire dans tous les diffrends, civils ou
criminels, s'levarit entre citoyens et protgs des Etats-Unis. De
son ct, le Gouvernement franais soutient que le terme diffrend est limit aux affaires civiles. On fait valoir que ce terme,
dans son sens ord:inaire et naturel, est limit aux diffrends d'ordre
civil, les crimes tant des fautes contre l'gtat et non des diffrends
entre personnes prives.
Le trait de 1836 a remplac un trait antrieur conclu en 1787
entre les Etats-U:nis et le Maroc. Les deux traits ont dans l'ensemble une rdaction identique et les articles 20 et 21 sont les mmes
dans les deux. Par consquent, il est ncessaire, en interprtant
les dispositions dc l'article 20 - et notamment l'expression ont
entre eux un diffrend - de tenir compte du sens du terme diffrend l'poque o les deux traits furent conclus. A cette fin,
il convient d'examiner la manire dont a t employ le terme
dispute
ou son quivalent franais, dans les divers traits
conclus par le M,aroc, par exemple ceux avec la France de 1631
et 1682, et avec Ila Grande-Bretagne de 1721, 1750, 1751, 1760 et
1801. Il est clair que dans ces cas le terme a t employ comme
s'tendant aux diffrends tant civils que criminels.
Il faut galement tenir compte du fait qu' l'poque o ces
deux traits fure:nt conclus, la distinction nette entre les affaires
civiles et criminelles ne s'tait pas encore dgage au Maroc.
C'est pourquoi il faut interprter le terme diffrend )) tel qu'il
figure dans l'article 20, comme visant tant les affaires civiles que
les affaires crimiinelles dans la mesure o celles-ci se. rattachent
des, violations du droit pnal commises par un citoyen pu protg
des Etats-Unis contre un autre citoyen ou protg des Etats-Unis.
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I t is necessary to give special attention to the most-favourednation clauses of the United States Treaty of 1836. There were two
grants of most-favoured-nation treatment.
Article 14 provides :
"The comrnercc with the United States shall be on the same
footing as is the commerce with Spain, or as that with the most
favorcd nation for the timc bcing ; and their citizens shall be respccted and esteemed, and have full liberty to pass and repass Our
country and seaports whenever they please, without interruption."
Article 24 deals with the contingencies of war, but it contains a
final sentence :
".... and it is further declared, that whatever indulgence, in
trade or otherwise, shall bc granted to any of the Christian Powers,
the citizens of the United States shall be equally entitled to them."
These articles entitle the Gnited States to invoke the provisions
of other treaties relating to the capitulatory regime.
The most extensive privileges in the matter of consular jurisdiction granted by Morocco werc those which were contained in the
Gencral Treaty with Great Britain of 1856 and in the Treaty of
Commerce and Navigation with Spain of 1861. Under the provisions
of Article I X of the British Treaty, there was a grant of consular
jurisdiction in al1 cases, civil and criminal, when British nationals
were defcndants. Similarly, in Articles IX, X and X I of the Spanish
Trcaty of 1861, civil and criininal jurisdiction was established for
cases in which Spanish nationals were defendants.
Accordingly, the United States acquired by virtue of the mostfavoured-nation clauses, civil and criminal consular jurisdiction in
al1 cases in which United States nationals were defendants.
The controversy between the Parties with regard to consular
jurisdiction results from the renunciation of capitulatory rights and
privileges by Spain in 1914 and by Great Britain in 1937. The
renunciation by Spain in 1914 had no immediate effect upon the
United States position because it was still possible to invoke the
provisions of the General Treaty with Great Britain of 1856. After
1937, however, no Power other than the United States has exercised consular jurisdiction in the French Zone of Morocco and none
has been entitled to exercise such jurisdiction.
France contends that, from the date of the renunciation of the
right of consular jurisdiction by Great Britain, the United States
has not been entitled, either through the operation of the mostfavoured-nation cIauses of the Treaty of 1836 or by virtue of the
provisioiis of any other treaty, to exercise consular jurisdiction
18
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Ces articles autorisent les tats-unis invoquer les dispositions d'autres traits relatifs au rgime capitulaire.
Les privilges :les plus tendus que le Maroc ait accords en
matire de juridiction consulaire sont ceux du trait gnral de
1856 avec la Gramde-Bretagne et du trait de commerce et de
navigation de 1861 avec l'Espagne. En vertu des dispositions
de l'article IX du trait britannique, la juridiction consulaire tait
octroye dans toutes les affaires civiles et criminelles o des ressortissants britanniques taient dfendeurs. De mme, la juridiction
au civil et au prial tait tablie par les articles IX, X et X I du
trait de 1861 avec l'Espagne dans toutes les affaires dans lesquelles
des ressortissants espagnols taient dfendeurs.
Par consquent, en vertu des clauses de la nation la plus favorise, les Etats-Unis ont acquis la juridiction consulaire en matire
civile, et criminellle dans toutes les affaires o des ressortissants
des Etats-Unis t.aient dfendeurs.
La controverse entre les Parties relative la juridiction consulaire rsulte de la renonciation par l'Espagne en 1914 et par la
Grande-Bretagne en 1937 leurs droits et privilges capitulaires.
La renonciation d.e l'Espagne, en 1914, n'a eu aucun effet immdiat sur 1 position des Etats-Unis parce qu'il tait encore possible
d'invoquer les dispositions du trait gnral de 1856 avec la GrandeBretagne. Toutefois, aprs 1937, aucune Puissance, autre que les
Etats-Unis, n'a exerc de juridiction consulaire dans la zone franaise du Maroc et aucune n'tait en droit de l'exercer.
La France soutient que, ds le moment o la Grande-Bretagne
a renonc aux droits de juridiction consulairc, les Etats-Unis n'ont
plus t fonds, que ce soit par l'effet des clauses de la nation la
plus favorise du trait de 1836 ou en vertu des dispositions d'un
autre trait, exercer la juridiction consulaire pour d'autres
I8
beyond those cases which are covered by the provisions of Articles 20 and 21 of the Treaty of 1836.
The United States Submission is based upon a series of contentions which must be dealt with in turn.
affaires que celles qui sont vises par les dispositions des articles 20
et 21 du trait de 18 6.
La conclusion cles tats-Unis est fonde sur une srie d'arguments qui doivent tre examins tour tour.
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1914.
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21
t h e beiiefit of llorocco ancl t h a t t h c Spanish riglits a s rcgartls coiisiilar jurisdiction carne t o a n e n d de jitre a s n-el1 a s de facto.
It is necessary t o (ieal with anotlier aspect of this question \+,hich
arises out of t h e wording of t h e Ileclaration madc 11- France antl
Spain on Rlarch 7 t h , 1914. This 1)eclaration contained t h c follo\\li n g provisions :
"Taking into considcration the guarantees of jiidicial cqiiality
offered to foreigners by the French Tribunals of the Protectoratc,
His Catholic Majesty's Government renoiinces claiming for its
consuls, its subjects, and its establishmerits in the French Zonc
of the Shereefian Empire al1 the rights and privilcges arising oiit
of the regime of the Capitulations.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
So far as the Government of the French Kepublic is concerned,
it binds itself to renounce euqally the rights and privileges existiiig
in favour of its consuls, its subjects, and its establishments in the
Spanish Zone as soon as the Spanisli Tribunals are establislied in
the said Zone.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Declaration wliereby France complied with t h e above ii~idertaking was madc on November 17th, 1914, a n d iiicluded the follouling paragraph :
"Taking into consideration the guarantccs of judicial cqiiality
offered to foreigners by the Spanisli Tribunals in the Protectorate,
the Goverriment of the French Repuhlic herehy rcnounces claiming
for its consuls, its siibjects and its cstablislimcnts in the Spanisli
%orle of thc Shereefian Empire, al1 the rights :iii<I ~~rivilcgcs
nrisiiig
out of the regimc of the Capitulatioiis."
I t will be observed t h a t both Declarations ilse the words "renonce
rclamer" (renounces claiming) and t h e question has arisen whether
these words were intended a s a surrender or renunciatioi of al1 t h e
rights a n d privileges arising out of t h e capitulatory rcgime, or
whether t h e v must be considered a s t e mI~ o r a r vundertakinps not
t o claim those rights or privileges so long a s t h e giiarantees for
judicial equality a r e maintained in the French Zone b y t h e tribunals
of t h e Protectorate a n d so long a s t h e correspoiiding guarantccs arc
maintained in t h e Spanish Zonc.
J
profitent, et qiic los droits espagnols relatifs la juridiction consiilaire ont pris firi de jure aussi bicn que de facto.
Il falit examiner u n autre aspect de la question qui rsulte des
termes de la dclaration faite p a r la France e t l'Espagne le 7 mars
1914. Cette dclaration contient les dispositions suivantes :
I( Prenant
en considiration les garanties d'bgalit jiiridiqiic
offcrtcs aux trangers par les trif~iinaii?:franais du ~irotcctorat,
le Goii\~ernementroyal renonce
r6clniner pour ses consuls, ses
ressortissants et ses t;~lilissemcntsdans la zonc francriise de 1'Empire cii6rificii toiis droits et pri~,ili.gcsissiis di1 r6gimc des capitiiIations.
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27 \'III
196
ct autres droits exti-aterritoriaux ou encore portant rcnonciatiori
de droits extraterritoriaux 1). Ile plus, tous les Etats qui avaient
sign ces accords ont abandonn immdiatement l'exercice de la.
juridiction corisulaire ou autrc,s droits et privil&ges capitulaires
dans la zone franaise.
Dans ces conditions, il faut conclure que la dclaration dc
l'Espagne du 7 niairs 1914 a effectu l'abandon ou la renonciation
par l'Espagne tous ses droits juridictionnels ou autres droits
extraterritoriaux dans la zone franaise, et l'abrogation des dispositions du trait de 1861 avec l'Espagne se rapportant (1 aux droits
et privilges.issus du rgime des capitulations .
Par consquent, la Coiir ne peut accepter la thc'sc que les c t a t s Unis, en vertu des clauses de la nation la plus favorise, ont le
droit d'in\~oquer, l'gard de la zonc franaise, celles des dispositions du trait6 de 1861 avec l'Espagne qiii ont trait la juridiction
consulaire.
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Dans les conditions alors existantes, cet article exigeait que les
poursuites pour fra.ude et contrebande engages contre les ressortissants des douze Puissarices fussent portes devant les tribunaux
consulaires.
Depuis 1937, la situation est la suivante : onze des Puissances
ont renonc leurs privilges capitulaires, et leur juridiction
consulaire a cess d'exister. De ce fait, le Maroc a pu dicter des
lois ct prendre des dispositions en vue de juger et punir des dlinquants appartenant. ces onze pays. Les tats-unis sont dans une
situation diffrente qu'il convient d'examiner maintenant.
A la diffrence de la convention de Madrid, l'acte d'Algsiras
tait de porte gnrale et n'tait pas limit un problme aussi
restreint que la protection. D'aiitre part, en interprtant les dispositions de l'acte, il convient de tenir compte de ses buts, qui sont
n0nci.s dans le prambule, tlaiis les termes suivants :
S'inspirant de l'intrt qui s'attache ce que l'ordre, la paix
ct la prosprit rgnent au Maroc, et ayant reconnu que ce but
rci cieux ne saurait tre atteint que moyennant l'introduction de
reformes basces sur le triple principe de la souverainet et de
1'iridl)t~ridancc
de Sa Majest le Sultan, de l'intgrit de Ses Etats
et de 13 lil)~'rti'iconorniclue sans aucune ingalit.....
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Keither the -4rticles to which reference has been made above nor
any other provisions of the Act of Algeciras purport to establish
consiilar jurisdiction or to confirm the rights or privileges of the
regimc of Capitulations which were then in existence. The qiiestion,
therefore, is w!iethi:r the cstaF,lishment or confirmation of such
jurisdiction or privileges can be based upori the implied intentioiis
of the parties to the Act as indirated by its provisions.
-4n interprc'tation, b y implication from the provisions of the Act,
establishing or confirming consular jiirisdiction would involve a
transformation of the then existing treaty rights of most of the
t\vel\.e Powers irito neuTand autononious rights based upon the Act.
It \\~ouldchange treaty rights of the Powers, some of them termiilable a t short notice, e.g., those of tlie United States which were
terminable by twelve moi:ths' notice, into rights enjoyable for a n
iinlimited period by the Powers and incapable of beirig terminated
or modified by nforocco. Neither the preparatory work nor the
Preainble gi~:es the least indication of any such intention. The Court
fiiicis itself uiiable to imply so fundnmental a change in the ciiaracter
of tlie then oxisting treaty rights as would be involi~ediii the
acceptance of this contention.
There is, liowever, another aspect of this problem nrising out of
the particular Articles to ~vhichrefercnce has beeii made above.
These are the Articles which iilc.lude provisions necessarily involving
the exercise of consular jurisdictiori. In this case, thcre is a clear
indication of the intention of the partics to the effect that certain
matters are to be dealt with t,y the consular tribunals and to this
extcnt it is possible to interpret the provisions of the .Act as establishiiig or confirmiiig the exerc:ist: of consiilar jurisdiction for these
limited purposes. The maintenance of consular jurisdiction iii so
far as it may be riecessarv to ;:i\~e cffect to these specific provisions
can, therefore, be justified as based upon the necessary inteiidmeiit
of the provisions of the Act.
This result is confirmed by the provisions of Articles IO and 16
of the Cori\.eiitioii between Great Britaiii and France of July zgth,
1937. These Articles refer to the jiirisdictional privileges "accorded
or1 thc basis of existing treaties" or "cnjoyed by the United States
of A~nericaunder treties a t present in force". They prc-suppose,
therefore, tliat the jiirisdictional privileges of the United States,
even after the surrcnder of British capitulatory rights, would not
be liinited to the jurisdiction provided by Articles 20 and 21 of the
Treaty with Morocco of 1836. This view is also supported by the
provisions of Article 4 of the Protocol of Signature to this Convention. This Article provided for the abrogation of certain provisions
of the General Trcaty of 1856 and, as regards the Act of Algeciras,
for the renuiiciation "of the right to rely upoii Articles I to 50,
54 to 65, 70, 71, al1 provisions of Article 72 clfter the worcl 'permit',
26
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75, 76, 80, 97, 101, 102, 104, 113 to I I ~ " and
,
it also provided that
"in Article 81 the words 'by the competent consular authority'
must be deemed to be omitted and in Article 91, the word 'competent' must henceforth be substituted for the word 'consular' ".
I t is clear that, in 1937, France (representjng Morocco) and Great
Britain were proceeding upon the assumption that certain of the
provisions of the Act of Algeciras recognized a limited consular
jurisdiction for the purposes of the judicial proceedings therein
described.
The Court is not called upon to examine the particular articles
of the Act of Algeciras which are involved. I t considers it sufficient
to state as its opinion that the consular jurisdiction of the United
States continues to exist to the extent that may be necessary to
render effective those provisions of the Act of Algeciras which
depend on the existence of consular jurisdiction.
This interpretation of the Act, in some instances, leads to results
which may not appear to be entirely satisfactory. But that is an
unavoidable consequence of the nlanner in which the Algeciras
Conference dealt with the question of consular jurisdiction. The
Court can not, by way of interpretation, derive from the Act a
general rule as to full consular jurisdiction which it does not contain.
On the other hand, the Court can not disregard particular provisions
involving a limited resort to consular jurisdiction, which are, in
fact, contained in the Act, and which are still in force as far as the
relations between the United States and Morocco are concerned.
The sixth contention of the United States is that its consular
jurisdiction and other capitulatory rights in Morocco are founded
cpon "custom and usage".
This contention has been developed in two different ways. The
first relates to custom and usage preceding the abandonment of
capitulatory rights in the French Zone by Great Britain in 1937.
The second relates to the practice since that date.
Ilealing first with the period of 150 years, 1787 to 1937, there
are two considerations which prevent the acceptance of this contention.
The first is that throughout this whole period, the United States
consular jurisdiction was in fact based, not on custom or usage,
but on treaty rights. At al1 stages, it was based on the provisions
either of the Treaty of 1787 or of the Treaty of 1836, together with
the provisions of treaties concluded by Morocco with other Powers,
especially with Great Britain and Spain, invoked by virtue of the
most-favoured-nation clauses. This was the case 11ot inerely of the
United States but of most of the countries whose nationals were
trading in Morocco. I t is true that there were Powers represented
at the Conference of Madrid in 1880 and at Algeciras in 1906 which
had no treaty rights but were exercising consular jurisdiction with
il dispose que, dans l'article 81 les mots par l'autorit consu(( laire comptente doivent tre considrs comme supprims et dans
l'article 91 le mot comptente substitu au mot consulaire D.
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zoo
JUDGMENT OF
27 VIII 52 (u.s.
NATIONALS IN MOROCCO)
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The Court will now consider the claim that United States nationals
are not subject, in principle, to the application of Moroccan laws,
unless they have first received the assent of the United States
Government.
The French Submission is this regard reads as follows :
"That the Government of the United States of America is not
entitled to claim that the application of al1 laws and regulations to
its nationals in Morocco requires its express consent ;
That the nationals of the United States of America in Morocco
are subject to the laws and regulations in force in the Shereefian
Empire and in particular the regulation of December 3oth, 1948,
on imports not involving an allocation of currency, without the
prior consent of the United States Government."
The United States Submission in this regard reads as follows :
"4. Under the regime of extraterritorial jurisdiction now exercised by the United States in Morocco, United States citizens are
not subject, in principle, to the application of Moroccan laws.
Such laws become applicable to the United States citizens only
if they are submitted to the prior assent of the United States Government and if this Government agrees to make them applicable to
its citizens. The Dahir of December 30, 1948, not having been submitted to the prior assent of the United States Government, cannot
be made applicable to United States citizens."
The claim that Moroccan laws are not binding on United States
nationals, unless assented to by the Government of the United
doit apparatre co:mme ayant la nature d'un tat de choses provisoire tacitement accept par les autorits du Maroc.
E n consquence, il faut conclure qu'en dehors des droits spciaux
reconnus par les articles 20 e t 21 d u trait de 1836 e t de ceux qui
dcoulent des dispositions de l'acte d'Algsiras mentionnes plus
haut, la prtention des t a t s - ~ r i i sd'exercer titre de droit l a
juridiction consulaire et autres droits capitulaires en zone franaise et bnficier de cette juridiction et de ces droits est devenue
caduque quand la Grande-Bretagne a mis fin, en ce qui concerne
la zone franaise de l'Empire chrifien, tous droits et privilges
ayant un caractre capitulaire , en vertu des dispositions de la
convention de 19:;7.
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That the laws and regulations on fiscal matters which have been
put into force in the Shereefian Empire are applicable to thenationals
of the United States without the prior consent of the Government
of the United States ;
That, conse(luently, consumption taxes provided by the Dahir
of Fcbruary 28th, 1948, have been legally collected from the nationals of the United States, and should not be refunded to them."
The Government of the United States contends that its treaty
rights in Rlorocco confer upon United States nationals a n immunity
fronl taxes except the taxes specifically recognized and permitted
by the treaties. This contention is based on certain bilateral treaties
with Morocco as well as on the Madrid Convention of 1880 and the
Act of Algeciras of 1906.
The Court will first consider the contention that the right to
fiscal immunity can be derived from the most-favoured-nation
clauses in Article 24 of the Treaty between the Cnited States and
JIorocco of 1836 and in Article 17 of the Madrid Convention, in
conjunction with certain provisions in treaties betu-een hlorocco
and Great Rritain and Morocco and Spain.
The General Treaty between Great Britain and Morocco of 1856
provided in the second paragraph of Article IV that British subjects
"shall not be obliged to pay, under any pretence whatever, any
taxes or impositions". The Treaty between hlorocco and Spain of
1861 provided in Article V that "Spanish subjects can not undcr
any pretext be forced to pay taxes or contributions".
I t is submitted on behalf of the United States that the mostfavoured-nation clauses in treaties with countries like Morocco were
not intended to create merely temporary or dependent rights, but
nere intended to incorporate permanently these rights and render
them independent of the treaties by which they were originally
accorded. Tt is consequently contended that the right to fiscal
immunity accorded by the British Geileral Treaty of 1856 and the
Spanish Treaty of 1861, was incorporated in the treaties which
guaranteed to the United States most-favoured-nation treatment,
with the result that this right would continue even if the rights and
privileges granted by the Treaties of 1856 and 1861 should corne to
a n end.
For the reasons stated above in connection with consular jurisdiction, the Court is unable to accept this contention. I t is not
established that most-favoured-nation clauses in treaties with
Morocco have a meaning and effect other than such clauses in
other treaties or are governed by different rules of law. When pro\risions granting fiscal immunity in treaties between Morocco and
third States have been abrogated or renounced, these provisions
can no longer be relied upon by virtuc of a most-favoured-nation
clause. I n such circumstances, it becomes necessary to examine
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205
JUDGMENT O F
I N MOROCCO)
la plus favorise. Dans ces conditions, il faut examiner si les dispositions ci-dessus mentionnes des traits de 1856 et de 1861 sont
toujours en vigueur.
Le deuxime alina de l'article IV du trait gnral avec la
Grande-Bretagne a t abrog par la convention franco-britannique
du 29 juillet 1937 (protocole de signature, article 4, litt. a). Ds
l'entre en vigueur de cette convention, les Etats-Unis n'ont plus
pu se prvaloir de cet alina de l'article IV du trait gnral de
1856 en vertu de la clause de la nation la plus favorise.
Comme il a dj t dit plus haut, la dclaration de la France
et de l'Espagne en date du 7 mars 1914 a eu pour effet la renonciation pure et simple par l'Espagne dans la zone franaise tous les
droits et privilges issus du rgime des capitulations. Dans l'opinion
de la Cour, cette renonciation impliquerait la renonciation par
l'Espagne au droit de ses ressortissants d'tre exempts de taxes
en vertu cle l'article V de son trait de 1861 avec le Maroc, parce
qu'une immunit fiscale aussi gnrale et complte doit tre tenue
pour un lment du rgime des capitulations au Maroc. L'Espagne
ayant abandonn tous ses droits capitulaires doit ds lors etre
considre comme ayant renonc son droit l'immunit fiscale.
C'est ce que confirme l'attitude d'un certain nombre d'autres
tats en la matikre. La Grande-Bretagne a renonc tous les
droits et privilges d'un caractre capitulaire dans la zone franaise du Maroc par l'article premier de la convention de 1937
avec la France : le protocole de signature nonce que cet article
et l'article 16 ont pour effet d'abroger un certain nombre d'articles
du trait gnral de 1856, y compris, ainsi qu'il a t dit plus haut,
le deuxime a1ini.a de l'article IV. Ceci parat montrer que la
France, reprsentamt le Maroc, et la Grande-Bretagne se fondaient
sur la prsomption que l'immunit de taxes accorde par cet article
tait un droit de caractre capitulaire. Les autres Etats qui avaient,
de 1914 1916, galement renonc tous droits et privilges
issus du rgime des capitulations dans la zone franaise, ont implicitement acquiesc ce que leurs ressortissants soient taxs.
C'est pourquoi la Cour conclut que le droit l'exemption de
taxes, prvu l'article V d u trait espagnol de 1861, ayant t
abandonnk par l'Espagne, les Etats-Unis ne peuvent plus l'invoquer
en vertu d'une clamse de !a nation la plus favorise.
Le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a prtendu en outre avqir un
droit indpendant l'exemption de taxes, du fait que les EtatsCnis sont partie la convention de hZadrid et l'acte d'Algsiras.
Il soutient qu'en maticre de taxes, ces instruments ont institu
un rgime qui a maintenu l'exemption de taxes en faveur des
ressortissants des Etats trangers, confirmant ainsi et incorporant
le rgime antrieur, qui est par consquent toujours en vigueur,
sauf pour les Etats qui ont conscnti y renoncer.
La Cour estime que la convciition de hIadrid n'a pas confirm
et incorpor le principe de l'immunit fiscale alors existant. Elle
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(b) the time and place of the valuation are fixed a t the entry of
the merchandise a t the custom-house ;
(c) the merchandise must be valued "free from customs duties
and storage dues", that is to say, the value must not i~icludethese
charges ;
(d) the valuation must take account of depreciation resulting
from damage, if any.
Article 96, which relates only to the principal goods taxed by the
Moorish Customs Administration, contemplated a n annual fixing
of values by a "Committee on Customs Valuations" sitting a t
Tangier. The local character of this Committee, and of the persons
whom it is directed to consult, should be noted. The schedule of
values fixed by it was to be subject to revision a t the end of six
months if any considerable changes had taken place in the value of
certain goods. Article 96 is procedural and is intended to operate
within the ambit of Article 95.
Article 97 provided for the establishnient of a permanent "Cominittee of Customs", intended to supervise the customs service on
a high level and to watch over the application of Article 96 and
97, subject to the advice and consent of the "L)iplomatic Body a t
Tangier".
Tfic Committec, on Customs Valuations referred to in Article 96
a1q)cars to have la1)sed in 1924 whcn the. Convention of L)ccem36
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ber 18th, 1923, on the Tangier Zone came into force, and replaced
it by a Committee rcpresenting the three Zones. The latter Committee has not met since 1936.
Articles 82 to 86 of the Act, which relate to declarations by
importers, must also be noted. Article 82 requires an importer to
file a declaration, which must contain a detailed statement setting
forth the nature, quality, weight, number, measurement and value
of the merchandise, as well as the nature, marks and numbers of
the packages containing the same. A declaration of value made b y
the importer can clearly not be decisive, because he is an interested
party, but a t the same time he knows more about the goods than
anybody else, and, unless fraud is suspected, it is right that the
value appearing in the declaration should form a n important element in the valuation about to be made.
I t can not be said that the provisions of Article 95 alone, or of
Chapter V of the Act considered as a whole, afford decisive evidence
in support of either of the interpretations contended for by the
Parties respectively. The four factors specified by Article 95 are
consistent with either 'interpretation ; in particular, the expression
"
free from customs duties and storage dues" affords no clear indication, because, if the value in the country of origin, increased by the
amount of insurance, freight, etc., is to be taken as the basis, this
expression means "before entering the customs office and paying
duties" ; whereas, if the value in the local market is to be accepted
as the basis, some such expression is necessary (or a t any rate
prudent) in order to indicate that the duty of 124 % must not be
levied on a value which already contains the 124 %.
The Court has examined the earlier practice, and the preparatory
work of the Conference of Algeciras of 1906, but not much guidance
is obtainable from these sources. The Commercial Agreement made
between France and Rlorocco, dated October 4th, 1892, consists of
two letters exchanged between the Foreign Minister of Morocco and
the Minister of France in Morocco, the latter of which contains the
expression :
"These goods shall be assessed on the basis of their cash wholesale
market value in Lhe port of discharge, in reals of vellon."
A preliminary draft of the Act (p. 97 of French Docume~ztsdiplomatiques, 1906, fascicule 1, Agaires d u Maroc, entitled " I I . Protocoles et comptes rendus de la Confrence d'Algsirasn) contains
the following article :
"Article XIX.-Import and export duties shall be paid forthwith
in cash at the custom-house where clearance is effected. The ad
valorenz duties shall be determined and paid on the basis of the cash
wholesale value of the goods at the port of discharge or the custom-
37
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>>
(e) the schedule of values, if any, which may have been prepared
11y the Committee on Customs Valuations referred to in Article 96
or b y any committee which may have been substituted therefor
b y arrangements to which France and the United States have
assented expressly or by implication ;
( f ) any other factor which is required by the special circumstances
of a particular consignment or kind of merchandise.
President .
(Signed) E. HAMBRO,
Registrar.
l'unanimit,
Dit que les tats-unis d'Amriqqe ne sont pas fonds prtendre
que l'application ailx citoyens des Etats-Unis des lois et rglements
de la zone,franaise du Maroc requiert l'assentiment du Gouyernement des Etats-Unis, mais que les tribunaux consulaires des EtatsUnis peuvent refiiser d'appliquer aux citoyens des Etats-Unis
les lois et rglements auxquels le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis
n'a pas donn son assentiment ;
Le Prsident,
(Sign) Arnold D. MCNAIR.
Le Greffier,
(Sigfi) E. HAMRRO.
(Initialled) A. D. McN
(Initialled) E. H.
M. Hsu Mo,,juge, dclare que, son avis, les droits juridictionnels dont les Etats--Unis d'Amrique jouissent dans la zone franaise du Maroc se limitent aux droits prvus par les articles 20
et 2; de leur trait du 16 septembre 1836 avec le Maroc, et que
les Etats-Unis ne sont pas fonds exercer la juridiction consulaire ,dans des affaires qui entranent l'application aux citoyens
des Etats-Unis de celles des dispositions de l'acte d'Algsiras de
1906 dont l'excution comporte certaines sanctions. L'acte d'Algsiras, pour autant qu'il s'agit des clauses juridictionnelles, a t
conclu en tenant compte de la sorte de juridiction consulaire qui
existait cette poque dans sa plnitude et en complte uniformit entre les Puissances au Maroc. Les diverses dispositions,
lorsqu'elles mentionnaient la juridiction consulaire D, (c l'autorit
le tribunal consulaire du dfendeur N,
consulaire comptente
etc.,,visaient clairement la juridiction uniformment exerce par
les Etats trangers sur leurs ressortissants respectifs dans toutes
les affaires o ils taient dfendeurs. Elles ne visaient pas la juridiction limite que les tribunaux consulaires des Etats-Unis pouvaient exercer, confo<mment l'article 20 du trait de 1836
entre le Maroc ef les Etats-Unis, dans les affaires o des citoyens
ou protgs des Etats-Unis taient seuls en cause. Par consquent,
lorsque la juridiction conulaire sous sa forme complte a cess
d'exister pour tous les Etats signataires de l'acte d'Algsiras,
toute base pour l'application, par les divers tribunaux consulaires,
des sanctions prvuc:s par l'acte, a disparu, et les rgles ordinaires
du droit international sont entres en jeu. De ce fait, les sanctions
en question devaient dsormais tre appli,ques par les tribunaux
territoriaux, aussi bien aux citoyens des Etats-Cnis qu' tous les
autres ressortissants trangers. Quanf la rfrence aux privilges
juridictionnels dont jouissaient les Etats-Unis, contenue dans la
convention de 1937 entre la Grande-Bretagne et la France, il
faut la considrer comme une mesure de prcaution prise par la
France contre un refus possible de la part des Etats-Cnis d'abandonner ces privilges. En tout cas, les droits des Etats-Unis
l'gard du Maroc, en matire de juridiction, doivent tre dtermins par leurs propres rapports conveiitionnels et ne sauraient
dcouler de quelque admission faite par la France, au nom du
Maroc, une tierce partie.
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MM. HACKWORTEI,
BADAWI,LEVI CARKEIRO
et sir Benegal
RAU, juges, se prvalant du droit que leur confre l'article 57
du Statut, joignent l'arrt l'expos commun de leur opinion
dissidente.
(Paraph) A. 0. RlcN.