What is extrusion?
Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of metal is reduced
in cross section by forcing it to flow through a die orifice under
high pressure.
In general, extrusion is used to
produce cylindrical bars or hollow
tubes or for the starting stock for
drawn rod, cold extrusion or forged
products.
Most metals are hot extruded
due to large amount of forces
required in extrusion. Complex
shape can be extruded from the
more readily extrudable metals
such as aluminium.
* The products obtained are also called extrusion.
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The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die results
in high compressive stresses which are effective in reducing
cracking of materials during primary breakdown from the ingot.
This helps to increase the utilisation of extrusion in the working of metals
that are difficult to form like stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other
high-temperature materials.
Similar to forging, lower ram force and a fine grained recrystallised
structure are possible in hot extrusion.
However, better surface finish and higher strengths (strain hardened
metals) are provided by cold extrusion.
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Extrusion products
Typical parts produced by extrusion are trim parts used in automotive
and construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft
structural parts.
Example: Aluminium extrusions are used in
commercial and domestic buildings for window
and door frame systems, prefabricated
houses/building structures, roofing and exterior
cladding, curtain walling, shop fronts, etc.
Furthermore, extrusions are also used in
transport for airframes, road and rail vehicles
and in marine applications.
Aluminium for windows
and doors
Aluminium
extrusions
Brass
parts
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Tapany Udomphol
Jan-Mar 2006
Classification of extrusion processes
There are several ways to classify metal extrusion processes;
By direction
Direct / Indirect extrusion
Forward / backward extrusion
By operating
temperature
Hot / cold extrusion
By equipment
Horizontal and vertical extrusion
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Tapany Udomphol
Jan-Mar 2007
Direct and indirect extrusions
1) Direct extrusion
The metal billet is placed in a container and
driven through the die by the ram.
extrusion
container
dummy plate
ram
die
billet
The dummy block or pressure plate, is
placed at the end of the ram in contact with the
billet.
Friction is at the die and container wall
requires higher pressure than indirect extrusion.
2) Indirect extrusion
extrusion
ram
container
closure
plate
die
billet
The hollow ram containing the die is kept
stationary and the container with the billet is
caused to move.
Friction at the die only (no relative movement
at the container wall) requires roughly
constant pressure.
Hollow ram limits the applied load.
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Forward and backward extrusion
Extrusion can also be divided to:
1) Forward extrusion
Metal is forced to flow in the
same direction as the punch.
The punch closely fits the die
cavity to prevent backward flow of
the material.
2) Backward extrusion
Metal is forced to flow in the
direction opposite to the punch
movement.
Metal can also be forced to flow into
recesses in the punch, see Fig.
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Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is the process done at
room temperature or slightly elevated
temperatures. This process can be used for
most materials-subject to designing robust
enough tooling that can withstand the
stresses created by extrusion.
Cold extrusion
Examples of the metals that can be extruded are lead, tin, aluminium
alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel. Examples of
parts that are cold extruded are collapsible tubes, aluminium cans,
cylinders, gear blanks.
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Advantages
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No oxidation takes place.
Good mechanical properties due to
severe cold working as long as the
temperatures created are below the recrystallization temperature.
Good surface finish with the use of
proper lubricants.
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Collapsible
tubes
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Aluminium cans
Jan-Mar 2007
Hot extrusion
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Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures,
approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the
metal. The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa
(5076 - 101,525 psi).
The most commonly used extrusion process is the hot
direct process. The cross-sectional shape of the
extrusion is defined by the shape of the die.
Due to the high temperatures and pressures and its
detrimental effect on the die life as well as other
components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and
graphite work at lower temperatures, whereas at higher
temperatures glass powder is used.
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Tube extrusion
Tubes can be produced by extrusion by attaching a mandrel to the end
of the ram. The clearance between the mandrel and the die wall
determines the wall thickness of the tube.
Tubes are produced either by starting with a hollow billet or by a twostep extrusion in which a solid billet is first pierced and then extruded.
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Impact extrusion
Produce short lengths of hollow shapes, such
as collapsible toothpaste tubes or spray cans.
Requires soft materials such as aluminium,
lead, copper or tin are normally used in the impact
extrusion.
A small shot of solid material is placed in the die
and is impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow
in the material. It may be either direct or indirect
extrusion and it is usually performed on a highspeed mechanical press.
Although the process is generally performed
cold, considerable heating results from the high
speed deformation.
* Small objects, soft metal, large numbers,
good tolerances*.
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Extrusion was originally applied to the making of lead pipe and later to
the lead sheathing on electrical cable.
Extrusion of lead sheath on electrical cable.
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Hot extrusion
The principal variables influencing the force required
to cause extrusion;
1) Type of extrusion (direct / indirect)
2) Extrusion ratio
3) Working temperature
4) Deformation
5) Frictional conditions at the die and the
container wall.
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Extrusion pressure, MPa
Extrusion pressure = extrusion force /cross sectional area
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion
Ram travel, mm
Extrusion pressure vs. ram travel
The rapid rise in pressure during initial ram
travel is due to the initial compression of the
billet to fill the extrusion container.
For direct extrusion, the metal begins to
flow through the die at the maximum pressure,
the breakthrough pressure.
As the billet extrudes through the die the
pressure required to maintain flow
progressively decreases with decreasing length
of the billet in the container.
For indirect extrusion,
extrusion pressure is ~ constant At the end of the stroke, the pressure rises up
rapidly and it is usual to stop the ram travel so
with increasing ram travel and
as to leave a small discard in the container.
represent the stress required to
deform the metal through the die.
Since hollow ram is used in indirect extrusion, size of the
extrusions and extrusion pressure are limited.
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Extrusion ratio
Extrusion ratio, R, is the ratio of the initial cross-sectional area , Ao,
of the billet to the final cross-sectional area , Af , after extrusion.
Ao
R=
Af
Eq.1
R ~ 40:1 for hot extrusion of steels.
R ~ 400:1 for aluminium.
Fractional reduction in area, r
r = 1
Af
Ao
Eq.2 and
1
R=
(1 r )
Eq.3
Note: R is more descriptive at large deformations!
Ex: R = 20:1 and 50:1 r = 0.95 and 0.98 respectively.
Extrusion ratio, R, of steel could be 40:1
whereas R for aluminium can reach 400:1.
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The velocity of the extruded product is given by
Velocity of the extruded product = ram velocity x R
Eq.4
Extrusion force may be expressed as
P = kAo ln
Ao
Af
Eq.5
where k = extrusion constant, an overall factor which accounts for the flow
stress, friction, and inhomogeneous deformation.
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Effects of temperature on hot extrusion
Decreased flow stress or deformation resistance due to increasing
extrusion temperature.
Use minimum temperature to provide metal with suitable plasticity.
The top working temperature should be safely below the melting
point or hot-shortness range.
Oxidation of billet and extrusion tools.
Softening of dies and tools.
Difficult to provide adequate lubrication.
The temperature of the workpiece in metal working depends on;
1)
2)
3)
4)
The initial temperature of the tools and the materials
Heat generated due to plastic deformation
Heat generated by friction at the die/material interface (highest)
Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies and
surrounding environment.
Note: Working temperature in extrusion is normally higher than used in forging and
rolling due to relatively large compressive stresses in minimising cracking.
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Usually the temperature is highest at the material/tool interface due to
friction.
If we neglect the temperature gradients and the deforming material is
considered as a thin plate, the average instantaneous temperature of the
deforming material at the interface is given by
ht
T = T1 + (To T1 ) exp
c
Where
To
T1
h
Eq.6
= temperature at the workpiece
= temperature at the die
= heat transfer coefficient between the material and the dies
= material thickness between the dies.
If the temperature increase due to deformation and friction is included, the
final average material temperature Tm at a time t is
Tm = Td + T f + T
Dieter p.524-526
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Td
Tf
Eq.7
= Temp for frictionless deformation process
= Temp increase due to friction
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Ram speed, extrusion ratio and temperature
A tenfold increase in the ram speed results in about a 50% increase
in the extrusion pressure.
Low extrusion speeds lead to greater cooling of the billet.
The higher the temperature of the billet, the greater the effect of
low extrusion speed on the cooling of the billet.
Therefore, high extrusion speeds are required with high-strength
alloys that need high extrusion temperature.
The selection of the proper extrusion speed and temperature is
best determined by trial and error for each alloy and billet size.
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Relationships between extrusion ratio, temperature and pressure
For a given extrusion pressure, extrusion ratio R increases with
increasing Extrusion temperature.
For a given extrusion temperature, a larger extrusion ratio R can be
obtained with a higher extrusion extrusion pressure.
Extrusion temperature
Extrusion ratio (R)
Extrusion pressure
Relationships between extrusion speed and heat dissipation
extrusion speeds
, heat dissipation
extrusion speeds
, heat dissipation
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, allowable extrusion ratio
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Extrusion defects
1) Inhomogeneous deformation in direct extrusion provide the dead
zone along the outer surface of the billet due to the movement of the metal
in the centre being higher than the periphery.
After 2/3 of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet (normally
with oxidised skin) moves toward the centre and extrudes to the through
the die, resulting in internal oxide stringers. - transverse section can be
seen as an annular ring of oxide.
Container wall friction
extrusion defects
Container wall temp
extrusion defects
If lubricant film is carried into the interior of the extrusion along the shear
bands, this will show as longitudinal laminations in a similar way as oxide.
Solutions:
discard the remainder of the billet (~30%) where the surface oxide begins
to enter the die not economical.
use a follower block with a smaller diameter of the die to scalps the billet
and the oxidised layer remains in the container (in brass extrusion).
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2) Surface cracking, ranging from a badly roughened surface to
repetitive transverse cracking called fir-tree cracking, see Fig. This is
due to longitudinal tensile stresses generated as the extrusion passes
through the die.
Surface cracks from heavy die friction in extrusion
In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is intergranular and is
associated with hot shortness.
The most common case is too high ram speed for the extrusion
temperature.
At lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the sudden
building up of pressure and then breakaway will cause transverse
cracking.
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3) Centre burst or chevron cracking, see Fig, can occur at low
extrusion ratio due to low frictional conditions on the zone of deformation
at the extrusion die.
Centre burst or chevron cracks
High friction (at a the tool-billet interface) a sound product.
Low friction centre burst.
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4) Variations in structure and properties within the extrusions
due to non-uniform deformation for example at the front and the back of
the extrusion in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
Regions of exaggerated grain growth, see Fig, due to high hot working
temperature.
Extrusion
direction
Grain growth
200 m
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5) Hot shortness (in aluminium extrusion).
Hot shortness
High temperatures generated cause incipient melting,
which causes cracking.
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Extrusion of tubing
Extrusion of tubing from a solid billet
Anodized aluminium
extrusions: square
tubing.
To produce tubing by extrusion from a
solid billet, the ram may also be fitted
with a piercing mandrel. As the ram
moves forward, the metal is forced over
the mandrel and through the hole in the
die, causing a long hollow tube. Just like
toothpaste, only hollow.
Extrusion of tubing from a hollow billet If the billets are hollow, a rod that
matches the diameter of the cast hole in
the billet (but slightly smaller than the
hole in the die at the opposite end of the
chamber) are used.
Note: the bore of the hole will become
oxidized resulting in a tube with an
oxidized inside surface.
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Extrusion tubing with
a porthole die
A
Exit face
Cross section A-A
Entrance face
A sketch of a porthole extrusion die
Porthole extrusion
Example: pyramid porthole dies
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The metal is forced to flow into
separate streams and around the
central bridge, which supports a short
mandrel.
The separate streams of metal
which flow through the ports are
brought together in a welding
chamber surrounding the mandrel,
and the metal exits from the die as a
tube.
Since the separate metal streams
are jointed within the die, where there
is no atmosphere contamination, a
perfectly sound weld is obtained.
Porthole extrusion is used to
produce hollow unsymmetrical
shapes in aluminium alloys.
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Production of seamless
pipe and tubing
Seamless.exe
See animation
Titanium seamless pipes
Stainless steel seamless pipes
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Extrusion is suited for producing
seamless pipe and tubing, especially
for metals which are difficult to work.
The red-hot billet is rotated and
drawn by rolls over a piercing rod, or
mandrel. The action of the rolls
causes the metal to flow over and
about the mandrel to create a hollow
pipe shell.
After reheating, the shell is moved
forward over a support bar and is hotrolled in several reducing/sizing
stands to the desired wall thickness
and diameter.
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(a) The Mannesmann mill is used for
the rotary piercing of steel and copper
billets using two barrel-shape driven
rolls, which are set at an angle to
each other. The axial thrust is
developed as well as rotation to the
billet.
(b) Plug rolling mill
(a) Mannesmann mill
(c) Three-roll
piercing machine
(b) The plug rolling mills drive the tube
over a long mandrel containing a
plug.
(c) The three-roll piercing machine
produces more concentric tubes with
smoother inside and outside surface.
(d) Plug rolling mill
Production of seamless pipe and tubing
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(d) The reeling mill burnishes the
outside and inside surfaces and
removes the slight oval shape, which
is usually one of the last steps in the
production of pipe or tubing.
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Jan-Mar 2007
