CSWIP Welding Inspector - Level 2 wiss TWI Training & Examination Sevens ‘Granta Park, Groat Abington ‘Cambridge 0821 BAL, UK (Copyright © TH Lidcen wats CSWIP Welding Inspector - Level 2 Contents Section Subject — 1 ‘Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 2 Terms and Definitions 3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection 4 Destructive Testing 5 Non-Destructive Testing 6 WPS! Welder Qualifications 7 Materials Inspection 8 Codes and Standards 9 Welding Symbols 10 Introduction to Welding Processes 1" MMA Welding 2 TIG Welding 13 MIGIMAG Welding 14 ‘Submerged Arc Welding 18 ‘Thermal Cutting Processes 16 Welding Consumables 7 Woldability of Stools 18 Wold Repairs 9 Rosidual Stress and Distortion 20 Heat Treatment a ‘Arc Welding Safety 2 Calibration 23 Application and Control of Preheat 26 Practical Visual Inspection 25 Macro and Micro Visual Inspection 28 Appendices TWI a ‘www twitralning.comSection 1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors‘ou oui rele ‘coger ‘Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 1.1 General Welding Inspectors are employed to assist with the quality control (QC) activities that are necessary to ensure that welded items will meet specified requirements and be fit for their application. For employers to have confidence in their work, Welding Inspectors need to have the abilty to understandinterpret the various QC procedures and also heve sound knowledge of welding technology. Visual inspection is one of the non-destructive examination (NDE) disciplines and for some applications may be the only form. For more demanding service conditions, visual inspection is usually followed by one or more of the other non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques — strface crack detection and volumetric inspection of butt welds. Application Standards/Codes usually specify (or refer to other standards) that give the acceptance criteria for weld inspection and may be very sfeciic about the particular techniques to be used for surface crack detection and volumetric inspection, they do not usually give any guidance atout basic requirements for visual inspection, Guidance and basic requirements for visual inspection are given by: Welds ~ Visual BS EN 970 (Non-destructive Examination of Fusi Examination) 4.1.1 Basic requirements for visual inspection (to BS EN 970) BS EN 970 provides the following: ‘+ Requirements for welding inspection personnel ‘= Recommendations about conditions suitable for visual examination. + The use of gauges/inspection aids that may be neededihalpful for inspection, * Guidance about information that may need to be inciudec in the inspection records. * Guidance about when inspection may be required during the stages of fabrication, ‘A summary of each of these topics is given inthe folowing sections, Ty 4 aae erm ce 218 14.2 Welding inspection personnel Before starting work on a particular contract, BS 970 states that Welding Inspectors should ‘+ Be famiiar with relevant standards", rules and specification’ for the {fabrication work that is to be undertaken, ‘+ Be informed about the welding procedure(s) to be used. ‘+ Have good vision — in accordance with EN 473 and should be checked ‘every 12 months. ("standards may be National or Client) BBS EN 970 does not give or make any recommendation about a formal qualification for visual inspection of welds. However, ithias become industry Practice for inspectors to have practical experience of welding inspection together with a recognised qualification in Welding Inspection ~ such as a CSWIP Qualification, 44.3 Conditions for visual inspection Mumination BS EN 970 states that the minimum illumination shall be 350 lux but recommends a minimum of 500 lux’. * normal shop or office lighting ‘Access ‘Access to the surface, for direct inspection, should enable the eye tobe: ‘+ Within 600mm ofthe surface being inspected ‘+ Ina postion to give a viewing angle of not less than 30° 600mm (max. 30° (min.) TWI on " ‘www.twitraining.com‘es en acre ezrin Aids to visual inspection ‘Where access is restricted for direct visual inspection, the use of a mirored boroscope, oF a fibre optic viewing system, are options that may be used ~ usually by agreement between the contracting partes. It may also be necessary to provide ausillary lighting to give suitable Ccentrast and relief effect between surface imperfections and the beckground, ‘Other items of equipment that may be appropriate, to facilitate visual ‘examination, are: ‘+ Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles and weld profle, filet sizing, ‘measuring undercut depth). ‘+ Dedicated weld gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low) gauges. ‘+ Straight edges and measuring tapes. ‘+ Magnifying lens (i a magnification lens is used to aid visual examination it should be X2 to X8), [BS 970 has schematics of a range of welding gauges together with details ‘of what they can be used for and the precision of the measurements that ‘can be made, ‘Stages when inspection may be required BS EN 970 states that examination is normally performed on welds in the aswelded condition. This means that visual inspection of the finished ‘Weld is @ minimum requirement, However, BS EN 970 goes on to say thatthe extent of examination, and the stages when some inspection activity is required, should be specified by the Application Standard or by agreement between client and fabricator. Fee fabricated items that must have high integrity, such as pressure vessels ‘and piping or large structures inspection activity will usually be required throughout the fabrication process, namely 1+ Before welding ‘© During welding = After welding, Inspection activites at each of these stages of fabrication can be considered to be the Duties of the Welding Inspector and typical inspection checks that may be required are described in the following section TWI o ‘ww Switraning.com‘ype Oana pare ‘orem stim 44.6 Typical duties of a welding inspector The relevant standards, rules and specifications that a Welding inspector should be familiar with at the start of a new contract are all the documents he will need to refer to during the fabrication sequence in order to make Judgements about particular details. ‘Typical documents that may need to be referred to are: ‘The Application Standard (or Code). (For visual acceptance criteria ~ see note below") Quality plans or inspection check lst, (For the type and extent of inspection) * Drawings. (For assemblyfi-up details and dimensional requirements) ‘+ QC procedures. (Company QC/QA procedures such as those for document control, ‘material handling, electrode storage and issue, WPSS, otc) “Note: Although most of the requirements forthe fabricated item should be specified by National Standards, Client Standards or various QC Procedures, some features are not easy to define precisely and the requirement may be given as to good workmanship standard Examples of requirements that are difficult to define precisely are some shape tolerances, distortion, surface damage or the amount of weld spatter. Good workmanship Is the standard that a competent worker should be able 10 achieve without diffeulty when using the correct tools in a particular working environment. In practice the application ofthe fabricated item will be the main factor that intuences what is judged to be good workmanship or the relevant client srecifcation will determine what the acceptable level of workmanship Is. Reference samples are sometimes needed to give guidance about the ‘acceptance standard for details such as weld surface finish and toe blend, \Weld root profile and finish required for welds that need to be dressed, by grinding oF finishing ‘A\Welding Inspector should also ensure that any inspection aids that will be needed are: ‘+ In good condition. ‘+ Calibrated ~ as appropriatelas specified by QC procedures, a * ——"ype Ose yeep, ees Safety consciousness is a duty of all employees and a Welding Inspector should ‘= Be aware ofall safety reguiations for the workplace. © Ensure that safety equipment that will be needed is suitable condition, available and in Duties before welding Check ‘Action Material In accordance with drawinghWPS. Identified and can be traced to a test certificate In suitable condition (Iree from damage and contamination, wrss Have been approved and are available to weders (and inspectors). Welding equipment In suitable condition and calibrated as appropriate, ‘Wold preparations In accordance with WPS (andlor drawings). Welder qualifications Identification of welders qualified for each WPS to be Used. All welder qualification certificates are valid (in date), Woalding “Those to be used are as specified by the WPSs are. ‘consumables being storedicontroled as specified by the QC procedure, Joint f-ups: In accordance with WPSIdrawings tack welds are to {good workmanship standard and to codeWPS. Wald faces ‘Are free from defects, contamination and damage. Preheat (f required) Minimum temperature isin accordance with WPS, Duties during welding Check ‘Action SSitefield welding Ensure weather conditions are suitable/comply with ‘Code (conditions will not affect welding). Walding process In accordance with WPS. Proheat (required) Minimum temperature is being maintained in ‘accordance with WPS. Inerpass ‘Maximum temperature isin accordance with WPS. temperature Welding Inn accordance with WPS and being controlled as consumables procedure. Welding parameters Current, vols, travel speed are in accordance with wes. Reot run Visually acceptable to Code (before filing the joint). (for single sided welds) Gougingfgrinding By an approved method and to good workmanship standard. Inter-run cleaning To good workmanship standard, Welder (On the approval register/quaiiied for the WES being used, TWI is a wow twitraining.com"ype Dae ag mapas ‘Scenes weno Twi 8 Duties after welding Check Action Weld identification Each weld is marked with the welders identication and is identified in accordance with drawingiweld ‘map. Weld appearance Ensure welds are suitable for all NDT (profile, cleanness et). Visually inspect welds and sentence in accordance with Code . Dimensional survey Check dimensions are in accordance with drawing/Code, Drawings Ensure any modifications are included on as-built drawings. Nor Ensure all NDT is complete and reports are available for records Repairs Monitor in accordance withthe procedure. PWHT (ifrequiced) Monitor for compliance with procedure (check chart record), Pressurelload test Ensure test equipment is calibrated (ifrequired) Monitor test to ensure compliance with procedure/Code, Ensure reportsitecords are availabe. Documentation __Ensure all reportsrecords are completed and collated rezords 8 required, Examination records The requirement for examination recordsiingpection reports will vary ‘according to contract and type of fabrication and there is frequently no requirement fora formal record. When an inspection record is required it may be necessary to sv0W that items have been checked at the specified stages and that they have selisfied the acceptance criteria, ‘The form of this record will vary, possibly a signature against an activity on an Inspection Checklist or on a Quality Plan, or it may be an individual inspection report for each iter, For individual inspection reports, BS EN 970 ists typical details for inclusion such as: [Name of manufacturerfabricator. {dentiication of item examined. ‘Material type and thickness, Type of joint. Welding process. Acceptance standard/criteria, jee wwwrtwitraining.com‘+ Locations and types of all imperfections not acceptable, (When specified, it may be necessary to include an accurate sketch or photograph.) ‘+ Name of examinet/inspector and date of examination, TWI 17 ee wor ttraning.comSection 2 Terms and Definitions2 Terms and Definitions Note: ‘The following definitions are taken from BS 499-1:1991 ‘Welding terms and ‘symbols = Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting’ Brazing {A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after heating, molten filer metal is drawn into or retained in the space between cbsely adjacent surfaces of the pars to be joined by capillary attraction. In general, the melting point ofthe filer metal is above 450°C but alvays below the meting temperature ofthe parent material, Braze welding The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filer ‘metal with a lower melting point than the parent metal, but neither using ‘capillary action as in brazing nor intentionally melting the parent meal Joint ‘A connection where the individual components, suitably prepared and ‘assembled, are joined by welding or brazing Weld Anion of pieces of metal made by welding. Welding ‘An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat or pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of the ‘matal between these parts, TWI oy i www twitraining.comPeter ‘Type of Batinition joint Bult joint ‘R connection between the ends oF edges ‘of two parts making an angle to one another of 135-180? inclusive in the region ‘of the joint Tit ‘R connection between the end or edge of ‘one part and the face ofthe other part, the parts making an angle to one another of more than 5 up to and including 90° in the region of the joint Comer ‘R connection between the ends oF edges joint ‘of two parts making an angle to one another of more than 30 but less than 135° in the region ofthe joint Edge connection between the edges of wo joint pparts making an angle to one another of (080° inclusive in the region of the joint Grociform ‘® connection in which two flat lates or joint two bars are welded to another fiat plate at right angles and on the same axis Tap joint ‘® connection between two overlapping parts making an angle to one another of 0-5" inclusive in the region of the weld or welds Twi nial LT vczssce ‘www.twitraining.comcompas Tmt 24 Types of weld 2.4.1 From the configuration point of view (as per 2.2) ‘Autogenous weld ‘A fusion weld made without fller metal which can be achieved by TIG, plasma, electron beam, laser of oxy-fuel gas welding. Slot weld A joint between two overiapping components made by depositing a filet ‘weld round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to joint to the ‘surface of the other component exposed through the hole. TWI ‘worw-twitraining.com22 cops nL 20 Plug weld ‘Aweld made by filing a hole in one component of a workpiece with filer metal s0 as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through the hole (the hole can be circular or oval). From the penetration point of view Full ponetration weld ‘A welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete ‘oot fusion. In the US the preferred term is complete joint penetrazion weld (CIP) (see AWS 01.1) Partial penetration weld: ‘A welded joint without full penetration. In US the preferred term is partial joint penetration weld (PJP). Types of Joints (see BS EN ISO 15607) Homogeneous Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no sgnificant differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: ‘Two carbon steel plates welded with a matching carbon steel electrode, Heterogeneous ‘Woalded Joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: ‘A epair weld ofa cast iron item performed with a nickel-based electrode. Dissimilar Welded joint in which the parent materials have significant differences in mechanical properties andior chemical composition. Example: A carbon steel iting lug welded onto an austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel, Twi 7 www twitralning.com23 TWI 7 ons 0 Features of the completed weld ‘+ Parent metal Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing. + Filler metal ‘Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing + Weld metal All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld, + Heat.affected zone (HAZ) The part of the parent metal that is metallurgically affected by the heat cof welding or thermal cutting, but not melted + Fusion tine The boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld Ths is a non-standard term for weld junction. + Weld zone ‘The zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ. + Weld face ‘The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has been made. + Root ‘The zone on the side ofthe frst run furthest from the welder + Toe The boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or setween runs. This is a very important feature of a weld since toes are points of high’ stress concentration and often they are initiation points for iflerent types of cracks (eg fatigue cracks, cold cracks). In order to reduce the stress concenivation, toes must blend smoothly into the Parent metal surface, + Excess weld metal ‘Weld metal iying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard terms for this feature: Reinforcement, overil, www twitralning.comcopnigu sTmtic a Weld Parent Parent metal Twi a www.twitraining.com UIAony atts 300 2.4 Weld preparation ‘A proparation for making connection where the individual components, suilably prepared and assembled, are joned by welding or brazing 24.4 Features ofthe weld preparation ‘Angle of bevel ‘The angle at which the edge of @ component is prepared for making weld For an MMA weld on carbon steel plates, the angle i ‘¢ 25.80" fora V preparation. ‘© 84120 fora U preparation ‘#404500 for a single bevel preparation ‘© 10-200 fora J preparation, Included angle The angle between the planes ofthe fusion faces of parts to be welded. in the case of single V or U and double V oF U this angie Is twice the bevel argle. In the case of single or double bevel, single or double J bevel, the induded angles equal othe bevel angle Root face The portion ofa fusion face atthe root that is not bevelled or groeved. I's vue depends on the welding process used, parent material 1 be welded ard application; for a full penetration wold on carbon stl plates, it has a value between 1-2mm (forthe common welding processes). Gap Tre minimum distance at any cross section between edges, ends or ‘surfaces fo be Joined. Its value depends on the welding process wed and ‘plication; fora ful penetation weld on carbon steel plates, ithas a value betwoon 14mm, Root radius “Tre radius ofthe curved poron ofthe fusion face in a component prepared fora single J or U, double J or U weld. In case of MMA, MIGINAG and ‘o9rfuel gas welding on carbon steel pales, the root radius has a value of 6mm for single and double U preparations and 8mm for single and double J preparations Lend ‘The straight portion of a fusion face between the root face and the curved pat of a J oF U preparation can be 0. Usually present in weld preparations for MIG welding of aluminium alys. Twi ol 7 ‘www twitraining.comcopeus Tiss 242 ‘Types of preparation Open square butt preparation ‘This preparation is used for welding thin components, either from one or both sides. If the root gap is zero (le if components are in contact), this preparation becomes a closed square butt preparation (not recommended ‘due tothe lack of penetration problems)! Included angle Single V preparation The V preparation is one of the most common preparations used in welding: it.can be produced using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast). For thhcker plates a double V preparation is preferred since it requires os filer material to complete the joint and the residual stresses can be balanced on both sides ofthe joint resuiting in lower angular distortion. Double V preparation ‘Tre depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double \ preparation) or can be deeper on one side compared with the opposita side (asymmetric double V preparation) Usual, inthis situation the depth ‘of preparation is distributed as 273 of the thickness ofthe plato on the fst ‘side with the remaining 1/3 on the backside. This asymmetnc preparation als fora balanced welding sequence with root back gouging, givng lower ‘angular distortions. Whist single V preparation allows welding fom one Twi 7 es www twitraining.comcopy erintis ze side, double V preparation requires access to both sides (the same applios {ex all double side preparations), Included angle Single U preparation U preparation can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive), However, tighter tolerances obtained in this case provide for a better f-up ‘than in the case of V preparations. Usually itis applied to thicker plates compared with single V preparation as it requires less filer material to Complete the joint and this leads to lower residual stresses and distortions. ‘Similar to the V preparation, in the case of very thick sections a double U preparation can be used. Double U preparation Usually this type of preparation does not raquire a land (exception: ‘aluminium alloys). TWI oD ‘vewwAwitraining.com‘Single V preparation with backing strip Backing strips allow the production of full penetration welds with increased current and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the danger of burthrough. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary. Permanent types are made of the same material as being joined and are tack welded in place. The main problems related to this type of weld are poor fatigue resistance and the probability of crevice corrosion between the parent metal and the backing strip. Itis also dificult to examine by NDT due tothe builtin crevice atthe oot ofthe joint. Temporary ypes include copper) stips, ceramic tiles and fluxes. ) Single bevel preparation Double bevel preparation Twi 20 ‘worw.twitraining.comone me ‘Single J preparation Double J preparation All these preparations (single/double bevel and J) can be used on T joints ‘as well. Double preparations are recommended in the case of thick sections. ‘The main advantage of these preparations is that only ane comgonent Is propared (cheap, can allow for small misalignments). For further details regarding weld preparations, please refer to Standard BS EN ISO 9692, 25 Size of butt welds Ful penetration butt weld seat Design teat tires, iene TWI ‘wwrwtwitraining.comcxsyghts ws Partial penetration butt weld | fl coe Design troat ‘As a general rule: ‘heknest ‘Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld meta Full penetration butt weld ground flush ‘Actua eos thickness sign throat ‘ekoese Butt weld between two plates of diferent thickness, ‘Actua throat thickness = Design toa ‘maximum thickness ‘tke =thckneos rough toot ofthe timer pate Run (pass): The metal melted or deposited during one passage of an trode, torch or blowpipe. ‘Single run weld Mutt un weld Layer: A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs, TWI 2 a wir entraining.comcons ais ‘Types of butt weld (from accessibility point of view) Shale sid welt Double so weld 26 Fillet weld A fusen weld, otter then @ but, edge or fision spt wold, wich is tepronatey angular nvaneversa cron Socson 261 Ska of filet wolds Unk bit welds, let welds can be dened using several dimensions: Actual throat thickness Te porpenduardetancebetwoon vo tes, coc paral! oa ine ning the auto oes, one borg a tangort a the weld fac end the afer bong trough te urhomest pent of fston penevaton Design throat thickness {re minimum drvenson of tot thknees uted for purposes of design ‘Abo known ob eflecve toa! Picknse: Smbaced one raving wah a Leg length —~—™rtéi“C*é™O~—~—~——S—~— ae tho te fill weld meagufed acess tne sin Tac. ymbeteod on fRectavng wine seat toa” Sites Deson toe Pato Twi 28 ‘wwewtwitraining.com26.2 Twi compan Tis Shape of filet welds Mitre fillet wold A fat face filet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the agreed tolerance. The cross section area of this type of weld can be consdered to be a right angle isosceles triangle with a design throat thickness @ and leg length z. The relation between design throat thickness and leg length is: 0.707% 2. or 224.41 Convex fillet weld Afilet weld in which the weld face Is convex. The above relation between tha leg length and the design throat thickness written for mitre filet welds is ‘also valid for this type of weld. Since there is excess weld metal present in ths case, the actual throat thickness is bigger than the design throat thekness. Excess weld etal a design ‘throat Concave fillet weld Ailet weld in which the weld face is concave. The relation between the leg length and the design throat thickness specified for mitre filet welds is not vid for this type of weld. Also, the design throat thickness is equal to the ‘actual throat thickness. Due to the smooth blending between the weld face {and the surrounding parent material, the stress concentration effect at the toes of the weld is reduced compared with the previous type. This Is why this type of weld is highly desired in case of applications subjected to cyelle loads where fatigue phenomena might be a major cause for failure, za wwrwtwitraining.comDesign throat Asymmetrical fillet weld ‘Afilet weld in which the vertical leg length is not equal to the horizontal leg length. The relation between the leg length and design throat thickness is no longer valid for this type of weld because the cross section is not an Isosceles triangle. Horizontal lea siz0 Vertical leg size Deep penetration fillet wold Ailet weld with a deeper than normal penetration. It is produced using high heat input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spray transfer). This type of weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the required throat thickness whilst reducing the amount of deposited metal needed, thus leading to a reduction in residual stress level. In order to produce a consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed must be kept constant, at a high value. As a consequence, this type of weld is usually produced using mechanised or automatic weidiag processes. Also, the ‘high depth-to-width ratio increases the probability of soliification Ccentrline cracking. In order to differentiate this type of weld trom the previous types, the throat thickness is symbolised with s instead of Twi a6 wwewtwitralning.comCony Taa 2 2.6.3 Compound of butt and fillet welds ) This is a combination of butt and filet welds used for T joints with full oF Partial penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness, Fliet welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of the wald face towards the parent metal surface and reduce the stress ‘concentration at the toes ofthe weld. ro Fillet weld Double bevel compound wel 2.7 Welding position, weld slope and weld rotation ) Welding position ‘The orientation of a weld expressed in terms of working position, wed slope ‘and weld rotation (for further details, ploase see ISO 6947), Weld slope The angle between root line and the positive X axis of the rorizontal reference plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counter- ‘lockwise). Weld rotation The angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a line parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction (ie counter-clockwise) in'the plane of the transverse cross secticn of the Wald In question. / www twitraining.comcoygnsTmtis so Welding] Sketch Dofinion and symbol according to position 180 6947 Flat ’A welding postion in which he ‘welding is horizontal, with the ccentreline ofthe weld vertical, PA. Horizontal vertical ‘Awelding positon in which he ‘welding is horizontal (applicable in case of filet welds). PB. Horizontal ‘A welding position in which fhe Welding is horizontal, with the Ccontreline ofthe weld horizontal, PC. welding is downwards. PC. ‘Overhead “Awalding postion in which the ‘welding is horizontal and overhead, with the cenireline of the weld vertical PE. Horizontal overhead ‘A welding pasion a which fie ‘Welding is horizontal and overhead {applicable in case of filet walds). PO. Wericarog “Awaiding postion in which fe ‘welding is upwards. PF. Vericar den a “A welding position in which fhe Twi 2 wa ‘ww twitaining.comVerticatup Voricat down wow q = * Horizontal verdes Tolerances forthe welding postions 2.8 Weaving ‘This is transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the deposition of weld metal, This technique is generally used in vertical-up welds. ee ‘Stringer bead ‘Arun of weld metal made with itle or no weaving mation Twi 28 worw.twitraining.comSection 3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspectionachat sera tr 32 TWI Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection Definitions. Definitions (see BS EN ISO 6520-1) Imperfection Any deviation from the ideal weld Defect ‘An unacceptable imperfection Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1: ‘This standard classifies the geometric imperfections in case cf fusion ‘welding, dlviding them into six groups: Cracks Cavities. Solid inctusions. Lack of fusion and penetration. Imperfect shape and dimensions. Miscellaneous imperfections, Its important that an imperfection is correctly identified thus allowing for the ‘case to be identified and actions taken to prevent further occurrence. Cracks Definition ‘An imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state, which may ‘arise from the effect of cooling or stresses. Cracks are more significant than other types of imperfection, as their geometry produces a very large stress ‘concentration atthe crack tip, making them more likely to cause fracture. Types of crack: + Longitudinal Transverse. Radiating (cracks radiating from a common point). Crate. Branching (group of connected cracks originating from a common crack) Eweption: Crater cracks are found only in the weld metal a 0 www twitraining.comony = TNE Depending on their nature, these cracks can be: ‘+ Hot (ie solcification cracks liquation cracks). ‘+ Precipitation induced (ie reheat cracks, present in creep resisting steels. Cold (le hydrogen induced cracks). Lamelir tearing, 324 Hoteracks Depending on their location and mode of occurrence, hot cracks can be: * Solidfication cracks: Occur in the weld metal (usually aong the Centreline ofthe weld) as a result of the solidification process, ‘+ Liquation cracks: Occur in the coarse grain HAZ, in the near vicinity of the fusion line as a result of heating the material to an elevated ‘temperature, high enough to produce liquation of the low meting point ‘constituents placed on grain boundaries, 3.22 Solidification cracks Generally, solidification cracking can occur when: ) ‘+ The wold metal has high carbon or impurity (sulphur etc) element Content. ‘+ The depth-to-width rato of the solidifying weld bead is large (cep and narrow). * Disruption ofthe heat flow condition occurs, eg stop/start condition. ‘Tre oracks can be wide and open to the surface like shrinkage voids or sub- surface and possibly narrow. ‘Solidification cracking is most likely to occur in compositions, which result in 2 wide freezing temperature range. In steels this is commonly created by a higher than normal content of carbon and impurity elements such as sulphur land phosphorus. These elements segregate during solidification, so that intergranular liquid fims remain after the bulk of the weld has solidified, The Twi i UW www twitraining.comsig ingaressne ana gen 2 Seer thermal shrinkage of the cooling weld bead can cause these to rupture and ferm a crack {tis important that the welding fabricator does not weld on or near metal surfaces covered with scale or which have been contaminated vith oil or gtease. Scale can have a high sulphur content, and oll and grease can supply both carbon and sulphur. Contamination with low meling point metals such as copper, tn, lead and zinc should also be avoided. Hydrogen induced cracks Root (underbead) crack Toe crack Hydrogen induced cracking occurs primarily in the grain-coarsened region of the HAZ, and is also known as cold, delayed or underbeaditoe cracking, Underbead cracking lies parallel to the fusion boundary, and its path is usually 2 combination of intergranular and transgranular cracking. The diction ofthe principal residual tensile stress can, for toe cracks, cause the crack path to grow progressively away from the fusion boundary towards a ‘ezion of lower sensitivity to hydrogen cracking, when this happens, the crack growth rate decreases and eventually arrests TWI a 0 voting comnono aS Sunn ‘A.combination of four factors is necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking: 5 Hyérogen level > 15mil100g of weld metal deposited Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress. Temperature < 300°C ‘Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness any one factor is not satisfied, cracking is prevented. Therefore, cracking ‘cen be avoided through control of one or more of these factors: + Apply preheat (to slow down the cooling rate and thus avoid the formation of susceptible microstructures) ‘+ Maintain a speci interpass temperature (same effect as preheat). + Postheat on completion of welding (fo reduce the hydrogen ccntent by allowing hydrogen to effuse from the weld area. + Apply PWHT (to reduce residual stress and eliminate susceptible rmcrostructures). + Reduce weld _metal_nydrogen by proper selection of welding processiconsumable (eg use TIG welding instead MMA, use basic Covered electrodes instead colulose ones) + Use multi- instead of singlerun technique (eliminate susceptible microstructures by means of seltempering effect, reduce the hydrogen Content by allowing hydrogen to efluse from the weld rea). ‘+ Use a temper bead or ho pass technique (same effect as above) + Use austenitic or rickel filer (avoid susceptible microstructure formation ‘and allow hydrogen diffusion ut of crea areas). + Use dy shielding gases (reduce hycrogen content. + Clean rust from joint (avold hycrogen contamination from moisture prosent inthe rust). + Reduce residual stress. * Blend the weld profile (reduce stress concentration at the toes of the weld) Twi iad WY ‘wor witraiing.coman mgr a ae gn ee NOT OTS 323 Lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing occurs only in rolled steel products (primarily plates) and its ‘main distinguishing feature is that the cracking has a terraced appearance. (Cracking ocours in joints where ‘+ A thermal contraction strain occurs in the through-thickness dliection of steal plate. + Non-metalic inclusions are present as very thin platelets, vith their principal planes parallel to the plate surface. Contraction strain imposed on the planar non-metallic inclusions reeuits in progressive decohesion to form the roughly rectangular holes which are the horizontal parts of the cracking, parallel to the plate surface. With further stain, the vertical parts of the cracking are produced, generally by ductile shear cracking. These two stages create the terraced appearance of these cracks. 7; * venting om‘Two main options are availabe to control the problem in welded joints liable tolamellar tearing ‘© Use @ clean stool (Zorade). ‘© A combination of joint design, restraint control and welding sequence to With guaranteed through-thickness properties. ‘minimise the risk of cracking, [Caviy [Gas caviy: formed ‘Shankage cov by entrapped gas caused by shrinkage: during soiication (Gas pore nterdenarve shrinkage Uniformly ~ cistributed porosity [erator pipe [Chustorea Microshrinkage (ocalsed) porosity Linear porosity t + Elongated cavity ntrdondte | [Transgranuar icrosteinkage | | microshrinkage Worm hole Surface pore 3.3 Cavities 331 Gas pore TWI www twitraining.com COT estasDescription ssa iemtectons aaa es ‘Sermo rn ‘Agas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the weld metal. ‘Gas cavity can be present in various forms: Isolated Uniformly ditributed porosity ‘Clustered (localised) porosity Linear porosity Elongated cavity ‘Surface pore Causes Prevention ‘Damp fluxes/corroded electrode (MMA) Use dry electrodes in god condition Greass/hydrocarboniwater contamination of prepared surface ‘Giean prepared surface ‘Ar entrapment ga8 Shia (MIGIMAG, TIG) ‘Check hose connections Incorrecvinsurficient deoxidant in electrode, filer or parent metal Use electrode with sufficient deoxidation activity Too high an are voltage or length ‘Redace vollage and arc length rate which results in turbulence (MIGIMAG, TIG) ‘Gas evolution from priming | Identify isk of reaction before palnts/surface treatment surface treatment is applied Too hgh a shielding gas Tow | Optimise gas flow rate ‘Comments Note that porosity can ether be localised or finely dispersed voids throughout the weld metal 7 ‘worwtwitraining.com332 333 Worm holes Vieira trot esti neon Eongated or tubular cavities formed by entrapped gas during the soldifcation ofthe weld metal; ([Tauses: they can occur singly or in groups. Prevention Gross contamination oF reparation surface Introduce preweld cleaning procedures Laminated work surface Raplace parent material with an unlaminated piace Grevices in work surface due | Eliminate joint shapes which produce to joint geomet crevices ‘Comments Worm holes are caused by the progressive enirapment of gas between the salcifying metal crystals (dendrites) producing characteristic elongated pores of circular cross-section. Thase elongated pores can appoar as a herting-bone array on a radiograph. Some of them may break the surface of the weld Surface porosity 38 wwrw twitrairing.com‘sn nporecn a nr emton perentiersty Description ‘Agas pore that breaks the surface ofthe weld Causes Prevention ‘Damp or contaminated surface or | Clean surtaca and dry electrodes electrode Low fuxing activiy (WIGIMAG) | Use a high activ fox Excess sulphur (pariculary fres- | Use high manganese elecrode fo cutting steels) producing sulphur | produce MnS, note free-cutng dioxide steels (high sulphur) should not normally be welded Loss of shielding gas dus to long | Improve screening against fare or high breezes (MIGIMAG) _| draughts and reduce arc length Too high a shielding gas flow rate Optimise gas flow rate which results in turbulence (MIGIMAG.TIG) Comments “The origins of surface porosity ae similar to those for uniform porosity. Cater pipe Description A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run. The main cause is shrinkage during solidication. (Causes, Prevention Lack of welder sk due To using | Retain welder focesses with too high a current Iroperative crate filer Use correct crater filing techniques Comments Crater filing is a particular problem in TIG welding due to its Iow heat input To fil the crater for this process itis necessary to reduce the weld current (sope out) in a series of descending steps until the arc is extinguished, rd ” ‘worw.twitraining.com3.4 Solid inclusions Definition dna npr anos apn Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal 1 y Sieg, Fux ‘Oxce | [het inetusion | [inctusion | [inetasion | | incusion [->[turaston aeceec fae] L-+[_conper Tear] [Teolatod] [Gustorea L.iher metar 3.44 Sag inclusions Description Seg trapped during welding. The imperfection is an iregular shape and thus difers in appearance from a gas pore. Gauses Prevention incomplete slag removal from Underlying surface of multipass weld Improve inter-run slag rerroval Slag flooding ahead of arc Position work o gain contol of slag. Welder needs to correct ‘electrode angle Entrapment of slag in work surface | Dressimake work surface smooth Twi 30 LOT vzsssece~ worw.twitraining.com‘Comments ‘A fine dispersion of inclusions may be present within the well metal, particulary ifthe MMA process is used. These only become a problem when large or sharp-edged Inclusions are produced. 342 Flux inclusions Flux trapped during welding. The imperfection Is of an irregular shape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore. Appear only in case of ux associated welding processes (ie MMA, SAW and FCAW), Causes Prevention ‘Unfused fax due t damaged | Use electrodes in good condition coating Flux fais to melt and becomes | Change the fuxdwire. Adjust welding trapped in the weld (SAW or | parameters ie current, voliage etc to FCAW) produce satisfactory welding conditions 34.3 Oxide inclusions Description (Oxides trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an irregular shape ‘and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore. ‘Cause Prevention Heavy mil scaleuston work | Grind surface prior to welding surface Comments. ‘A special type of oxide inclusion is puckering. This type of defect ocours especialy in the case of aluminium alloys. Gross oxide fim enfoldment can ‘occur due to a combination of unsatisfactory protection from atmospheric Ccentamination and turbulence in the weld pool 3.44 Tungsten inclusions Twi ot www twitralning.comDescription Particles of tungsten can become embedded during TIG weldng. This Imperfection appears as a light area on radiographs due to the fact that tungsten is denser than the surrounding metal and absorbs larger amounts (of Xigamma radiation Causes Prevention Contact of elecrode tip with weld | Keep tungsten out of weld pool, use pool HE start ‘Contact of filer metal with tip | Avoid contact between electrode | stelectrode ‘and filer metal Contamination of the elecirode tip_| Reduce welding current; adjust by spatter from the weld poo! __| shielding gas flow rate Exceeding the current limit fora | Reduce welding current, replace given electrode size or type. electrode with a larger diameter one. ‘Extension of electrode beyond the | Reduce electrode extension andlor normal distance from the collet, | welding current ‘esulting in overheating of the slectrode inadequate tightening of the colet_| Tighten the collet inadequate shielding gas flow rate | Adjust the shielding gas flow rate; ar excessive wind draughts protect the weld area; ensure that ‘esuiting in oxidation ofthe the post gas flow after stopping the alectrode tip arc continues for atleast 5 seconds Splits or cracks in the electrode | Change the electrode, ensure the correct size tungsten is selected for the given welding current used inadequate shielding gas (eg use | Change to correct gas composition of argon-oxygen or argon-carbon dioxide mixtures that are used for MAG welding) 3.5 Lack of fusion and penetration 3.8.1 Lack of fusion Definition Leck of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or between the successive layers of weld metal Tako ‘eslon| Tackotsidewal ] [Lack iternun {ack oot tson ‘sion Toston Twi ae 7 www twitraining.comLack of sidewall fusion Description Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or both sides of the wal. ‘Causes Prevention Low heat input to weld Tcrease are volage andlor welding current; decrease travel speed ‘Wolien metal flooding ahead of | Improve electrode angle and work are postion; increase travel speed ‘Oxide oF scale on wold Improve edge preparation procedure preparation Excessive inductance in MAG | Reduce inductance, even Finis dlp transfer welding — increases spatter ‘Comments During welding sufficient heat must be availabe at the edge ofthe weld pool topproduce fusion with the parent metal, Lack of inter-run fusion Twi a baad ‘www.twitraining.comaldo tect atau apts ‘Seyi se Description ) ‘Alack of union along the fusion line, between the weld beads. Causes. Prevention Low are current resulting in low] Increase current Midity of weld pool “Too high a travel speed Reduce travel speed Inaccurate bead placement | Retrain welder ‘Comments Leck of inter-un fusion produces crevices between the weld beads and Causes local entrapment of slag, Lack of root fusion Description Leck of fusion between the weld and parent metal atthe root of a weld. Prevention Increase welding current andlor arc voltage: decrease travel spood Excessive inductance in MAG | Use correct induction selting fo" the ip transfer welding. parent metal thickness MMA electrode too large Reduce electrode size slow current density Use of vertical down welding | Switch to vertical up provedure ) Large root face Reduce root face. ‘Small root gap Ensure correct root opening Trcorrect angle oF Incorrect | Use correct electrode angle. Ersure electrode manipulation Welder is fully qualified and ‘competent Excessive misalignment atroot | Ensure correct alignment TWI 0 www twitraining.comtar inate au rpcson ‘Sennen orm 3.5.2 Lack of penetration rr penetration Theomplete Incomplete rot penetration ‘penetration Incomplete penetration Description ‘The diference between actual and nominal penetration. Causes Prevention Excessively thick root face, | Improve back gouging technique and insufficient root gap oF failure to | ensure the edge preparation iss per ccut back to sound metal ina | approved WPS. “back gouging’ operation Tow heat input Tnerease welding current andlor are voltage; decrease travel speed Excessive induclance in MAG | improve electrical settings and possibly dip transfer welding, pool switch to spray arc transfer flooding ahead of arc MMA electrode too large Reduce eleciode size ow current density) Use of vertical down welding | Switch to vertical up procedure ‘Comments Ifthe weld joint is not of a critical natura, ie the required strength Is low and tha area is not prone to fatigue cracking, itis possible to produce a partial Twi eal weww.twitraining.com LO wxxssscre~crore Tun Penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration is considered part Of this structure and is not an imperfection (this would normally be determined by the design or code requirement). Description (One or both fusion faces of the root are not melted. When examined from the root side, you can clearly see one or both ofthe root edges unmelted. Causes and prevention ‘Same as for lack of root fusion, 3.6 Imperfect shape and dimensions 3.6.1 Underout 36 wwewtwitraining.comDescription tn cin et ‘An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or in a previously deposited weld metal due to welding. Itis characterised by its depth, length and sharpness. Underat Continuous Tntermitont Trier un undercut lundeccut underout Causes Prevention ‘Melting oftop edge due to high welding current (especially at free edge) or high travel speed Reduce power input, spedtally approaching a free edge where overheating can occur ‘Attempting filet weld in horizontal vertical (PB) position with leg length Gm Weld in the fat position oF use mult run techniques. Excessiverincorrect weaving Reduce weaving width or switch to rmult-runs Tneorredt slecrode angie Direct are iowards thicker mamber Incorrect shielding gas selection (MAG) Ensure correct gas more for ‘material type and thickness (MAG) ‘Comments ‘Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to control the heat input. Ifthe bead of a repair weld is too small the cooling rate following welding wil be excessive and the parent metal may have an increased hardness ‘and the weld may be susceptible to hydrogen cracking 3.6.2 Excess wold metal ~wosOS~*~*~*~CS=; 2 ‘wwrwtwitraining.comng npr nate open ee rr Description Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive convexity in filet welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal plate in butt is. This feature of a weld is regarded as an imperfection only when the height ofthe excess weld metal is greater than a specified limit. Causes. Prevention Excess arc energy (MAG, SAW) | Reduction of heat input ‘Shallow edge preparation ‘Deepen edge preparation Faully electrode manipulation or | Improve welder skill build-up sequence Incorrect electrode size Reduce slectods ize Too slow a travel speed ‘Ensure correct travel speed is used Incorrect electrode angie Engure correct electrode argie is used Wrong polarity used (electrode | Ensure correct polarity e DS +VE polarity DC-VE (MMA, SAW ) Note DC-VE must be used for TIG Comments ‘The term reinforcement used to designate this feature of the weld is misleading since the excess metal does not normally produce a stronger Weld ina butt joint in ordinary steel. This imperfection can become a problem, as the angle of the weld toe can be sharp, leading to an increased sess concentration atthe toes of the weld and fatigue cracking. 3.6.3 Excess penetration Description Projection ofthe root penetration bead beyond a specified limit can be local ‘or continuous. TWI oo CM sss woe titraining.com3.64 TWI VLA Wotang marina wn ae on geo TMD (Causes. Prevention ‘Weld heat input too high ‘Reduce arc voltage andlor welding current; increase welding speed incorrect weld preparation fe ‘excessive root gap, thin edge reparation, lack of backing Improve workpiece preparaion Use of electrode unsuited to Welding position Use corredt elecrode for pasion Lack of welder skid Retrain wolder Comments [Note thatthe maintenance of a penetration bead having uniform dimensions. requires a great deal of ski, particularly in pipe but welding. This can be ‘made more difficult if there is restricted access to the weld or a narrow preparation. Permanent or temporary backing bars can be used to assist in ‘the control of penetration. Description ‘An imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface ofthe parent metal without fusing to it. Causes: Prevention Poor electrode manipulation | Retrain welder (Ma) High heat inputiow travel speed ausing surface flow of filet welds. ‘Reduce heat input orfimit eg size to ‘8mm max leg size for single pass filets Incorreei positioning of weld ‘Change to flat position Wrong electrode coating typ resulting in oo high a Multy ‘Change electrode coating type to more suitable fast freezing typa which Is lass Muid 9 ‘wemw-twitraining.com‘hg oncom ane Comments. For a filet weld overtap is often associated with undercut, as ifthe weld pool Is too fluid the top ofthe weld will flow away to produce undercut atthe top ‘and overlap at the base. Ifthe volume of the weld poo is too large in case of a filet weld in horizontal-vertical (PB) position, weld metal wil collapse due to gravity, producing both defects (undercut at the top and overlap at the base), this defect is called sagging 3.6.5 Linear misalignment Description Msalignment between two welded pieces such that while their surface planes are parallel, they are not in the required same plane. Causes. Prevention Tnaccuracies in assembly | Adequaie checking of alignment prior procedures or distortion from | to welding coupled with the use of ther welds ‘clamps and wedges, Excessive out offainess in| Check accuracy of rolled seation prior hot rolled piates or sections _| to welding ‘Comments. Msalignment is not really @ weld imperfection, but a structural preparation problem. Even a small amount of misalignment can drastically increase the local shear stress ata joint and induce bending stress. TwI 32 ‘wwrw.twitraining.com366 36.7 Twi 3a OT ssc esa ipetectns aan pcs TNT ‘Angular distortion Description Misalignment between two welded pieces such thatthe ‘not parallel or at the intended angle. surface planes are (Causes and prevention ‘Same as for linear misalignment. Incompletely filled groove Description ‘A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld due to insuficient deposition of weld filer metal Causes Prevention insufficient weld metal ‘increase the number of weld rns regular weld bead surface Retrain welder Comments This imperfection iffers from undercut, it reduces the load-bearing capacity of a weld, whereas undercut produces a sharp stress-aising notch at the 20ge of a weld, www-twitraining.comlara tment pean zomg Tw No 3.6.8 Imegular width Description Excessive variation in width of the weld Causes Prevention ‘Severe arc blow ‘Switch from DC to AG, Keep at short a possible arc length Trregular weld bead surface | Retrain welder ‘Comments though this imperfection may not affect the Integrity of completed wel, it ‘cen affect the width of HAZ and reduce the load-carrying capacty of the joint (in the case of fine-grained structural steels) or impair corrosion resistance (in the case of duplex stainless steels) 3.8.9 Root concavity Description ‘A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root ofa butt wel. woe twitraining.comling inate slau apon ‘San eT Causes Prevention Insufficient are power To produce Raise arc energy positive bead Incorrect prepri-up Work to WPS: ‘Excessive backing gas pressure (TIG) | Reduce gas pressure Lack of welder skill Retrain welder ‘Siag flooding in backing bar groove | Ti work to prevent slag flooding ‘Comments ‘Abacking strip can be used to contol the extent of the root bead, 3.6.10 Burn-through Description ‘Acollapse ofthe weld pool resulting in a hole inthe weld, Causes Prevention Insufficient Wavel speed Increase the aval speed Excessive welding current Reduce welding current Lack of welder skill Retrain welder Excessive grinding of root face | More care taken, retrain welder Excessive root gap Ensure correct itup Comments This is a gross imperfection, which occurs basically due to lack cf welder sil It can be repaired by bridging the gap formed into the joint, but requires ‘a great deal of attention. tw MT wxzsscico www twitraining.com3.7 Miscellaneous imperfections 374 Stray are Description Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the weld, resulting rom arcing or striking the are outside the weld groove. Ths results in random areas of fused metal where the electrode, holder, 0° current retum clamp have accidentally touched the work. Dauses. Prevention Poor access to the work Improve access (modify assembly sequence) Viseing insulation on electrode | Institute a regular Inspection scheme for der or torch electrode holders and torches: lure to provide an insulated | Provide an insulated resting place resting place forthe electrode holder or torch when not in Loose current return clamp | Regularly mainlain current return lamps: ‘Adjusting wire feed (MAG | Retrain welder welding) without isolating welding current Comments ‘An arc strke can produce a hard HAZ, which may contain cracks. These Can lead to serious cracking in service. Itis better to remove an arc strike by ‘arnding than weld repair. wr 7 www.twitraining.comDescription Gobules of weld or filer metal expelled during welding and adhering to the surface of parent metal or solidified weld metal Causes Prevention High arc current Reduce arc current Long are length Reduce are length Magnetic arc blow Reduce arc length or switch to AC power Incorrect setings for GMAW | Modify electrical saltings (but be careful srocess {o maintain fll fusion!) ‘Damp electrodes: Use dry electrodes ‘Wrong selection of shielding gas '100%CO2) Increase argon content if possbie, however too high a % may lead to ack cof penetration ‘Comments ‘Spatter in itself is a cosmetic imperfection and does not affect the inegrty of the weld. However as its usually caused by an excessive welding current, it |s a sign that the welding conditions are not ideal and so there are usually cer associated problems within the structure ie high heat input. Hote that ‘seme spatter is always produced by open arc consumable electrode welding processes. Ant-spalter compounds can be used on the parent metal to Teduce sticking and the spatter can then be scraped off. 373 Tomsurtace Description BSutac arage do tothe reve face cf enporay Weta atachnens Te ree shoud bo gear of hon sajoces to's tye penta ot Taree pris cxarheton aie hon wonerss wks a Sane Sy TWI 325 CM sesso www twitralning.com374 Ireerecens arate apecten Sony rn 0 welding using a qualified procedure. Note: Some applications do not allow the presence of any overlay weld on the surface ofthe parent material Additional imperfections. Ginding mark Description Local damage due to grinding Chipping mark Description Local damage du to the use of a chisel or other tools. Underflushing Description Leck of thickness of the workpiece due to excessive grinding. Misalignment of opposite runs Description Difference between the cantralines of two runs made from opposite sides of the joint. Description Lightly oxidised surface in the weld zone, usually occurs in stainless steels. a‘esona mperecos as iar rapecon cori wo 3.8 Acceptance standards Weld imperfections can seriously reduce the integriy of a welded structure, ‘Therefore, prior to service of a welded joint, it is necessary to locate them using NDE techniques, assess their significance and take action to avoid their reoccurrence. ‘The acceptance of a certain size and type of defect for a given structure is normally expressed as the defect acceptance standard. This is usually Incorporated in application standards or specifications. ‘Al normal weld imperfection acceptance standards totally reject cracks. However, in exceptional circumstances, and subject to the agreement of al Patties, cracks may be allowed to remain iit can be demonstratec beyond {doubt that they will not lead to failure. This can be diffcul to establish and tusually involves fracture mechanics measurements and calculations. Itis important to note that the levels of acceptability vary between different ‘applications and in most cases vary between different standards for the ‘seme application. Consequently, when inspecting different jobs it is ‘important to use the applicable standard or specification quoted In the centract (Once unacceptable weld imperfections have been found, they have to be renoved. Ifthe weld imperfection is at the surface, the first consideration is. ‘whether i is of a type, which is normally shallow enough to be repaired by superficial dressing. Superficial implies that, after removal of the defect, the remaining material thickness is sufficient not to require the addition of further wold metal It-he defect is too deep, it must be removed and new weld metal added to ‘ersure a minimum design throat thickness. Replacing removed metal or weld repair (as in filing an excavation or re- ‘making @ weld joint) has to be done in accordance with an approved procedure. The rigour with which this procedure is qualfed wil depend on the application standard for the job. In some casos it will be acceptable to use a procedure qualified for making new joints whether filing an excavation ‘ormaking a complete joint. If the level of reassurance required is higher, the qualification will have to be made using an exact simulation of a welded Jott, whichis excavated and then reflled using a specified method. In either ase, qualification inspection and testing will be required in acoordance with the application standard. Twi sar wa ww Switraining.comSection 4 Destructive TestingSonnghs sto 4 Destructive Testing 44 Introduction European Welding Standards require test coupons that are made fr welding provedre qualfieaicn fang lobe 2ajeced nor ence and the dectucvo tain The ets ae called destucve tess because he welded joint is destoyed alee ieee pee ee mero Destuctve tests canbe ded ino vo rus, hose used + Measure amechaicl popery — quanttatve ests {east ont uaty ) below Hardness values are shown on test reports as @ number followed by letters indicating the test method, for example: 2éOHVI0 = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load, 22HRC_ = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (ceale ©). 2EBHBW = hardness 238, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter. 4.2.8 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing. Test objective Charpy V notch testing enables engineers to make judgements atout risks ofbritle fracture occurring in steels, but a CTOD test measures a material property fracture toughness, Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics analyses such as: + Caleulating the size of a crack that would initiate a bite fracture under Certain stress conditions ata particular temperature. +The stross that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brite fracture at a particular temperature. ‘This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is discovered during inspection of equipment that is in-service. Test specimens ACTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular (or square) shaped bar cut transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V notch is machined at tre centre ofthe bar, which will be coincident withthe test position, weld metal or HAZ. AA shallow saw cut is made at the bottom of the notch and the specimen is then put into a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow faligue crack initiates from the saw cut Twi +0 TU ‘www.twitraining.comuae as ‘The specimens are relatively large, typically having a cross section B x 28 and length ~108 (B = fll thickness of the weld). The test piece detals are shown below. ‘Machined notch ' aa | Section through Test method TOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below amtient and the specimen temperature is controled by immersion in a bath of iauid that has been cooled to the required test temperature. ‘A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a Concentrated stress at the tip ofthe crack and a clip gauge, attached to the specimen across the mouth of the machined notch, gives a reading of the increase in width ofthe crack mouth as the load is gradually increased. For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual practice to carry out three tests. ‘www.twitralning.comhe senate compo Ts The figures below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test ‘Clip gauge Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance the crack tip opens without Intiation ofa brite crack. The clip gauge enables @ chart to be generated showing the increase in width ofthe crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is celculated, ‘Acceptance criteria ‘An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that indicates ductile tearing. Alteratively the test may be for information so that ‘value can be used for an engineering crlical assessment ‘Avery tough steel weldment wil allow the mouth ofthe crack to open widely by ductile tearing at the tip ofthe crack whereas a very brite weldment wil tend to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension atthe tip ofthe crack WI aeconn mss CTOD values are expressed in millimetres - typical values might be -<<-0.1mm = britie behaviour, >~imm = very tough behaviour 42.6 Bond testing ‘Test objective Bend tests are routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test pisces and sometimes on welder qualification test pleces. Subjecting specimens to bending is a simple method of vertying there are ro significant flaws in the joint. Some degree of ductiily is also ‘demonstrated, Ducity is not actually measured but itis demonstrated to be satstactory it test specimens can withstand being bent without fracture or fissures above ‘a certain length Test specimens ‘There are four types of bend specimen: + Face Specimen taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent so that the face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in tension). + Root ‘Test specimen taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent so that the root of the weld Is on the outside of the bend (root in tension). + Side ‘Test specimen taken a8 a transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt welds >~12mm and bent go thatthe ful joint thickness Is tested (side in tension). * Longitudinal bend ‘Test specimen taken with axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt \weld; specimen thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of wele may be tested in tension. TWI + Ln www twitraining.comele ats on a ‘Test method Bend tests for welding procedure and welder qualification are usualy guided bend tests. Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly centrolled by being bent around a former with a certain diameter. ‘The dlameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in the code, having been determined by the type of material being tested and the ductility, that can be expected from it after welding and any post weld hea teatment (PwnT), ‘The diameter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the ‘specimen thickness (!) and for C-Mn steel itis typically 4t but for materials that have lower tensile ductity the radius of the former may be greater than tet The standard that specifies the test method wil specify the minimum bend argle that the specimen must experience and this is typically 120-180" ‘Acceptance criteria Bend tests pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing cracks or any signs of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of the bend. ‘Small indications Jess than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some standards, ‘wwrw.twitraining.com Twi a “ml427 ‘earn tng coos we Fracture tests Fillet weld fractures Test objective Twi +8 ‘Tre qualtylsoundness of a filet weld can be assessed by fractuing test pieces and examining the fracture surfaces. Tris method for assessing the quality of filet welds may be specified by ‘application standards as an alternative to macroscopic examination. Its test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according to European Standards but isnot used for welding procedure qualification ‘Test specimens ‘Attest weld Is cut into short lengths (typically 250mm) and a longitudinal Notch is machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch prefle may be square, V or U shape. = eS Test method Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes (hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding stardard or application standard will speciy the number of tests (typically four). ‘Acceptance criteria ‘The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, wil speci the _aczeptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penetration into the root ‘wwrw.witraining.comcongresses Cf the joint and solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces, ‘Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture ‘and location of any imperfection ‘Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests) Test objective “The objective ofthese fracture tests isthe same as for filet fracture tests. ‘These tests are specified for welder qualifcation testing to European ‘Siandards as an altemative to radiography. They are not used for welding procedure qualification testing, Test specimens Test specimens are taken from a butt weld and notched so that the fracture path will be in the central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are shown below. Test method Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending ‘Acceptance criteria ‘The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fusion, solid inclusions ‘ard porosty that are visible on the fracture surfaces. Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture ard location of any imperfection, 4.3. Macroscopic examination ‘Transverse sections from butt and filet welds are required by the European Standards for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required for some welder quaifcaton testing for assessing the quality of the welds. Twi hig OM west wor witraning.comcepngresrmtisie This is considered in deta in a separate section of these course noes. 43a TWI European Standards for destructive test methods ‘The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards {or destructive testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for some welder qualification test welds. ENG7S Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials = impact tests ~ test specimen location, notch orientation ‘and examination EN GSS Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials ~ transverse tensile test. ENGIO Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials bend tests EN 7321 | Destructive tests on welds in metallio materials = macroscopic and microscopic examination of welds. BS EN 10002 | Metalic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1 Method of test at ambient temperaturo, 'BS EN 10002 | Tensile testing of metalic materials. Part Method of test at elevated temperatures. “7 ‘www twitraining.comSection 5 Non-Destructive Testingctor 5 52 524 622 Non-Destructive Testing Introduction Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrant and magnetic particle mefiods are biefly described below. The relative advantages and limitations of the methods are discussed in terms of their applicability to the examination of welds, Radiographic methods {mn all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve gassing a beam of penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted raclation is collected by some form of sensor, which is capable of measuring tte relative intensities of penetrating radiations impinging upon it In most cases this sensor will be radiographic film; however the use of various electronic devices is on the increase, These devices facilitate so-called real-time radiography and examples may be seen in the security cteck area a airports. Digital technology has enabled the storing of radiographs using Computers. The present discussion is confined to film radiography since this isl by fr the most common method applied to welds. Sources of penetrating radiation Penetrating radiation may be generated from high-energy electron beams, in which case they are termed X-ays, or from nuclear disintegrations (etomic fission), in which case they are termed gamma rays. Other forms of Penetrating radiation exist but they are of limited Interest in weld rediography. Xeays Xrays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon ‘energies in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated by conventional X-ray tubes which, dependant upon output may be suitable for portable or fixed installations. Portabilty falls off rapidly with increasing kKiovoltage and radiation output. Above 400keV X-rays ere produced using devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators, not generally suitable for se outside of fixed installations. All sources of X-rays produce a ccntinuous spectrum of radiation, reflecting the spread of kinetic energies of electrons ‘thin the electron beam. Low energy radiations are more easily absorbed and the presence of iow energy radiations, within the X-ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic contrast and therefore better radiographic sensitivity than isthe case with gamma-rays which are discussed below. Conzentional ‘X-ray units are capable of performing high qualty radiography on steel of up to60mm thickness, betatrons and linear accelerators in excess of 330mm. aclue swan 83 a Gamma rays ‘The early sources of gamma rays used in industrial radiography were in general composed of naturally occurring radium. The activity of these Sources was not very high, therefore they were physically rather large by ‘modern standards even for quite modest outputs of radiation and the radiographs produced by them were not of a particularly high standard, Radium sources were also extremely hazardous to the user due to the production of radioactive radon gas as a product of the fission reaction. ‘Shce the advent of the nuclear age it has been possible to artificially produce isotopes of much higher specific activity than those occurring naturally and which do not produce hazardous fission products. Unlike the Xray sources gamma sources do not produce a continuous distribution of quantum energies. Gamma sources produce @ number of specific quantum energies which are unique for any particular isotope. Four isotopes are in ‘common use for the radiography of welds; they are in ascending order of radiation energy: Thulium 80, Yiterbium 169, Iridlum 192 and Cobalt 60. In terms of steel Thullum 90 is useful up to a thickness of 7mm or so, i's energy is similar to that of 90keV X-rays and due to i's high specific activity Useful sources can be produced with physical dimensions of less than 0.5mm. Yiterbium 169 has only fairly recently become available as an Isotope for industrial use, its energy is similar to that of 120keV Xrays and it's useful for the ragiography of steel up to approximately 12mm thickness. lrdlum 192 Is probably the most commonly encountered isotopic source of radiation used in the radiographic examination of welds, it has a relatively high specific activity and high output sources with physical dimensions of 2.3mm are in common usage, i's energy is approximately equivalent to that (of 500keV X-rays and itis useful forthe radiography of steel in the thickness range 10-75mm. Cobalt 60 has an energy approximating to that of 1 2MeV Xays, due to this relatively high energy, suitable source containers are laige and rather heavy. Cobalt 60 sources are for this reason not fully pertable, They are useful for the radiography of steel in the thickness range 44€-150mm, The major advantages of using isotopic sources over X-rays a) Increased portability; b)No need for a power source; c} Lower intial equipment costs. ‘Against this the quality of radiographs produced by gamma ray techniques: is inferior to that produced by X-ray techniques, the hazards to personnel may be increased (if the equipment is not properly maintained, or if the ‘operating personnel have insufficient training) and due to ther limited useful lifespan new isotopes have to be purchased on a regular basis (so that the ‘operating costs of an gamma ray source may exceed those of an Xxay ‘saurce). 32 www twitraining.comerates Radiography of welds Radiographic techniques depend upon detecting differences in absorption of te beam le, changes in the effective thickness of the test object, inorder to reveal defective areas. Volumetric wold defects such as slag inclusions {except in some special cases where the slag absorbs radiation toa greater fextent than does the weld metal) and various forms of gas pority are easily detected by radiographic techniques due to the large negative absorption diference between the parent metal and the slag or gas. Planar defects such as cracks or lack of sidewall or interun fusion are much less likely o be detected by radiography since they may cause litle or no change in the penetrated thickness. Where defects of this type are likely to occur her NDE techniques such as ultrasonic testing are preferable to rediography. This lack of sensitivity to planar defects makes radiography an Unsuitable technique where a filnessfor-purpose approach Is taken when assessing the acceptability of a weld. However, film radiography produces a Permanent record of the weld condition, which can be archived for future Teference; it also provides an excellent means of assessing the welder's Performance and for these reasons itis often stil the preferred method for ew construction Xray equipment = wwewtwitralning.comchon sre Xray ofa welded seam showing porosty, 5.2.5 Radiographic testing ‘Advantages Limitations Permanent record Health hazard. Safety (Important) ‘Good for sixing non-planar Classified workers, medicals required defects/flaws ‘Can be used on all materials | Sensitive to defect orientation Direct image of defect/fiaws. Not good for planar defect detection Real-time imaging Limited abily to defect fine cracks. ‘Can be positioned inside pipe | Access to both sides required (productivity) \Very good thickness penetration _| ‘Skilled interpretation required 'No power required with gamma _| Relatively slow High capital outlay and running costs Isotopes have a halflife (cost) 5.3 Ultrasonic Methods ‘The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that material and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous ‘materials. When ultrasonic waves pass from a given material with a given. ‘scund velocity to a second material with different velocity refraction and a rellection of the sound beam will occur at the boundary between the two ‘materials. The same laws of physics apply equally to ultrasonic vaves as thay do to light waves. Ultrasonic waves are refracted at a boundary between two materials having different acoustic properties, 80 probes may bbe constructed which can beam sound into a material at (within certain limits) any given angle. Because sound is reflected at a boundary between two materials having different acoustic properties ultrasound is a useful tool for the detection of weld defects. Since velocity is a constant for eny given Twi ee ‘wow twitraining.comNoroenve feats connie srs ‘raterial and sound travels in a straight line (with the right ecuipment) utrasound can also be ullised to give accurate positional information about given reflector. Careful observation of the echo pattem of a given reflector ‘and its behaviour as the ultrasonic probe is moved together with the positional information obtained above ‘and knowledge of the ccmponent history enables the experienced ultrasonic operator to classify the reflector 2a say slag, lack of fusion or a crack. Equipment for ultrasonic testing Equipment for manual ultrasonic testing consists of ‘Aflaw detector: + Pulse generator. ‘Adjustable ime base generator with an adjustable delay control Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display. ‘+ Calibrated ampitier with a graduated gain control or attenuator. ‘An ultrasonic probe: + Piezo-elecric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations Into mechanical vibrations and vice-versa. ‘+ Probe shoe, normally a Perspex block to which the crystal is fimly altached using a suitable adhesive. ‘+ Electrical andlor mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent ‘excessive ringing ‘Such equipment is lightweight and extremely portable. Automated or semi-automated systems for ultrasonic testing utilise the same basic equipment although since in general this wil be multi-channel equipment it is bulkier and less portable. Probes for automated systems are setin arrays land some form of manipulator is necessary to feed positional information about the probes to the computer. Automated systems generate very large ‘amounts of data and make large demands upon the RAM of the computer. Recent advances in automated UT have led to a reduced amourt of data being recorded for a given length of weld. Simplified probe arrays have ‘greatly reduced the complexity of setting-up the automated systerr to carry ‘out a particular task. Automated UT systems now provide a serious ‘ternative to radiography on such constructions as pipelines where a large ‘number of similar inspections allow the unit cost of system develooment fo bbe reduced to a competitive level Twi — ad www twitraining.comLerasonic equipment Compression and a shear wave probe. pee ence oa Example of @ scanning technique with sheer wave probe. 58 www twitralning.com832 54 SA Typical sersen display when using a shear wave probe. Uttrasonic testing mavantages imitations Portable (no mains power) No permanent record battery Direct location of defect ‘nly fers raterale (mainly) (dimensional ‘Good for complex geometry | High level of operator skill required ‘Safe operation {can be done | Calbralion of equipment required ext to someone) Instant results| ‘Special calibration Blocks required High penetrating capability 'No good for pin pointing porost ‘Can be done from one side only | Critical of surface conditions (dean smooth) ‘Good for ning planar defects —| Wil not detect surface defects Material thickness >&mm due dead zone. Magnetic particle testing Surface breaking oF very near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials give rise to leakage fields when high levels of magnetic fux are ‘applied. These leakage fields will atract magnetic particles (nely divided magnetite) to themselves and this leads to the formation of an irdication. ‘The magnetic particles may be visibly or fluorescently pigmented in order to provide contrast with the substrate or conversely the substrate may be lightly coated with @ white background lacquer in order to contrast withthe Particles. Fluorescent magnetic particles provide the greatest sensitivity. ‘The particles will normally be in a liquid suspension, usually agplied by spraying. In certain cases dry particles may be applied by a gentle et of air. ‘The technique is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials, which are at @ temperature below the Curie point (about 650°C). The leakage fel will be greatest for linear discontinulties lying at right angles to the magnetic field. This means that for a comprehensive test the magnetic field must normally be applied in two directions, which are mutually perpendicular. The test is a7 ‘wwrw.twitralning.com‘economical to carry out both in terms of equipment costs and repidity of Inspection. The level of operator training required is relatively low. BAA Crack found using magnetic particle inspection Magnetic particle testing ‘Advantages Timiations Direct location of defect Inexpensive equipment ‘Only magnetic materials May need to demagnetisé ‘components Not criical of surface conditions ‘Access may be a problem forthe yoke ‘ould be applied without power ‘Need power Fusing a yoke Low skill level 'No permanent record Sub-defects surface 12mm Calibration of equipment ‘Buick, instant results “Testing in two directions requied Hot testing (using dry powder) ‘Need good lighting - 500 lux ‘an be used in the dark (UV ght) ‘www.twitralning.comcovagne Tints Dye penetrant testing ‘Any liquid that has good wetting properties wil act as a penetrant. Penetrants are attracted into surface-breaking discontinuities. by capilary forces. Penetrant, which has entered a tight discontinuity, wil remain even when the excess penetrant is removed. Application of a sultable developer wil encourage the penetrant within such discontinuities to bleed out. If there is a suitable contrast between the penetrant and the developer an indication Visible to the eye will be formed, This contrast may be provided oy either visible or uorescent dyes. Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases the sensitivity ofthe technique. The technique Is not applicable at extremes ‘of temperature, as at low temperatures (below 5°C) the penetrant vehicle, ‘ormally ll, will become excessively viscous and causing an increase in the penetration’ time with a consequent decrease insensitivity. At high {temperatures (above 60°C) the penetrant will dry out and the technique will rot work. Crack found using dye ponetrant inspection. ae . SS5.5.1 Dyo penetrant noeute ong tego Su Advantages Limitations Al materials (ron porous) Will only detect defects open tothe ssurfaco Sortable Requires careful space preparation ‘plicable o email paris with [Not applicable fo porous surfaces complex geometry ‘Simple. “Temperature dependant expensive ‘Cannot retest indefinitely Sensitive. Potentially hazardous chemicals °elatively ow skil evel No permanent record easy to interpret) Relatively low skil evel "Tine lapse between application and leasy to interpret) results ‘Messy ‘Surface Crack Detection (Magnetic Partcle/Dye Penetrant): General When considering the relative value of NDE techniques it should not be forgotten that most catastrophic failures initiate from the surfece of @ ‘cemponent, therefore the value of the magnetic particle and dye penetrant techniques ‘should not be under-estimated. Ultrasonic Inspection may not detect near-surface defects easily since the indications may be masked by ‘echoes arising from the component geometry and should therefore be supplemented by an appropriate surface crack detection techrique for ‘maximum test confidence. TWI OM wsssscze =0 www twitraining.comSection 6 WPS/Welder Qualifications6 — WPS/Welder Qualifications 61 General When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, itis ‘essential that all the welded joints are sound and have sultable properties fer their application. Control of welding Is achieved by means of Welding Procedure ‘Specifications (WPSs) that give detailed written instructions about the \alding conditions that must be used to ensure that welded joints have the required properties, though WPSs are shop floor documents to instruct welders, welding inspectors need to be familar with them because they will need to refer 10 \WPSs when they are checking that welders are working in accordance with the specified requirements. Welders need to be able to understand WPSs, have the skill to meke welds that are not defective and demonstrate these sabilties before being allowed tomake production welds. 6.2 Qualified welding procedure specifications Itis industry practice to use qualified WPSs for most applications. ‘A welding procedure is usually qualified by making a test weld to demonstrate that the properties of the joint satisfy the requrements specitied by the application standard and the client/end user. Demonstrating the mechanical properties ofthe joints the principal purpose ‘of qualification tests, but showing that a defect-free weld can be preduced is. ‘also very Important. Production welds made in accordance with welding conditions similar to those used for a test weld should have similar properties and therefore be fit {their intended purpose, Figure 1 is an example of a typical WPS writen in accordance with the European Welding Standard format giving details of all the welding Ccndtions that need to be specie. 6.21 Wolding standards for procedure qualification European and American Standards have been developed to give ‘cemprehensive details about ‘+ How a welded test piece must be made to demonstrate joint properties, ‘+ How the test piece must be tested, ‘+ What welding details need to be included in @ WPS. 4) a 7 =ony Fas ‘+ The range of production welding allowed by a particular qualification test weld ‘The principal European Standards that specify these requirements ar: EN ISO 15614 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for ‘metalic materials, Welding procedure test. Part ‘Arc and gas welding of steels and are welding of nickel and nickel aloys. Part2 ‘Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys. ‘The principal American Standards for procedure qualification are: ‘ASME Section IX Pressurised systems (vessels and pipework). AWS D141 Siructural welding of steels. AWS D1.2, Siructural welding of aluminium, 6.2.2 The qualification process for welding procedures ‘Athough qualified WPSs are usually based on test welds that have been ‘made to demonstrate weld joint properties; welding standards also allow {qualified WPSs to be written based on other data (for some applicators). ‘Some alternative ways that can be used for writing qualified WPSs for some applications are: * Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure — test welds previously qualified and documented by other manufacturer. ‘+ Qualification based on previous welding experience ~ weld joints that have been repeatedly made and proved to have suitable properties by their service record. Procedure qualification to European Standards by means of atest weld (and similar in ASME Section IX and AWS) requires a sequence of actions that is typified by those shown by Table 1 ‘A successful procedure qualification test ls completed by the production of a Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPGR), an example of which is shown by Figure 2. Twi 62 wwew twitraining.com‘ytes Aa 0 623 Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS. ‘Once @ WPGR has been produced, the welding engineer is able to write {qualified WPSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made. “The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are ‘referred to as the qualification range and this range depends on the welding conditions used for the test piece (the as-run details) and form part olthe WPAR, Welding concitions are referred to as welding variables by European and ‘American Welding Standards and are classified as elther essential or non- essential variable ‘These variables can be defined as follows: + Essential variable ‘A variable that has an effect on the mechanical properties of the ‘weldment (and if changed beyond the limits specied by the standard will require the WPS to be re-qualified). + Non-essential variable ‘A variable that must be specified on @ WPS but does not have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment (and can bbe changed without need for re-qualification but will require @ new WPS to be written. Itis because essential variables can have a significant effect on mechanical properties that they are the controling variables that govern the qualification ‘ange and determine what can be witten in @ WPS, If a welder makes a production weld using conditions outside the {qualification range given on a particular WPS, there is danger that the welded joint will not have the required properties and there are then two options: 1. Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used for the affected weld and subject this to the same tests used for the relevant WPR to demonstrate that the properties sill satisfy specified requirements 2 Remove the affected wold and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance with the designated WPS. Most of the welding variables that are classed as essential are the same in bath the European and American Welding Standards but their qualification ranges may difer. ‘Some application standards specify their own essential variables and itis necessary to ensure these are taken info consideration when procedures are qualified and WPSs watt, 3 www-twitraining.comExamples of essential variables (according to European Welding Standards) ate given in Table 2. 63 Welder qualification “The use of qualified WPSs is the accepted method for controlling production \walding but this will only be successful if the welders are able to understand ‘and work in accordance with them, Wolders also need to have the skill to consistently produce sound welds (fie from defects). Welding Standards have been developed to give guidance on what Particular test welds are required in order to show that welders nave the Fequired sklls to make particular types of production welds in particular rraterials. 6.3.1 Welding standards for welder qualification ‘The principal European Standards that specify requirements are: EN 287-1 ‘Qualification test of welders ~ Fusion welding, Part 1: Stools EN ISO 9606-2 ‘Qualification test of welders ~ Fusion welding, art 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys. EN 1418 Welding personnel - Approval testing of welding operators for fusion welding and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and eutomatic welding of metalic materials The principal American Standards that specify requirements fer welder qualification are: ‘ASME Section IX Pressurised systems (vessels & pipework), AWS D1 Structural welding of steels. AWS 01.2 Structural welding of aluminium, ‘wwrwtwitraining.com Twi ee imcommer 10 632 ‘The qualification process for welders Cualification testing of welders to European Standards requires test welds te be made and subjected to specified tests to demonstrate thatthe welder Is able to understand the WPS and to produce a sound weld For manual and semi-automatic welding the emphasis of the tests is to demonstrate the abilty to manipulate the electrode or welding torch For mechanised and automatic welding the emphasis is on demenstrating tat welding operators have the abilty to control particular types of welding equipment ‘American Standards allow welders to demonstrate that they can produce sound welds by subjecting their fist production weld to NDT. ‘Table 3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with European Standards. Figure 3 shows a typical Welder Qualification Certificate in accordance with Exropean Standards. Welder qualification and production welding allowed ‘The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of qualification recorded on his Welder Qualification Certificate, ‘The range of qualification is based on the limits specified by the Welding ‘Saandard for welder qualification essential variables — defined as: ‘A variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the Welding Standard may require greater skill than has been demonstrated by the test weld. ‘Some welding variables that are classed as essential for welder qualification are the same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure {ualification, but the range of qualification may be significantly wider. ‘Some essential variables are specific to welder qualification. Examples of welder qualification essential variables are given in Table 4 6.3.4 Period of validity for a welder qualification certificate ‘Awelder's qualification begins from the date of welding of the test pice. ‘The European Standard allows a qualification certificate to remain valid for a period of two years, provided that: TWI La) a wwe twitraining.com‘Sos aso ‘+ The welding co-ordinator, or other responsible person, can confirm that the welder has been working within the intial range of qualification. ‘+ Working within the intial qualification range is confirmed every six months. 6.3.5 _Prolongation of welder qualification ‘A welder’s qualification certificate can be prolonged every two years by an ‘examinerlexamining body but before prolongation is. allowed certain ccenditons need to be satisfied ‘+ Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the \WPSs used for production welding. '* Supporting evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the ‘welders production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the sic ‘months prior to the prolongation date, ‘+ Supporting evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for Imperfections specified by the European welding standard and have been made under the same conditions as the orginal test weld. Twi 6s www twitraining.comjy = ‘Table 1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualifcation by means of atest we ‘The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure ‘Specification (pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded. gz ‘= Awelder makes the test coupon in accordance withthe pWWPS ‘= _ Awelding inspector records all the welding conditions used te make the test coupon (called the as-run conditions). ‘An independent examinerfexamining bodyithird party inspector may be requested to monitor the procedure qualification. a ‘The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance withthe methods specified by the Standard — visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT. t * The test coupon is destructively tested (tensile, bend, macro tests). = The codevapplication standard client may require additional tests such fs hardness, impact or corrosion tests — depending on material and J ‘= A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared by the ‘welding engineer giving details of ~ As-run welding conditions = Results of the NOT = Results of the destructive tests = Welding conditions allowed for production welding ‘+ Ia third party inspector is involved he will be requested to sign the WPOR as a true record ofthe test e7 veo ttraning.com‘Songs mo ‘Table 2 Typical examples of WPS essential variables according to Zurepean iding Standards. Variable Range for procedure qualification Welding process | No range — process qualified must be used in production. PWHT Joints tested after PWIHT and only qualy PWAT production joints. Joints tested as-welded only qualiy as-welded | production joints. Parent material | Parent materials of similar compostion and ‘ype mechanical properties are allocated the same Material ‘Group No; quaifcation only allows productior welding ‘of materials with the same Group No. welding ‘Consumables for production welding must have the consumables | same European designation — as a general rue. ‘Material ‘A thickness range is alowed — below and abcve the thickness {est coupon thickness. “Type of current | AC only qualifies for AC; DC polarity (+ve of ve) ‘cannot be changed: pulsed current only qualifies for ‘pulsed current production welding Preheat ‘The preheat temperature used forthe testi he temperature __| minimum that must be applied. Tnterpass “The highest interpass temperature reached inthe test temperature ___| is the maximum allowed. ‘Heat input (FI) _ | When impact requirements apply maximum Hi allowed is 25% above test Hl When hardness requirements apply minimum Hl allowed is 25% below test Hl 7 — www twitralning.com“Table 3 The stagos for qualfcaton ofa welder. ‘The welding engineer writes a WPS for welder qualification test rlece. a ‘+The welder makes the test wald in accordance with the WPS + _A.welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder Working in accordance with the WPS. ‘An independent examiner/examining bodyithird party inspector may be requested to monitor the test 4 ‘+ The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods ‘specified by the Standard (visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT) ‘+ For certain materials, and welding processes, some destructive testing ‘may be required (bends or macros), J + Awelder’s Qualification Certificate Is prepared showing the welding Concitions used for the test piece and the range of qualification allowed by the Standard for production welding ‘+ Ifa third party is involved, the Qualification Certifeate would be ‘endorsed as a true record of the test. TWI CI Tt ‘www twitraining.com‘Semis Tn 53 ‘Table 4 Typical examples of welder qualification essential variables according to .ropean Welding Standards, Variable, Range for welder qualification Welding process No range — process qualified is process fat a ‘welder can use in production. Type of wold Bult welds cover any type of joint exceptbranch welds. Fillet weids only qualify filets. Parent material ype | Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical properties are allocated the same Material Group No; qualification only allows. production welding of materials wth the same Group No. but the Groups allow much wider ‘composition ranges than the procedure Groups. Fifer material Electrodes and filer vires for production welding ‘must be of the same form as the test (sold wire, ‘fux-cored ete); for MMA coating type is essential, Material thickness | A thickness range Is alowed; for test plocos ‘above 12mm allow > Smm. Pipe diameter Essential and very restriced for small diameters: ‘Test pieces above 25mm allow > 0.5 x diameter used (minimum 25mm). Welding postions | Postion of welding very important, H-LO allows all positions (except PG) ae = === = = aa Ee Eisen Ess ee fees 7 i = =| ae fee acme sae) eee! = |S ee ere Sat fees > | ae = emer = eam —— eee pa cao = Bees os [reine 2 wren ne) [sewn Dea [sererrgomes ten [arene = loreenrcosee ® \sseas ppt veo [mets nacre pores cape eg ceva ce ore [tener = Figure 1 Example ofa Welding Procedure Specteation (WPS) fo EN 18614 fat TWI on ‘wow -witralning.com‘Figure 2.1 Example of WPOR (Quallcaion Range) fo EN 15614 format, www twitraining.com Twi oi “mlFigure 2.2 Example of a WPOR document lst weld details) fo EN 18614 format. TWI oe www -twitraining.com(eos Ts 30 we — RT = — z = a Figure 2.3 Example of WPOR document (deals of weld ts!) fo EN 15616 format Twi cy wove twitraining.comFigure 3 Example of a Welder Qualification Test Certificate (WPO) fo EN 287 Tormat TWI a -— www twitralning.comSection 7 Materials Inspectionconvo Tn 7 TA 72 Materials Inspection General ‘One of the duties of the VisualWelding Inspector is to carry out materials inspection and there are a number of situations where the inspector will be required to do this: ‘+ Atthe plate or pipe mil ‘+ During fabrication or construction ofthe material. ‘After instalation of material, usually during @ planned maintenance ‘Programme, outage or shutdown, ‘A.wide range of materials are availabe that can be used in fabrication and walding. These include, but are not limited to: + Steels, ‘= Stainless steals. ‘= Aluminium and its alloys. ‘© Nickel and its alloys, ‘© Copper and its alloys ‘+ Titanium and its alloys, Cast iron. ‘These materials are all widely used in fabrication, welding and construction to meet the requirements of a diverse range of applications and industry sectors, ‘There are three essential aspects to material inspection that the Inspector sould consider: 1. Material type and weldabilty, 2 Material traceability. 3 Material condition and dimensions. Material types and weldability ‘A Welding Inspector must be able to understand and interpret the material designation in order to check compliance with relevant normative documents. For example materials standards such as BS EN, API, ASTM, the welding procedure specification (WPS), the purchase order, faaication ‘drawings, the quality planvthe contract specification and client requirements, ‘A.commonly used material standard for see! designation is BS EN 10025 Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steel TWI m www twitraining.comconn co ‘Atypical steel designation to this standard, $955J2G3, would be classified as follows: 'S_ Structural steel 365 Minimum yield strength: Nimm? att ‘Jz Longitudinal Charpy, 27Joules 6-20° G3. Normalised or normalised rolled In terms of material type and weldablity, commonly used materials and ‘most alloys of these materials can be fusion welded using various welding processes, in a wide range of thickness and where applicable, diamsters. Reference to other standards such as |SO 15608 Welding - Guidelines for a ‘metallic material grouping system, steel producer and welding consumable deta books can also provide the Inspector with guidance on the sutabilly of ‘a material and consumable type fora given application 7.3. Alloying elements and their effects tron Fe Carbon Strength Manganese Mn Toughness Siioon Si <0.3% deoxidiser Auminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% deoxidiser + toughness Chromium Cr_——Gorrosion resistance: ‘Molybdenum — Mo 13/8 for creep resistance Vanadium Vv Strength ‘Nickel Ni__Low temperature applications ‘Copper ‘Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten) Sulphur 'S-__Residual element (can cause hot shortness) Phosphorus P_——_—Residual element Tranlum Ti Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying element (strength and toughness) ‘Niobium Nb Grain refiner, used as @ micro-alloying element (strength and toughness) 7.4 — Material traceability Traceability is defined as ‘the ability to trace the history, application or location of that which is under consideration’ In the case of ¢ welded product, traceability may require the inspector to consider the: ‘+ Origin of the materials — both parent and filer material ‘+ Processing history ~ for example before or after PWHT. + Location of the product ~ this would usually refer to a specific part or sub-assembly. In order to trace the history of the material, reference to the inspection decuments must be made, BS EN 10204 Metalic products - Types of inspection documents is the standard, which provides guidance on these TwI 72 wwewtwitraining.comTima epcion corr ai types of document. Under BS EN 10204 inspection documents fall into two types: 4) Non-specific inspection Inspection carried out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own Frocedures to assess whether products defined by the same product specification and made by the same manufacturing process, ‘are in ‘compliance with the requirements of the order. Type 2.1 are documents in which the manufacturer dectares that the products supplied are In compliance with the requirements of the order without inclusion of test results. Type 2.2 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the Froducts supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and In which test results based on non-specific inspection are supplied. ) Specific inspection Inspection carried out, before delivery, according to the product ‘oecification, on the products to be supplied or on test units of which the products supplied are part, in order to verity that these products are in ‘compliance withthe requirements ofthe order. Type 3.1. are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and In which test results are supplied. ‘Type 322 are documents prepared by both the manufacturer's authorised irspection representative independent of the manufacturing department, ‘and ether the purchaser's authorised representative or the inspector designated by the official regulations, and in which they declare that the ‘Products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and in which test results are supplied. Application or location of a particular material can be cartied out through a review of the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS), the fabrication ‘diawings, the qualiy plan or by physical Inspection of the material at the Point of use. In certain circumstances the inspector may have to witness the transfer of ‘cast numbers from the orginal plate to pieces to be used in producton. On pipeline work it is a requirement that the inspector records all the Felevant information for each piece of linepipe. On large diameter pipes this information is usually stenciled on the inside of the pipe. On smaller @ x a Sac = | | K oo oaio Ta ™ Ed Bi OT ‘wwrw.twitraining.com‘ang Stas 94 ‘Supplementary symbols Wield symbols may be complemented by a symbol to indicate the required shape of the weld. Examples of supplementary symbols and how they are applied are given below. Designation | Mustraton ofjoint preparation | Symbol Fit (lush) single V butt weld ‘Convex double V butt weld Concave filet ‘Ze wEa ah Fiat (lush single V butt weld with fat (sh) backing run Single V but weld with broad root face ‘and backing Fillot weld with both toes blended smoothly Note: ifthe weld symbol does not have @ supplementary symbol then the ‘shape of the weld surface does not need to be indicated precisely. Twi a ‘wewwtwitraining.com95 96 costes Position of symbols on drawings In order to be able to provide comprehensive details for weld joints, it is necessary to distinguish the two sides of the weld joint. This is done, according to EN 22563, by: + An atrow tine. ‘+ A.dual reference line consisting of a continuous and a dashed line ‘The figure below illustrates the method of representation, : . \ < a ‘ y A eee cee \ an Semmes oa 2 = Wetangeymoot Se “ein ine Relationship between the arrow and joint lines ‘One end of the joint line Is called the arrow side and the opposite end is called other sidk The arrow side is always the end ofthe joint line that the arrow line points to (and touches). |tcan be at elther end of the joint line and it isthe draughtsman we decides Which end to make the arrow side, Twi Lad MT wsssscice ‘wonwtwitrairing.com‘Tye figure below illustrates these principle. ‘There are some conventions about the arrow line: ‘+t must touch one end ofthe joint line ‘+ Itjoins one end of the continuous reference line. ‘+ In case of a non-symmetrical joint, such as a single bevel joint, the arrow line must point towards the joint member that will have the weld preparation put on to it (as shown elon). ‘An example of how a single bevel but joint should be represented, weg me 9.7 Position of the reference line and weld symbol ‘The reference line should, wherever possible, be drawn parallel to the bottom edge ofthe drawing (or perpendicular to it), For @ non-symmetrical weld itis essential that the arrow side and cther side ofthe weld be distinguished. The convention for doing this is: '= Symbols forthe weld detalls required on the arrow side must be placed fn the continuous line, ‘+ Symbols for the weld details on other side must be placed on the dashed line. 7 ‘www twitraining.comPositions of the continuous and dashed lines EN 22553 allows the dashed line to be ether above or below the centinuous lice ~ as shown below. or If the weld is a symmetrical weld then it is not necessary to distinguish between the two sides and EN 22563 states that the dashed line should be mitted. Thus, a single V butt weld with a backing run can be shown by cither of the four symbolic representations shown below. Asrow side, other sido Other ade Faro a Arrow si Other sido ‘Other side “row ade a \Note: This flexibility ofthe position of the continuous and dashed lines is an Inlerim measure that EN 22553 allows so that old drawings (to the obsolete 'BS 499 Part 2, for example) can be conveniently converted to show the EN ‘method of representation, Dimensioning of welds General rules Dimensions may need to be specified for some types of weld and EN 22553 species @ convention forth * Dimensions for the cross-section ofthe weld are written on the lefthand side of the symbol I 7 nano‘Weg tae cin rn ‘+ Length dimensions for the weld are writen on the right hand site of the symbol ‘+ Absence of any indication to the contrary, all butt welds are full Penetration welds, ‘Symbols for cross-section dimensions ‘The folowing letters are used to indicate dimensions: 2 Fillet weld throat thickness. Z Fillet weld leg length 8 Penetration depth, (Applicable to partial penetration butt welds and deep penetration ‘Miots.) ‘Some examples of how these symbols are used are shown below, \ Partial penetration sto_Y tomm | sigle V but wos => Filet wold with 8mm log = Filet weld with 6mm => 9.8.2 Symbols for length dimensions ‘To specify weld length dimensions and, for intermittent welds the number of individual wold lengths (weld elements), the folowing letters are used: ON ww twitraining.com| length of weld (0), Distance between adjacent weld elements. 1 pumber of weld elements. ‘The use of these letters is illustrated for the intermittent double-sided filet Weld shown below. 1000 tet) Plan view som 2 [/axl@ Note: Dashed line not required because itis a symmetrical weld, Twi 0 ‘www twitrairing.comfear onal tates lan intermittent double-sided filet weld Is to be staggered, the convention {or indicating this is shown below. oO Plan view End view 9.10 Complementary indications ‘Complementary indications may be needed to specty other charecorstios of welds, eg! Feld or site welds are indicated by a fag. peripheral weld, to be made all around a part, is indicated by a cice, 7 a iy www.twitraining.comont 9.12 9.13 Twi oe ml Indication of the welding process Ifrequired, the welding process is symbolised by a number written between the two branches of a fork atthe end ofthe reference line, ‘Some welding process designations Other information in the tail of the reference line In addition to specifying the welding process, other informatior can be ‘added to an open tail (shown above) such as the NDT acceptance level the vorking position and the filer metal type and EN 22563 defines the sequence that must be used for this information. ‘A closed tal can also be used into which reference to a specific instruction ‘can be added. wes 014 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4 Many of the symbols end conventions that are specified by EN 22553 are the same as those used by AWS, ‘The major diflerences are: ‘+ Only one reference line is used (a continuous line). ‘+ Symbols for weld details on the arrow side go underneath the reference line. ‘+ Symbols for weld details on the other side go on top ofthe reference lin. www twitraining.comfre cope LIS ‘These diferences are illustrated by the following example, ‘Arrow side Other side TWI ‘wwrwtwitraining.comcoon rise Welding positions PA 16HF Flatidownhand PB oF Horizontal-vertical Pc 26 Horizontal PD ar Horizontal-vertical (overhead) PE 46 ‘Overhead PF 36/56 Verticalup Pc. 36/56 Vertical-down H-L04s 66 Inclined pipe (upwards) L045, 6c Inclined pipe (downwards) oe wwrwtwitraining.comSection 10 Introduction to Welding Processes10 10.1 10.2 10.3 Twi er a er Introduction to Welding Processes General ‘Common characteristics ofthe four main arc welding processes, MMA, TIG, MIGIMAG and SAW are: ‘+ An arc is created when an electrical discharge occurs across the gap between an electrode and parent metal ‘+ The discharge causes a spark to form causing the surrounding gas to lonise, ‘+ The ionised gas enables a current to flow across the gap between electrode and base metal thereby creating an ar. ‘+The are generates heat for fusion of the base metal. ‘With the exception of TIG welding, the heat generated by the arc also ‘causes the electrode surface to melt and molten droplets can transfer to the weld pool to form a weld bead or run, ‘+ Heat input to the fusion zone depends on the voltage, Weldingrtravel speed. re current and Productivity With most welding processes, welding in the PA (flat or 1G) postion will Fesult in the greatest weld metal deposition rate and therefore highest productivity For consumable electrode welding processes, the rate of transfer of molten ‘metal to the weld pool is directly related to the welding current density (the ‘ratio of the current tothe diameter ofthe electrode), For TIG welding, the higher the current, the more energy there Is fr fusion and thus the higher the rate al which the filer wre can be added to the weld ool Heat input ‘Ac energy is the amount of heat generated in the welding are per unit length of weld, and is usually expressed in kiojoules per milimetre length of weld (kim) Heat input (HI) for arc welding is calculated from the folowing fomula: Volts Amps ‘Arc energy (kilmm) =____VoltsAmps_ "3 (Klimm) = Travel speed (mm/sec) = 1000 Heat input isthe energy supplied by the welding arc to the work piece and is ‘expressed in terms of arc energy x thermal efficiency factor. The thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat energy introduced into the welding arc to the electrical energy consumed by the arc. a www twitraining.comerase Wn Heat input values into the weld for various processes can be calculated from the arc energy by multiplying by the folowing thermal efficiency factors; ‘SAW (wire electrode) 190 MMA (covered electrode) o8 MGIMAG 08 FCAW (with or without gas shield) 0.8 Te 06 Plesma 08 Example ‘A.weld is made using the MAG welding process and the following welding conditions were recorded; Vots: 24 Amps: 240 ‘Travel speed: 300mm per minute VoltsxAmps ‘vc en my = —___VottsxAmps tsa) Travel speed (mm/sec) x1000 24240 3007601000 5760 '5000 ‘Are energy 4.182 oF 1.2ksimam Hat input 1.20.8 = 0.96k/mm Heat input is mainly influenced by the travel speed. Welding position and the process have a mejor influence on the travel ‘speed that can be used. For manual and semi-automatic welding the folowing are general pinciples: ‘+ Vertical-up progression tends to give the highest heat input because there is a need to weave to get suitable profile and the forward travel speed is relatively slow. ‘+ Vertical-down welding tends to give the lowest heat input because of the fast travel speed that can be used. ‘+ Horizontal-vertical welding is a relatively low heat input welding position because the welder cannot weave in this position, ‘+ Overhead welding tends to give low heat input because of the need to se low current and relatively fast travel speed. TwI 2 wwrwtwitrairing.com‘Sones weso 10.4 ‘+ Welding in the flat position (downhand) can be a low or high heat input position because the welder has more flexibility about the travel speed that can be used, ‘+ Of the arc welding processes, SAW has potential to give the highest heat input and the highest deposition rates and TIG and MIGINAG can ‘produce very low heat input. ‘+ Typical heat input values for controled heat input welding will end to be Inthe range ~1.0~3.5k./mm, Welding parameters ‘Are voltage ‘Acc voltage is related to the arc length. For processes where the are voltage is controled by the power source (SAW, MIGIMAG and FCAW) and can be vatied independently from the current, the voltage setting wil affect the Pole ofthe wel. ‘As welding current is raised, the voltage also needs to be raised tp spread the weld metal and produce a wider and flatter deposit For MIGIMAG, arc voltage has a major influence on droplet transfer across the are Welding current Welding curent has a major influence on the depth of fusion/penetrat Ino the base metal and adjacent weld runs. ‘As a general rue, the higher the current the greater the depth of penetration, Penetration depth affects dilution of the weld deposit by the parent metal {and itis particularly important to control this when dissimilar metais are joined. Polarity Polarity determines whether most of the arc energy (the heat) is ccencentrated at the electrode surface or at the surface of the parent material. ‘The location of the heat with respect to polarity is not the same for all processes and the effectsioptions/benefis for each of the main arc welding processes are summarised below: TWI 708 VLA ls wwewtwitraining.comInvasions ey oes Polar DC +ve PUP [oe-ve 1 TET TCSP TAC. Best Less penetration but higher | Not sable for penetration | deposition rate (used for | some electrodes ‘pot passes and weld | Minimises ac blow. vega) TiS Rarely used | Usod for all metals, except | Required for ATAT ue to AI alloys (and MgiMlg joys to break-up tungsten | alloys) the refractory oxide ‘overheating fi ‘GWAW sof | Used forall | Rarely used Not used wires. metals and (uicnaac) | vitualy all ‘tuations FERWINCAW | Most common | Some postional basic | Not used g2e-shilded fluxed wires are designed to and set- run on -v9; some metal Shielded cored Cored wires may also be wires used on -ve particularly for eee | poles | sw Beet Loss penetration but higher | Used to avoid are penetration | depostion rate (used for | blow, paticularly for root passes and overlaying) | mult-elecrode systems 10.5 Power source characteristics Inorder to strike an arc, @ relatively high voltage is required to generate a ‘spark between the electrode and base metal. This is known as the open ‘circuit voltage (OCV) and i is typically inthe range from ~50-~90V. ‘Once an arc has been struck and stablised, there is a relationship between the arc voltage and the current flowing through the welding circuit that ‘depends on the electrical characteristics ofthe power source. ‘Tris relationship is known as the power source static characteristic and Ppewer sources are manufactured to give a constant current or a constant veltage characteristic 10.5.1 Constant current power source ‘Tris is the preferred type of power source for manual welding (NMA and ‘manual TIG), ‘Tre Volt-Amp relationship for a constant current power source Is shown in Figure 1. This shows the no current position (the OCV) and from this point thore are arc voltage/current curves that depend for the various current settings on the power source. TWI hana www twitraining.combrats gree Senin ase For manual welding (MMA and manual TIG) the welder sets the required ‘lent on the power source, but are volage is controled by the rc length thatthe welder uses. ‘A welder has to work within a fairy narow range of arc length for a Particular curent setting, iit is too long the arc wil extinguish and f tis too short the electrode may stub into the weld pool and the arc will be extinguished, For the operating principle of this type of power source see Figure 1. ‘The welder tries to hold a fairy constant arc length (B in Figure 1) for the current (¥) that has been set. However, he cannot keep the arc length ‘constant and it will vary over a small working range (A-C in Figure 1) due to ‘normal hand movement during welding. ‘The power source is designed to ensure that these small changes in arc voltage during normal welding will give only small changes in current (X to Z.. Thus, the current can be considered to be essentially constant and this ‘ensures thatthe welder is able to maintain control of fusion. ‘The drooping shape of the VoltAmp curves has led to constart current power sources sometimes being referred to as having @ érooping characteristic. a os SS100) ) coy] Voltage (V) ‘re voltage variation Current (A) xyz, ‘Smal change tn euttent Figure 1 Typical Vol-Amp curves fora constant current power source. 10.5.2 Constant voltage power source This is the proferred type of power source for welding processes that have a Wire feeder (MIGIMAG, FCAW and SAW). Wire feed speed and current are directly related so that as the current is Increased, s0 does the feed speed and there is a cortesponding increase in the burn-off rate to maintain the arc length voltage. “The operating principle of this type of power source is shown in Figure 2. ‘Awolder sets the voltage B and the current ¥ on the power source. If the arc length is decreased to C (due to a variation in weld profile or as the ‘welders hand moves up and down during semi-automatic welding) there wil be a momentary increase in welding current to Z. The higher curert Z gives ‘a nigher burn-off rate and this brings the arc length (and arc voltage) back to the pre-set value, TWI coe) ‘wwwwitraining.comean eigen Seng Tn ‘Similarly, ifthe arc length increases the current quickly falls to X and the bum-off rate is reduced so that the arc length is brought back to the pre-set level B. ‘Thus, although the are voltage does vary a litle during welding the changes in current that restore the voltage to the pre-set value happen extremely ‘Quickly 50 that the voltage can be considered to remain constant. ‘The straight-line relationship between voltage and current and the relatively ‘small gradient is the reason why this type of power source Is often referred tos having a flat characteristic. 00 = ov Z sof —S ou> ‘Are voltage variation, YZ oo Large (momentary) change in current ‘Current (A) ‘Figure 2 Typical Vol-Amp curves for a constant vaitage power source. Twi 107 CMT wesc veo straling.comSection 11 MMA WeldingManlio atl eng A iptat SMU "1 Twi wa Um Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW) Manual metal arc welding (MMA) was invented in Russia in 1888. Itinvolved @ bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield. The ‘development of coated electrodes did not occur until the early 1900s, when the Kjelberg process was invented in Sweden and the quasi-are method ‘was introduced in the UK. ‘The most versatile of the welding processes, MMA welding Is sutable for walang Ts Terous end nonferoos meals, over a wide lange of thicknesses. It can be used in all positions, with reasonable ease of use and ‘dlatively economically. The final weld quality is primarily dependent on the ‘hill of the welder. When an arc is struck between the coated electrode and workpiece, both the electrode and workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool. The average ‘temperature of the arc is approximately 6000°C, which is sufcient to ‘simultaneously melt the parent metal, consumable core wire and flux ‘coating. The flux forms gas and slag, which protect the wed pool from ‘xygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere, The moten slag solidifies, cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited). The process allows ‘only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode needs to ’be inserted in the holder. 1 Bectrode angle 7580" to the herzontal onsumable electrode Fler metal core Flux coating, wow twitraining.comana a tic a a 11.1. Manual metal arc welding (MMA) basic equipment requirements 1) Power source transformerlrectifier (constant current type. 2) Holding oven (holds at temperatures up to 150°C). 3) Inverter power source (more compact and portable). 4) Electrode holder (ofa suitable amperage rating) 5) Power cable (ofa sultable amperage rating) 8) Welding visor (with correct rating for the amperage/process). 7) Power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating) 8) Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating) 9) Electrode oven (bakes electrodes at up to 350°C}. 10) Control panel (on/otiamperage/potarty/OCV). 11.2 Power requirements MMA welding can be cari out using either direct (DC) or altemaing (AC) curent, With DC welding current etter positve (#ve) or negatve (ve) pdary can be used, 30 curtent fs flowing In one drecion, AC welding Curent flows from negative fo positive, and is two directional. Power sources for MMA welding are either transformers (which transform mains AC to AC suitable for welding), transformer-rectiiers (which rectify AC to DC), diesel or petrol driven generators (preferred for site work) or TWI 18 oT www twitraining.com1.3 a a cid el ace Inverters (a more recent addition to welding power sources). For MMA walding @ power source with a constant current (drooping) output must be used, “The power source must provide: + An open circuit voltage (OCV) to initiate the arc, between 50.and SOV. Welding voitage to maintain the are during welding, between 20 and 30V, Suitable current range, typically 30-350 amps. ——— ‘Stable arc-rapid arc recovery or arc reigntion without current surge, Constant welding current. The arc length may change during welding, but consistent’ electrode burn-off rate and weld penetration ‘characteristics must be maintained during welding, Welding variables ‘Other factors, or welding variables, which affect the final quality of the MMA, weld, ae: Current (amperage) } Vottage ‘fects heat input Travel speed Polaty Type of electrode samples of the MMA welding process. 14.3.1 Current (amperage) ‘The flow of electrons through the circuit is the welding current, meesured in ‘Amperes (I). Amperage controls burn-off rate and depth of peretration Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode, manuacturers re2ommend the normal operating range and current Incorrect amperage settings when using MMA can contribute to the following Twi ad Ren ‘wwrw.twitralning.comana tnd dt Weg NS ori rit 132 T 14 ‘Amperage too low oor fusion or penetration, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusion Unstable arc, arc stumble, porosity and potential arc strikes, ‘Amperage too high Excessive penetration, bum through, undercut, spatter, porosty, deep ‘raters, electrode damage due to overheating, high deposition making positional welding dfict. Voltage ‘Welding potential or pressure required for current to flow through the clout isthe voltage (U). For MMA welding the voltage required to initiate he arc is ‘OCY, which is the voltage measured between the output terminals of the Power source when no current is flowing through the welding circu. For safety reasons the OCV should not exceed 100V, and is usually between 50-90V, Arc voltage is the voltage required to maintain the arc during welding and Is usually between 20-40V. Arc voltage Is a function of r length, With MMA the welder controls the arc length and therefore the ‘are voltage. Arc voltage controls weld poo! fluid. ‘The effects of having the wrong are voltage can be: ‘Arc voltage too low Poor penetration, electrode stubbing, ack of fusion defects, potential for arc ‘tikes, slag inclusion, unstable arc condition, iregular weld bead stape. ‘Ate voltage too high Excessive spatter, porosity, arc wander, irregular weld bead shepe, slag Inclusions, fuid weld pool making positional welding dificult, ‘wwrw.twitraining.comMarta ties at esha oman STs 8 ccviov =f Normal formal are ‘axcvolage Normel are engin range ‘Welding amperage Constant current (drooping) output characteristic Large change in arc voltage = snall change in welding amperage # 10V Samps 1188 tend Tope pagent ei tn fect Testament. ete ces eT ese! catia mine ens cia stat Tepe st Ly fusion/penetration. ate Teepe eo Lp bee £134 aye too Pacey rae ei a na ie wae epee ery eee Direct current (DC) Grescret er ere eeaeee een ae ‘refers to the polarity of the electrode. TWI ws. By. rr1135 Twi 18 aan ea Alig Meat ees a, Compe tints Direct currentlelectrode positive (DCEP/DC+) When the electrode is on the positive pole of the welding cicult, the workpiece becomes the negative pole. Electron flow direction is from the workpiece to the electrode, When the electrode is positively charged (DCEP) and the workpiece is negatively charged this has the effect of generating two thirds of the available heat energy atthe tip ofthe electrode, with the remaining one third being generated in the parent material, this wil result in an increase in the depth ofthe weld penetration. Direct currentielectrode negative (DCENIDC-) When the electrode is on the negative pole of the welding cicult, the workpiece becomes the positive pole. Electron flow direction fs from the electrode to the workpiece. The distrbuton of energy Is now reversed. One third of the available heat energy is generated at the tip ofthe electrode, the remaining two thirds inthe parent material Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heal to build up on the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld penetration ‘The welding arc when using direct current can be affected by arc alow, the deflection ofthe arc from its normal path due to magnetic forces. Alternating current (AC) The current altemates in the welding crcut, owing frst in one direction and then the other. With altemating curent, the direction of flow changes 100-120 times per second, 50-60 cycles per second (cps). Aerating current isthe flow of current in two directions. Therefore, distribution of heat energy at the arc is equal, 50% at the electrode, 50% at the workpiece. ‘Type of consumable electrode For MMA welding there are three generic types of flux covering Rutile electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rie) in the cating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation dow spat, Thaveelcirodes ae ganerl purpose electrodes wih good ‘welding properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources ant allpositons. The electrodes are especially SUTtabTE Tor welding file: joints in th horizontaivertical (HV) position. ~ a ‘wwrw.twitrairing.com )ariel sins atl eng Creo 210 Fe tures: ‘+ Moderate weld metal mechanical properties. ‘+ Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag, ‘+ Positional welding possible with a uid slag (containing fluoride) «Easily removable slag. Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (ime- stone) and calcium fluoride (Ruorspar) in the coating. THs makes the slag Crating more fu than rule coatings, this is also fast freezing which assists \eldng Inthe vetizal and overhead postion. Thess electrodes are Vee for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where higher weld qualty, ‘Ge0d mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to Figh restrain) are require. ~ Features: + Low hydrogen weld metal + Requires high welding currents/speeds. ‘+ Poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile) ‘* Slag removal diffcult Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating ‘and are characterised by a deeply nenstrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate Giving high welding speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fu slag, Geslagging can be dificult. These electrodes are easy to use in any postion {nd are noted fr their use in the stovepipe welding technique. Features: ‘Deep penetration in all postions. + Suitability for vercal-down welding + Reasonably good mechanical properties. High level of hydrogen generated, risk of cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ) It should be noted that within these three generic groups there are ‘sub-groups of covered electrodes providing a wide range of electrode ctoice. MMA electrodes are designed to operate with alternating current (AC) and ditect current (OC) power sources. Although AC electrodes can be used on DC, not al DC electrodes can be used with AC power sources, Operating factor: (OIF) The percentage (%) of are on time in a given time Span, When compared with semi-automatic welding processes MMA has a low OF of approximately 30%. Manual semi-automatic MIGIMAG OIF is about 66% with fully automated in the region of 80% OIF. A welding process O/F ‘can be directly linked to productivity. TWI ‘wwrw.twitraining.comart teste at eA Cots ‘Operating factor should not to be confused withthe term duty eycle, which isa safety value given as the % of time a conductor can camry a current and is given as a specific current at 60 and 100% of 10 minutes le 350A 60% ‘and 300A 100% 11.4 Summary of MMAISMAW Equipment requirements “Transformerirectar, generator, Inverter (constant amperage type). * Power and power relum cable (ofa sultable amperage rating). * Electrode holder (of suitable emperage rating). + Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating). * Correct vsorigiass, safety clothing and good extraction. Parameters and inspection points + Amperage. + Open circuit voltage (00). + AGIDC and poiay * Speed of travel + Electrode type and diameter. + Duty cycles. * Electrode condition * Connections. + Insulationextraction * Any special electrode treatment ‘Typical welding imperfections + Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient inter run leaning + Porosity from using damp or damaged electrodes or when welding ‘contaminated or unclean material + Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by incorectsetings of the ampe, root gap or face with + Undercut caused by too high amperage for the positon or by @ poor welding technique og travel speed too fast or slow, arc length (heretore votage) variations particulary during excessive weaving ‘+ Are strikes caused by incorrect ar sinking procedure, or lack of ski ‘These may be also caused by Incorrectly fited/secured power retun lead clamps ‘+ Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type or baking procedure andor control of basic coated electrodes. Successful welding with the MMA process is eiant on a numberof factors, rot least of which is the skil required to produce @ sound weld. This Is in argon to get the benefit of both gases ie good penetration with a stable arc end gives very lite spatter. CO; gas is much cheaper than argon or its mixtures and is Widely used for carbon and some low alloy steels TWI Lad 1 www twitralning.comcomps TMS ‘Aegon +1 to 5%CO, Widely used for stainless st Is and some low alloy steels. Meio ciness nm) o 12-2 eS ET ENR DMI Tear Figure 5 Active shielding gas midures for MAG welding of carbon, carbon- ‘manganese and low alloy stools. (Blue Is a cooler gas mbture; rod is @ hotter smocure.) ‘Gas mixtures, helium in place of argon gives a hotter arc, more fd weld col and belter weld profie. These quatemary mixtures perm higher Welding speeds, but may not be sultabe for thin sections. Stalnloss stools Austenitic stainless steels are typically welded with argon-COs/Oz nixtures for spray transfer or argon-hellum-COz mixtures for all modes of transfer. The oxidising potential of the mixtures are kept to a minimum (2-2.5% ‘maximum CO2 content) to stabilise the arc, but with minimum effect on corrosion performance. Because austenitic steels have a high thermal conductivity, the addition of helium helps to avoid lack of fusion defects and overcome the high heat dissipation into the material. Helium adaitons are Upto 85%, compared with ~25% for mixtures used for carbon and low alloy steels. COz-containing mixtures are sometimes avoided to eliminate Petential carbon pick-up. TWI iad ris www twitralning.comcongo" EEE Masalnanasinm © 1 29 4 Se Tes WNBA fsa ie T — ML oe i [gen 01005 mares T | T (ayes ony Figure 6 Actve shielding gas midures for MAG welding of stainless stool. (Bive is ‘2 2ooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture) For martensitic and duplex stainioss steels, specialist advice stould be scught, Some Ar-He mixtures containing up to 2.5%N2 are avalable for ‘welding duplex stainless steels. Light alloys (aluminium magnesium, titanium, copper and nickel and thelr alloys) Inar gases are used for light alloys and those that are sensitive to axdation. Welding grade inert gases should be purchased rather than commercial purty to ensure good weld quality ‘Argon ‘gn canbe used fo unum because there i sufiint suace oxo available to stabilise the arc. For materials that are sensitive to oxygen, such ‘as titanium and nickel alloys, arc stablity may be difficult to achieve with 3 gases in some applications. The density of argon Is approximately 1.4 times that of air. Therefore, in the downhand positon, the relatvey heavy argon is very effective at displacing air. A disadvantage is that when working in confined spaces, there isa risk of argon building up to dangerous levels, ard asphyxiating the welder. ‘Aigon-helium mixtures ‘Argon is most commonly used for MIG welding of light alloys, but some ‘acvantage can be gained by the use of helium and argon/helium mixtures, Helium possesses a higher thermal conductivity than argon. The hotter weld col produces improved penetration andor an increase in welding speed. High helium contents give a deep broad penetration profile, but produce high spatter levels. With less than 80% argon, a true spray transfer Is not pessible, With globular-type transfer, the welder should use a ‘buried’ arc to miimise spatter. Arc stabilty can be problematic in helium and argon- helium mixtures, since helium raises the arc voltage and therefore there is @ larger change In are voltage with respect to are length. Helium mixtures require higher flow rates than argon shielding in order to provide the same (925 protection, a 136 ‘WI ‘www .twitraining.comcomps WTS “There is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defects when using argon-helium mxtures, particularly on thick section aluminium. Ar-He gas mixtures will ‘offset the high heat dissipation in material over about 3mm thickness. Macsalmowessinmo 1 22-46 6 7 89 WH DK = Fiqure 7 inert shielding gas mixtures for MIG welding of aluminium, magnesium, titanium, nickel and copper ays. (Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is @ hoter rmiture) | S| W. a7 1 www twitraining.com‘Sie as czomhte 10 A-summary table of shielding gases and mixtures used for diferent base materials is given in below. of shilding gas mixtures for MIGIMAG welding. Netal | Shielding | Reaction Characteristics gas behaviour Cavbon | Argon-CO; | Sighty | Tnereasing COs content gives Pater are. eel ‘oxidising | improved are stably, deeper penetration, \tansiton ftom fngersype fo bowshaped penetration profile, more uid weld poo! ‘lvng Rater weld bead with goad wetting, increased spatter levels, better toughness ‘han CO;, Minimum 80% argon for axial “spray transfer. General-purpose miture ‘Argon-10-15%CO, Rigen; [Slightly | Sttfer ar than Ar-CO,mintures, minimise oxidising | undercuting, sulted to spray trnsfer mod lower penetration than Ae-CO, mixtures, fingertype weld bead penetration at high current levels. General purpose mixture: ‘Argon-3% CO, ‘ReHeO, | Sighiy | Substiuton of hefum Tor argon gives hater ‘oxidising | arc, higher arc voltage, more fhid wold oa}, ater bad profile, more bow-shaped ‘nd deeper penetration profile and higher ‘welding speeds, compared with ACO. midures. High cost 00: ‘Oxidising [Are voltages 2-8V higher than ArOOs mmidures, best penetration, highor welding ‘pe0ds, dip transferor burieg ar technique ‘only, narrow working range, high spatter levels, ow cost Saniess | He-ArCO, | Sightly | Good arc stability wih minimum effec on sels ‘oxidising | corrosion resistance (carbon pek-up, higher halum contents designed or cip transfer, lower helium contents designed for pulse and spray vansfer. General-purpose 938: He-N-2%CO; ‘Argon; | Sighily | Spray ransfr ony, minimises undorcating oxidising | on haavier sections, good baad pric “Raina, | Argon Inert | Good are stabilty, low spatter, and genera ‘cooper. ‘purpose gas. Tkanium aloys reauke Inert nex, {935 backing and tailing shields o prevent anim ‘ic contamination. loys | Argon-helum [inert | Higher heat input offeois high hat lssipation on thick sectons, lower risk of lack of fusion defects, higher spt, highor cost than argon, www twitralning.com >13.2.4 Travel speed and electrode orientation ‘The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and the higher risk of undercut + Increasing travel speed. Reduced penetration and width, undercut Figure 8 The effect of travel speed, Penetration oop Moderate Shallow Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum Undoreut Severe." Moderate Minimum Figure 9 Tho effect of torch angle 13.2.5. Effect of contact tip to workpiece distance (CTWD) ‘The CTWD has an influence over the welding current because of resistive heating in the electrode extension (see Figure 10). The welding current required to melt the electrode at the required rate (to match the wire feed ‘speed) reduces as the CTWD is increased. Long electrode extensions can ‘cause lack of penetration, for example, in narrow gap joints or with poor ‘manipulation of the welding gun. Conversely, the welding current increases when the CTWD is reduced. This provides the experienced welder with a ‘means of controling the current during welding, but can result in variable penetration in manual welding with a constant voltage power source. [As the electrode extension is increased, the bum-off rate increases for a given welding current due to increased resistive healing. Increasing the jelactrode extension, eg in mechanised applications, is therefore one method Of increasing deposition rates, as the wire feed speed is increased to ‘maintain the required welding current, COM reste veer ttaling.comcoon oT U8 Resistive heating depends on the resistivity of the electrode, length of the electrode extension and wire diameter. The effect is therefere more pronounced for welding materials which have high resistivity, such as steels ‘The electrode extension should be kept small when small diameter wires ‘are being used to prevent excessive heating in the wire and avoid the resulting poor bead shape. Figure 10 Contact tie to workpiece distance; electrode extension and nozzle to workpiece distance. Stable condition, ‘rc eng = gm ‘Are voltage = 24V ‘Welding current = 2808 shange in gun position ‘Ac length! = 122mm [Arc vollage = ncroneve icing erent = rope 19mm Figure 14 The effect of increasing the contact tp to workpiece alstance, 7 ne wong"cae aes cent ois —_ Inreased extension Figure 12 The effect of increasing electrode extension. ‘A’ short CTWDs, radiated heat from the weld pool can cause overheating of the contact tube and welding torch. This can lead to spatter adherence and increased wear of the contact tube. ‘The electrode extension should be checked when setting-up welding conditions or when fiting a new contact tube. Normally measured from the Contact tube to the workpiece (Figure 13) suggested CTWDs for the piincipal metal transfer modes are: etal wanster mode [OWTD, mm Dip 10-15, ‘Spray 20-25. Pulse 15:20 13.26 Figure 13 Suggested contact tip fo work atance. Effect of nozzle to work distance Nozzle to work distance (see Figure 13) has a considerable effect on gas stielding efficiency; a decrease having the effect of stifening the column. The nozzle to work distance Is typically 12-15mm, If the CTWD Is simultaneously reduced, however, the deposition rale at a glven current is decreased and visibility and accessibility are affected; so, in practice, a ‘compromise is necessary. The following gives suggested settings for the ‘mode of metal transfer being used TWI it ‘www.twitralning.com"a ang conn n asa 1327 1328 Twi we “Mm TWetal transfer mode | Contact tip position relative to nozzle Dip ‘2mm inside to 2mm protruding ‘Spray 4-8mm inside ‘Spray (aluminium) | 6-10mm inside Shielding gas nozzle “The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle Is to produce a laminar gas flow to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle sizes range from 13-22mm diameter. The nozzle diameter should be increased in Felaton to the size of the weld pool. Therefore, larger diameter nozzles are used for high current, spray transfer application and smaller diametor nozzles for dip transfer. The flow rate must also be tuned to the nozzle 3mm but has limited use for positional welding due to the potential large weld poo! involved. TWI 38 ‘worw-twitraining.comcongo No ‘Figure 16 Spray ranster. Pulsed transfer Key characteristics ‘+ Free-fight droplet transfer without short-circulting over the entire working range. Very low spatter. Lower heat input than spray transfer. Reduced risk of lack of fusion compared with ip transfer. Control of weld bead profil for dynamically loaded parts. Process controflexibilty Enables use of larger diameter, loss expensive wires with thinner plates = more easily fed (@ particular advantage for aluminium welding) using the welding current extends the range of spray transfer operation ‘well below the natural transition from dip to spray transfer. This allows ssnooth, spatter-ree spray transfer at mean currents below the transition level, eg 50-150A and at lower heat inputs. Pulsing was introduced originally {0 control of metal transfer by imposing artificial cyclic operation on the arc system by applying alternately high and low curents, ‘Atypical pulse waveform and the main pulse welding variables are shown in Figure 17. A low background current (typically 20-80A) is supplied to maintain the arc, keep the wire tip molten, give stable anode and cathode roots and maintain average current during the cycle. Droplet detachment ‘occurs during a high current pulse at current levels above the transition current level. The pulse of current generates very high electromagnetic forces, which cause a strong pinch effect on the metal flament supporting the droplet; the droplet is detached and is projected across the arc gap. Pulse current and current density must be sufficiently high to ensure that stray transfer (not globular) always occurs so that positional welding can be used, wo twitraining.com Twi ee “im‘Sie as zomg 18 Pulse transfor uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across the arc gap at a frequency of 50-300 pulses!second. Pulse transfer is. a development of spray transfer that gives positional welding capebilty for steels, combined with controlled heat input, good fusion and high productivity. It may be used forall sheet steel thickness >1mm, but $ mainly sed for positional welding of steels >6mm. Figure 17 Pulsed welding waveform and parameters. Gobular transfer Key characteristics Irregular metal transfer. Medium heat input. Medium deposition rate. Risk of spatter. Not widely used in the UK; can be used for mechanised welding of medium thickness steels (typically 3-6mm) inthe fat (PA) position. ‘The globular transfer range occupies the transitional range of arc voltage between free-fight and fully short-crculting transfer. Irregular droplet transfer and arc instability are inherent, particularly when operating near the transition threshold. In globular transfer, a molten droplet of several times the electrode diameter forms on the wire tip. Gravity eventually detaches the globule when its weight overcomes surface tension forces and transfer takes place often with excessive spatter. Before transfer occurs, the arc wanders and its cone covers a large area, dissipating energy. There is a short duration short-circuit when the droplet contacts with the ‘molten pool, but rather than causing droplet transfer, it occurs as a result of It Although 'the short-circuit is of very short duration, some inductance is necessary to reduce spatter, athough to the operator the shortciuts are ct discemible and the arc has the appearance ofa free-ight type. TWI 1315 ‘wwrw.twitraining.com13.29 compiz ‘To further minimise spatter levels, itis common to operate with a very short ‘arc length, and in some cases a buried arc technique is adopted. Globular transfer can only be used in the flat position and is often associated with 2k of penetration, fusion defects and uneven weld beads, because of the gular transfer and tendency for arc wander. Inductance What does inductance do? When MIG/MAG welding in the dip transfer mode, the welding electrode touches the weld pool, causing a short-circuit. During the short-circuit, the ‘arc voltage is nearly zero. Ifthe constant voltage power supply responded tantly, very high current would immediately begin to flow through the welding circuit. The rapid rise in current to a high value would melt the short- Cicuited electrode free with explosive force, dispelling the weld metal and ‘ceusing considerable spatter. Inductance is the property in an electical circuit that slows down the rate of current rise (Figure 18). The current traveling through an inductance coil creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field creates a current in the welding Circuit that is in opposition to the welding current. Increasing the inductance wil also Increase the arc time and decrease the frequency of short- ckeuting No Inductance Inductance added Current Time Figure 18 Relationship between inductance and current rise For each eloctrode feed rate, there is an optimum value of inductance. Too litle inductance results in excessive spatter, if too much, the current will not rise fast enough and the molten tip ofthe electrode is not heated sufficiently ‘ceusing the electrode to stub into the base metal, Modern electroric power scurces automatically set the inductance to glve a smooth arc and metal transfer. TWI rary an wwrwtwitrairing.com~ copy "W050 13.3 Metal Inert Gas Welding - Basic Equipment Requirements 1) Power source-transformerirectfier (constant voltage type) 2) laverter power source 3) Power hose assembly (iner, power cable, water hose, gas hose) 4) Liner 5) Spare contact tips 8) Torch head assembly 7) Power-retum cable and clamp 8) _15kg wire spool (copper coated and uncoated wires) 9) Power control panel 10) External wire feed unit a es‘The MIGIMAG wire drive assembly 1) An intemal wire drive system, 2) Hatf groove bottom drive roller. Bre pce 1 “= weenanraieacom‘acme waar ‘The MIG torch head assembly 41) Torch body 2) Onioff or latching switch 3) Spot welding spacer attachment 4) Contact tips: 5) Gas difuser 6) Spare shrouds 7) Torch head assembly (minus the shroud) 13.4 Important inspection points/checks when MIG/MAG welding 13.4.4 Welding equipment ‘A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good ‘condition 13.4.2 Electrode wire ‘The diameter, specification and quality of wire are the main inspection headings. The level of de-oxidation of the wire is an important factor with Sirgle, double and triple de-oxidised wires being available. Twi 139 7 www twitraining.com‘Si ag oop 13.43 13.44 13.45 13.46 13.47 ‘The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, the lower the chance of ‘occurrence of porosity in the weld. The quality of the wire winding, copper ‘cating and temper are also important factors in minimising wire feed problems, Qualty of wire windings and increasing costs 'a) Random wound. b) Layer wound. ¢) Precision layer wound. Drive rolls and liner Check the drive rolls are the correct size for the wire and thatthe pressure is ‘only hand tight, or just sufficient to drive the wire. Any excess pressure will deform the wire to an ovular shape, making the wire very diffcult to drive trough the liner, resulting in arcing inthe contact tip and excessive wear of the contact tip and liner. ‘Check that the liner isthe correct type and size for the wire. A size of liner vil generally ft 2 sizes of wire le 0.8 and 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm dlameter. Steel liners are used for steel wires and Tefion Iners for ‘aluminium wires. Contact tip ‘Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven and ‘eck the amount of wear frequently Any loss of contact between the wire and contact tip will reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are ‘cepper coated to maximise the transfer of current by contact between two cecpper surfaces at the contact tip but this also inhibits corroson. The Centact tip should be replaced regularly. Connections ‘The length of the electric arc in MIGIMAG welding is controlled by the vcltage settings, achieved by using a constant voltage voltamp Characteristic Inside the equipment. Any poor connection in the welding Circuit will affect the nature and stability of the electric arc and is thus @ ‘major inspection point. Gas and gas flow rate ‘The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the flew rate from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give good coverage ‘ver the solidifying and molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity. Other variable welding parameters: Checks should be made for correct wire feed speed, voltage, speed of travel ard all other essential variables of the process given on the approved welding procedure. TWI 13:20 ‘worw.twitrairing.comconv TU 13.48 Safety checks 13.5 Twi 13a LM woes Crecks should be made on the current carrying capacity or duty cycle of ‘equipment and electtical insulation. Correct extraction systems shauld be in Use fo avoid exposure to ozone and fumes. ‘Accheck should always be made to ensure that the welder Is qualified ‘te weld the procedure being employed. ‘Typical welding imperfections: ‘+ Slica inclusions (on ferric steels only) caused by poor inter-un cleaning. * Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section vertically down, ‘+ Porosity caused by loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants, ‘= Burn through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet metal Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) In the mid-1980s the development of self and gas-shielded FCAW was a ‘major step in the successful application of on-site semi-automatic welding ‘and has also enabled a much wider range of materials to be welded, ‘The cored wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular fx. This flux can contain elements that would normally be used in MMA electrodes so the process has a very wide range of applications. In addition, gas producing elements and compounds can be added to the flux so the process can be independent of a separate gas shield, which restricts the use of conventional MIG/MAG welding in many field ‘applications. Most wires are sealed mechanically and hermetically with various forms of Joint. The effectiveness of the Joint ofthe wire is an inspection point of cored wie welding as moisture can easily be absorbed into a damaged or poor Wire types commonly used are: + Rutile, which give good positional capabilities. * Basic also positional but good on ‘ity’ material ‘© Metal cored higher productivity, some having excellent root run apatites. ‘+ Self-shielded no external gas needed. Baking of cored wires Is ineffective and will not restore the condition of a ccentaminated flux within a wire,meoen 200 cong sm eI Note that unike MMA electrodes the potential hydrogen levels and ‘mechanical properties of welds with ruil wires can equal those of the basic types. 13.6 Summary of solid wire MIGIMAG GMAW Equipment requirements ‘Transformerirectfier (constant voltage type). Power and power return cable, Inert, active or mixed shielding gas (argon or CO2). Gas hose, flow meter, and gas regulator. ‘MIG torch with hose, liner, difuser, contact tip and nozzle. Wire feed unit with correct drive ros. Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter. Correct visoriglass, all safety ciothing and good extraction. Parameters and inspection points Wire feed speediamperage. (Open circuit and welding voltage. Wire type and diameter. Gas type and flow rate Contact tip size and condition Rolle type, size and pressure, Liner size, Inductance settings. Insulation/extracton. Connections (voltage drops). Travel speed, direction and angles. ‘Typical welding imperfections ‘= Silica inclusions. ‘= Lack of fusion (aip transfer) + Surface porosity ‘Advantages and disadvantages ‘advantages Disadvantages [High productivity Lack of fusion (dip wansfer) Easily automated ‘Small range of consumables ‘Al positional (dip, pulse and FCAW)_| Protection for site working Naterial thickness range ‘Complex equipment ‘Continuous electrode High ozone levels. ‘www .twitraining.comSection 14 Submerged Arc Weldingconsis rims 14 14.4 Submerged Arc Welding The process ‘Submerged arc welding (SAW), is a welding process where an arcis struck between a continuous bare wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode ‘end and molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated or fused powdered flux, which turns into a gas and stag in its lower layers when subjected to the heat of the arc, thus protecting the weld from contamination, The wire ‘electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of motor driven rollers, which are Usually voltage-controlled to ensure an arc of constant length, The fux is fed from @ hopper fixed to the welding head and a tube from the hopper spreads the ux ina continuous elongated mound in front ofthe arc along the line of the intended weld and of sufficient depth to submerge the arc completely 80 there is no spatter, the weld is shielded from the atmosphere and there are ‘no ultra-violet or infra-red radiation effects (see below). Unmelted flux is reclaimed for use. The use of powdered flux restricts the process tp the Nat ‘and horizontal-vertical welding positions Base peel) Plate ‘Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to employ high weld currents ‘owing to the properties and functions of the flux. Such currents gve deep Penetration and high deposition rates. Generally a DC electrode positive Pclarty is employed up to about 1000A because it produces deep Penetration. On some applications (le cladding operations) DC electrode negative is needed to reduce penetration and dilution. At higher currents or inthe case of multiple electrode systems, AC is often preferred to avoid the problem of arc blow (when used with multiple electrode systems, DC electrode positive is used forthe lead arc and AC is used forthe trai arc). Twi 1a a wo training comSt Saran Diffcuties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld wih a pre- ‘determined line owing to the obscuring effect ofthe flux. Where pessible, a ‘Guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the ‘welding head and flux hoppers. Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, linepipe, railway cartiages and anywhere where long welds are required, It can be used to weld thicknesses from 1.5mm upwards Welding low alloy steels (eg fine grained and creep resisting), Welding stainless stoats © Welding nickel alloys. + Cladding to base metals to improve wear and corrosion resistance, 14.2 Fluxes Flix may be defined as granular mineral compounds mixed tc various Tomulations. Welding characteristics (more stable ar, improved weld ‘appearance, easir slag removal, higher welding speeds) (Weld metal mechanical properios (YS, UTS and CVN) ‘amount of Mn and Si C=) Dem) De) Lov] ‘The fused fluxes are produced when the constituents are dry mxed and ‘melted in an electric furnace and thereafter granulated by pouring the wwrwtwitraining.com Twi wa143 stomachs oops Tao 10 rmollen_ mixture into water or on to an ice block. Subsequently, these pertcles are crushed and screened to yield a uniform glass-like procuct. ‘Advantages of fused fluxes ‘+ Good chemical homogeneity ‘+ Less hygroscopic, thus handling and storage are easier. Allow fines (fine powders) to be removed without changes in composition. ‘+ They can easly be recycled through the system without significant ‘change in particle size or composition. Disadvantages of fused fluxes ‘© Limitations in composition as some components, such as basic ‘carbonates would be unable to withstand the melting process. ‘= Difficult to add deoxidisers and ferro-alloys (due to segregation or ‘extremely high loss) In case of agglomerated fluxes constituents may be bonded by mxing the dry constituents with potassium or sodium siicate. This wet mixture is then pelltised, dried, crushed and screened to size. ‘Advantages of agglomerated fluxes ‘+ Deoxidisers and alloying elements can easily be added to the flux to ‘agjust the weld metal composition ‘+ Allow a thicker flux layer when welding, ‘© Can be identified by colour coding Disadvantages of agglomerated fluxes ‘Are generally more hygroscopic (re-baking hardly practical). (Gas may be evolved from the slag as its melted, leading to poresty. ‘+ There may be changes in weld metal chemical composition irom the segregation of fine particles produced by the mechanical handling ofthe granulated fx Process variables ‘There are several variables which when changed can have an effect on the ‘weld appearance and mechanical properties: Welding current. Type of flux and particle distribution Are voltage. ‘Travel speed. Electrode size. Electrode extension, ‘Type of electrode, Width and depth ofthe layer of fx. Electrode angle (leading, tailing) 0 ‘wonw.twitraining.comstmt enya rm sae = Polarity ‘= Single, double or muti wire-system, 14.3.1 Welding current ‘+ Increasing current increases penetration and wire mel-off rate. 350A, ‘500A 650A, Wielding curent effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrade diameter, .38V are voltage and 6tom/inin travel speed). ‘+ Excessively high current produces a deep penetrating arc with a tendency to burn-through, undercut or a high, narrow bead prone to solidification cracking, ‘+ Excessively low current produces an unstable are, lack of penetration and possibly a lack of fusion. 143.2 Are voltage ‘Ate voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode ‘and the molten weld metal. If the arc voltage increases, the arc length increases and vice versa, The voltage principally determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external appearance. 208 ASV ‘Are votoge effect an weld profile (2.4mm electrode dlameter, 600A welding current ‘ard 6femv/min travel speed). Increasing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed wil: Produce a flatter and wider bead, Increase flux consumption. ‘Tend to reduce porosity caused by rust or scale on steel Help to bridge excessive root opening when fitup is poor. Increase pick-up of alloying elements from the flux when they are present. T or Sz i i ‘worw-twitraining.com SIstimegesie ng csogns ra 18 1433 1434 Excessively high are voltage wil ‘+ Produce a wide bead shape that is subject to solidification crackin. ‘+ Make slag removal diffcutin groove welds. ‘+ Produce a concave shaped filet weld that may be subject to cracking ‘Increase undercut along the edge(s) of filet welds. ‘+ Over alloy the weld metal, via the fux. Reducing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed wil ‘+ Produce a stifer arc which improves penetration in a deep weld groove ‘and resists arc blow. Excessively low arc voltage wil + Produce a high, narrow bead. * Cause dificult slag removal along the weld toes. ‘Travel speed Ifthe travel speed is increased: ‘+ Heat input per unit length of weld is decreased. ‘+ Less filer metal is applied per unt length of weld and consequently less ‘excess weld metal. ‘+ Penetration decreases and thus the weld bead becomes smaller. 30.5 emimin—Stem/min 122cm/min Travel speed effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding current and 36V arc voltage) Electrode size Electrode size affects: Wold bead shape and depth of penetration at a given current Anhigh current density results in a stif arc that penetrates into the base ‘metal. Conversely, a lower current density in the same size electrode results Ina soft arc that is less penetrating. Deposition rato Atany given amperage setting, a small diameter electrode will have a higher cutent density and deposition rate of molten metal than a larger diameter electrode. However, a larger dlameter electrode can carry more current than a smaller one, so the larger electrode can ultimately produce a higher deposition rate at higher amperage. woe twitraining.com1435 1436 1437 144 TWI or CA stomaos cers ceo Tso 32mm 4.0mm 5.0mm Bxctrode size effect on weld profile (600A wolaing curent,30V are voltage and 7eem/in travel speed). Electrode extension The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes beyond the contact tip. At high current densities, resistance heating of the ‘lsctrode between the contact tip andthe arc can be uilised to incase the electrode melting rate (as much as 25-50%). The longer the extersion, the ‘greater the amount of heating and the higher the melting rate (see below), 30mm 45mm 60mm 80mm ‘Type of electrode ‘An electrode with a low electrical conductivity, such as stainless steel, can with a normal electrode extension, experience greater resistance heating “Thus for the same size electrode and current, the melting rate of a stainless, ‘stael electrode wil be higher than that of a carbon steel electrode. Width and dopth of flux ‘The with and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance ‘and soundness of the finished weld as well as the welding action. If the ‘granular layer is too deep, the arc is too confined and @ rough weld with a ‘ope-lke appearance Is likely to result, It may also produce local fat areas fn the surface often referred to as gas fats. The gases generated during welding cannot readily escape and the surface of the molten weld metal is lnregulary distorted. If the granular layer is too shallow, the arc will not be ertirely submerged in flux. Flashing and spattering will occur. The weld will hheve a poor appearance and may show porosity ‘Storage and care of consumables Care must be given to fuxes supplied for SAW which, although they may be dy when packaged, may be exposed to high humidity during storage. In wwewtwitraining.com )stirred vc arg conan iso ‘such cases they should be dried in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations before use, or porosity or cracking may result. Ferrous wire colls supplied as continuous feeding electrodes are usually ‘copper-coated. This provides some corrosion resistance, ensures good elsctrical contacts and helps in smooth feeding. Rust and mechanical damage should be avoided in such products, as they interrupt smooth feading of the electrode. Rust will be detrimental to weld quality generally since it is a hygroscopic (may contain or absorb moisture) material and thus cen lead to hydrogen induced cracking, Contamination by carbon containing materials such as ol, grease, paint and crawing lubricants Is especially harmful wit ferrous metals. Carbon pick-up in the weld metal can cause a marked and usually undesirable change in properties. Such contaminants may also result in hydrogen being ebsorbed inthe weld pool Welders should always foliow the manufacturer's recommendations for cecnsumables storage and handling 14.5 Power sources In arc welding it s principally the current which determines the amount of heat generated and this controls the melting of the electrode and parent ‘metal and also such factors as penetration and bead shape and size. Voltage and arc length are also important factors with increasing voltage leading to increasing arc length and vice-versa. Usually in SAW a sonstant valtage (or lat) characteristic power source is used. Power can be supplied from a welding generator with a flat characteristic or 8 transformerirectiier arranged to give output voltages of approximately 414-50V and ranges of current according to the output of the unit these can be in excess of 10000, TWI CM ts www twitraining.comSection 15 Thermal Cutting Processes15 154 ‘ermoh om Thermal Cutting Processes Oxy-fuel cutting ‘The oxy-fuel cutting process cuts or removes metal by the chemical reaction of oxygen with the metal et elevated temperatures, The necessary temperature is provided by a gas flame, which preheais and bangs the material up to the buming temperature (approximately 850°C). Cnce this temperature is achieved, a stream of oxygen is.released, which rapidly oxidises most of the metal and performs the actual cutting operation. Metal oxides, together with molten metal, are expelled from the cut by the kinetic energy of the oxygen stream. Moving the torch across the workpiece produces a continuous cutting action ‘onygen Oryfuel cuting. In order to be cut by the oxy-fuel cutting process, a material must simultaneously fulfil two conditions: {Suing temperature must be low the parent material meng pot + Melting temperature of the oxides formed during the cutting process ‘must be below the parent material melting point These two conditions are fulfled by carbon steels and some low alloy steels. However, the oxides of many ofthe alloying elements in steels, such a¢ aluminium and chromium have melting points higher than those of iron ‘ides. These high melting point oxides (which are refractory in nature! may shield the material in the kerf so that fresh iron is not continuously ‘exposed to the cutting oxygen stream, leading to a decrease of the cutting ‘steed and ultimately an unstable process. In practice, the process is