Brief Contents

Features of the Book iv

Preface vii
Detailed Contents xii

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Introduction to Object Oriented Programming

Basics of C++ Programming
Decision Control and Looping Statements
Functions
Arrays
Strings
Pointers
Structure, Union, and Enumerated Data Types
Classes and Objects
Constructors and Destructors
Operator Overloading and Type Conversions
Inheritance and Run-Time Polymorphism
File Handling
Templates
Exception Handling
STL and New Features in C++
Object-Oriented System Analysis, Design, and Development

Appendix A C++ Standard Library Functions

Appendix B C++ Interview Questions 772
Index 778
About the Author 781

769

1
27
84
143
190
242
280
331
368
428
472
527
590
629
669
710
754

Detailed Contents
Features of the Book
Preface vii
Brief Contents xi

iv

1. Introduction to Object Oriented

Programming

1.7 Compilers

Introduction 1
1.1 Generation of Programming
Languages 2

2. Basics of C++ Programming

1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4

2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4

10

Monolithic Programming 10
Procedural Programming 10
Structured Programming 11
Object Oriented Programming 12

1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
1.3.9

Classes 14
Objects 14
Method and Message Passing 15
Inheritance 16
Polymorphism: Static Binding and
Dynamic Binding 17
Containership 17
Genericity 17
Delegation 18
Data Abstraction and Encapsulation

1.4 Merits and Demerits of

Object Oriented Programming
Language 19
1.5 Applications of Object Oriented
Programming 20
1.6 Differences Between Programming
Languages 20

Source Code File 31

Header Files 31
Object Files 32
Binary Executable File

32

2.5 Compiling and Executing C++

Programs 32
2.6 Using Comments 34
2.7 Tokens in C++ 35
2.8 Character Set 35
2.9 Keywords 35
2.10 Identifier 36
2.11 Data Types in C++ 36
2.12 Variables 39

1.3 Features of Object Oriented

Programming 14
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5

27

Introduction to C++ 27
2.1 History of C++ 27
2.2 Structure of a C++ Program 28
2.3 Writing the First C++ Program 28
2.4 Files used in a C++ Program 30

1.1.1 First Generation: Machine

Language 2
1.1.2 Second GenerationAssembly
Language 3
1.1.3 Third Generation: High-Level
Language 5
1.1.4 Fourth Generation: Very High-Level
Languages 8
1.1.5 Fifth Generation Programming
Language 9

1.2 Programming Paradigms

22

2.12.1 Declaring Variables 39

2.12.2 Initializing Variables 40
2.12.3 Reference Variables 40

2.13 Constants

18

2.13.1
2.13.2
2.13.3
2.13.4
2.13.5

41

Integer Constant 41
Floating Point Constant 42
Character Constant 42
String Constant 42
Declaring Constants 42

2.14 Input and Output Statements in C++

2.14.1 Streams 43
2.14.2 Reading and Writing Characters and
Strings 45
2.14.3 Formatted Input and Output
Operations 46

2.15 Operators in C++

52

2.15.1 Arithmetic Operators

52

43

xiii

Detailed Contents

2.15.2
2.15.3
2.15.4
2.15.5
2.15.6
2.15.7
2.15.8
2.15.9
2.15.10
2.15.11

Relational Operators 54
Equality Operators 55
Logical Operators 56
Unary Operators 57
Conditional Operators 59
Bitwise Operators 60
Assignment Operators 62
Comma Operator 63
Sizeof Operator 64
Operator Precedence and
Associativity 64

4.3 Function Declaration or Function

Prototype 145
4.4 Function Definition 147
4.5 Function Call 148
4.6 Return Statement 149
4.7 Passing Parameters to the Function

4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11

2.16 Type Conversion and Type

Casting 71
2.16.1 Type Conversion 71
2.16.2 Type Casting 73

Annexure 1 User Defined Header Files

82

84

Introduction to Decision Control

Statements 84
3.1 Conditional Branching
Statements 84

3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4

3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

111

3.6.1 Key Points about Goto Statement

Introduction 143
4.1 Need for Functions 144
4.2 Using Functions 145

165

Auto Storage Class 165

Register Storage Class 166
Extern Storage Class 167
Static Storage Class 168
Comparison of Storage Classes

169

170

127

172

4.14.1 Matching Function Calls with Overloaded

Functions 173
4.14.2 Key Points about Function
Overloading 174
4.14.3 Functions that Cannot be
Overloaded 176

4.15 Recursive Functions

3.7 Avoiding Usage of Break, Continue,

and Goto Statements 128
Case Study 1 139
143

Block Scope 163

Function Scope 163
Scope of the Program 164
File Scope 165

4.14 Function Overloading

Nested Loops 111

Break Statement 123
Continue Statement 125
Goto Statement 126

4. Functions

4.12.1
4.12.2
4.12.3
4.12.4
4.12.5

162

4.13.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Inline

Functions 171
4.13.2 Comparison of Inline Functions with
Macros 171

100

While Loop 100

Do-While Loop 104
For Loop 107
Selecting an Appropriate Loop

4.11.1
4.11.2
4.11.3
4.11.4

4.13 Inline Functions

If Statement 85
If-Else Statement 86
If-Else-If Statement 89
Switch Case Statement 95

3.2 Iterative Statements

Default Arguments 159

Return by Reference 161
Passing Constants as Arguments
Variables Scope 163

4.12 Storage Classes

3. Decision Control and Looping

Statements

3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4

151

4.7.1 Call-by-Value 151

4.7.2 Call-by-Address 153
4.7.3 Call-by-Reference 154

177

4.15.1 Greatest Common Divisor

4.15.2 Finding Exponents 179
4.15.3 Fibonacci Series 180

178

4.16 Recursion Versus Iteration 181

4.17 Functions with Variable Number of
Arguments 182
5. Arrays
Introduction 190
5.1 Declaration of Arrays 191
5.2 Accessing Elements of the Array

190

192

xiv

Detailed Contents

7. Pointers

5.2.1 Calculating the Address of Array

Elements 193

5.3 Storing Values in Arrays

194

5.3.1 Initialization of Arrays 194

5.3.2 Inputting Values 195
5.3.3 Assigning Values 195

5.4 Calculating the Length of Array 196

5.5 Operations that can be Performed on
Arrays 196
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5

Traversal 197
Insertion 203
Deletion 204
Merging 205
Searching the Array Elements

5.6.1 Passing Individual Elements 212

5.6.2 Passing the Entire Array 213

7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14

216

5.7.1 Declaration of Two-dimensional

Arrays 217
5.7.2 Initialization of Two-dimensional
Arrays 219
5.7.3 Accessing the Elements 219

7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20

5.9.1 Passing a Row 226

5.9.2 Passing the Entire Two-dimensional
Array 226

230

6. Strings

242

Introduction 242
6.1 Representation and Declaration of
Strings 242
6.1.1 Reading Strings 244
6.1.2 Writing Strings 245

6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

Understanding Computers
Memory 280
Defining Pointers 281
Declaring Pointer Variables 282
Pointer Expressions and Pointer
Arithmetic 286
Null Pointers 288
Generic Pointers 289
Passing Arguments to Function Using
Pointers 289
Pointers and Arrays 290
Passing Array to Function 295
Differences Between Array Name and
Pointers 296
Pointers and Strings 298
Array of Pointers 300
Pointers and 2D Arrays 302
Pointers and 3D Arrays 306
Pointers to Functions 307

7.14.1 Initializing Function Pointer 307

7.14.2 Calling a Function using a Function
Pointer 308
7.14.3 Comparing Function Pointers 309
7.14.4 Passing a Function Pointer as an
Argument to a Function 309

5.8 Operations on Two-dimensional

Arrays 223
5.9 Two-dimensional Arrays for InterFunction Communication 226

5.10 Multi-dimensional Arrays

Case Study 2 237

7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9

207

5.6 One-Dimensional Arrays for Inter

Function Communication 212
5.7 Two-Dimensional Arrays

7.1
7.2
7.3

280

String Taxonomy 246

Strings Operations 247
Character Manipulation Functions 256
String Functions Defined in string.h
Header File 257
6.6 Array of Strings 265

Array of Function Pointers 310

Pointers to Pointers 311
Constant Pointer 312
Pointer to Constants 312
Constant Pointer to a Constant 312
Memory Allocation in C++
Programs 313
7.21 Memory Usage 313
7.22 Dynamic Memory Allocation 314
7.22.1 Memory Allocation Process 314
7.22.2 Allocating Memory Using the New
Operator 314
7.22.3 Releasing the Used Space using the
delete Operator 315
7.22.4 Alter the Size of Allocated Memory 316
7.22.5 Advantages of new/delete Operators
over malloc()/free() 317
7.22.6 Dynamically Allocating 2D Arrays 319

Annexure 2 Deciphering Pointer

Declarations 327

xv

Detailed Contents

8. Structure, Union, and

Enumerated Data Types

331

Introduction 331
8.1 Structure Declaration 331
8.2 Typedef Declarations 332
8.3 Initialization of Structures 333
8.4 Accessing the Members of a
Structure 334
8.5 Copying and Comparing Structures
8.6 Nested Structures 337
8.7 Arrays of Structures 339
8.8 Structures and Functions 342
8.8.1
8.8.2
8.8.3
8.8.4

335

Passing Individual Members 342

Passing the Entire Structure 343
Returning Structures 344
Passing Structures Through Pointers

346

8.9 Self-Referential Structures 351

8.10 C++ Extension to Structures 352
8.11 Union 353
8.11.1 Declaring a Union 353
8.11.2 Accessing a Member of a Union
8.11.3 Initializing Unions 405

405

8.13.1 Enum Variables 357

8.13.2 Assigning Values to Enumerated
Variables 357
8.13.3 Enumeration Type Conversion 357
8.13.4 Comparing Enumerated Types 358
8.13.5 Input or Output Operations on Enumerated
Types 358

365

9. Classes and Objects

Introduction 368
9.1 Specifying a Class

368

368

9.1.1 Class Declaration 369

9.1.2 Function Definition 370

9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

9.7 Array of Objects 383

9.8 Dynamic Memory Allocation for Array
of Objects 383
9.9 Objects as Function Arguments 386
9.10 Returning Objects 387
9.11 this Pointer 388
9.12 Constant Parameters and Members 395
9.13 Pointers Within a Class 397
9.14 Local Classes 399
9.15 Nested Classes in C++ 400
9.16 Complex Objects (Object
Composition) 401
9.17 Empty Classes 403
9.18 Friend Function 409
9.19 Friend Class 411
9.20 Bit-Fields in Classes 416
9.21 Pointers and Class Members 418
9.21.1 Declaring and Assigning Pointer to Data
Members of a Class 418
9.21.2 Pointer to Member Functions 420

8.12 Unions Inside Structures 354

8.13 Enumerated Data Types 355

Annexure 3 Bit-Fields in Structures

Case Study 3 367

9.6.1 Memory Allocation for Static Data

Members 379
9.6.2 Static Member Functions 381
9.6.3 Static Object 382

Creating Objects 371

Accessing Object Members 372
Nested Member Functions 372
Making a Member Function Inline
Memory Allocation for Class and
Objects 378

10. Constructors and Destructors 428

Introduction 428
10.1 Constructor 429
10.2 Types of Constructors

430

10.2.1 Dummy Constructor (Do Nothing

Constructor) 430
10.2.2 Default Constructor 430
10.2.3 Parameterized Constructor 431
10.2.4 Copy Constructor 431
10.2.5 Dynamic Constructor 433

10.3 Constructor with Default

Arguments 433
10.4 Constructor Overloading 435
10.5 Destructors 450
10.5.1 Important Features 450
10.5.2 Interesting Points about Constructors and
Destructors 456

373

10.6 Object Copy 459

10.7 Constant Objects 460
10.7.1 Key Features of Constant Object

10.8 Anonymous Objects

461

460

xvi

Detailed Contents

10.8.1 Scope of Anonymous Objects 462

10.8.2 Advantages of Anonymous Objects 462

10.9 Anonymous Classes

Case Study 4 469

462

Introduction 472
11.1 Scope of Operator Overloading 472
11.2 Syntax for Operator Overloading 473
11.3 Operators that can and cannot be
Overloaded 474
11.4 Implementing Operator
Overloading 475
11.5 Overloading Unary Operators 475
11.5.1 Using a Member Function to Overload a
Unary Operator 475
11.5.2 Returning Object 476
11.5.3 Returning a Nameless Object 477
11.5.4 Using a Friend Function to Overload a
Unary Operator 477
11.5.5 Overloading the Prefix Increment and
Decrement Operators 478
11.5.6 Overloading the Post-Fix Increment and
Post-Fix Decrement Operators 479

11.6 Overloading Binary Operators 489

11.7 Overloading Special Operators 499
11.7.1 Overloading New and Delete
Operators 500
11.7.2 Overloading Subscript Operators []
and () 502
11.7.3 Overloading Class Member Access
Operator (->) 505
11.7.4 Overloading Input and Output
Operators 506

Introduction

12.6 Multi-Level Inheritance 538

12.7 Constructor in Multi-Level
Inheritance 539
12.8 Multiple Inheritance 544
12.9 Constructors and Destructors in Multiple
Inheritance 545
12.10 Ambiguity in Multiple
Inheritance 547
12.10.1 Solution for the Ambiguity
Problem 547
12.10.2 No Ambiguity in Single
Inheritance 548

12.11 Hierarchical Inheritance 548

12.12 Constructors and Destructors in
Hierarchical Inheritance 550
12.13 Hybrid Inheritance 552
12.14 Multi-path Inheritance 562

12.17.1 Upcasting, Downcasting, and

Cross-Casting 567

12.18 Run-time Polymorphism

12.19 Virtual Functions 568

527

567

12.19.1 Run-Time Polymorphism through

Virtual Functions 568
12.19.2 Rules for Virtual Functions 570

12.20
12.21
12.22
12.23

525

527

12.5.1 Invoking Constructors With

Arguments 536

12.15 Virtual Base Classes 562

12.16 Object Slicing 564
12.17 Pointers to Derived Class 565

507

12. Inheritance and Run-Time

Polymorphism

12.3 Types of Inheritance 530

12.4 Single Inheritance 530
12.5 Constructors and Destructors in
Derived Classes 534

12.14.1 Problem in Multi-Path Inheritance or

Diamond Problem 562

11.8.1 Conversion from Basic to Class Type 507

11.8.2 Conversion from Class to Basic Data
Type 507
11.8.3 Conversion from Class to Class Type 513

Case Study 5

528

12.2.1 Inheriting Protected Members 529

12.2.2 Inheriting the Class in Protected
Mode 530

11. Operator Overloading and Type

Conversions
472

11.8 Type Conversions

12.1 Defining Derived Classes

12.2 Access Specifiers 528

Pure Virtual Functions 571

Abstract Base Classes 572
Concept of Vtables 575
Virtual Constructor and
Destructors 577

12.23.1 Virtual Destructor

577

12.24 Pros and Cons of Inheritance

578

xvii

Detailed Contents

13. File Handling

590

Introduction 590
13.1 Streams in C++ 590
13.2 Classes for File Stream
Operations 591
13.3 Opening and Closing of Files

Introduction 669
15.1 Exception Handling

592

596

15.2 Exceptions in Constructors and

Destructors 684
15.3 Exceptions in Operator Overloaded
Functions 686
15.4 Exceptions and Inheritance 687
15.5 Exceptions and Templates 688
15.6 Handling Uncaught Exceptions 695
15.7 Standard Exceptions 699
15.8 Advantages of Exception
Handling 700
15.9 Word of Caution 701

602

13.7.1 ASCII Text Files 602

13.7.2 Binary Files 603

13.8 Sequential Input and Output

Functions 603
13.8.1 Get() and Put() 604
13.8.2 Read() and Write() Functions

607

13.9 Error Handling During File

Operations 615
13.10 Accepting Command Line
Arguments 616
Case Study 6 627
14. Templates

670

Multiple Catch Statements 672

Catch all Exceptions 673
Exceptions in Invoked Function 674
Stack Unwinding 676
Rethrowing Exception 676
Restricting the Exceptions that can be
Thrown 677
15.1.7 Catching Class Type as
Exceptions 679

13.6.1 Manipulating File Pointers 600

13.6.2 Specifying the offset 601

13.7 Types of Files

669

15.1.1
15.1.2
15.1.3
15.1.4
15.1.5
15.1.6

13.3.1 Opening Files Using

Constructors 593
13.3.2 Opening Files using Member
Function 595
13.3.3 Test For Errors 595

13.4 Detecting the End-of-File

13.5 File Modes 598
13.6 File Pointers and their
Manipulators 599

15. Exception Handling

16. STL and New Features in C++ 710

629

Introduction 629
14.1 Use of Templates 630
14.2 Function Templates 630
14.2.1 Templates Versus Macros 632
14.2.2 Guidelines for Using Template
Functions 632

14.3 Class Template 641

14.4 Class Templates and Friend Function 648
14.5 Templates and Static Variables in
C++ 651
14.6 Class Templates and Inheritance 653
14.7 Class Template with Operator
Overloading 660
14.8 Pros and Cons of Templates 662

Introduction 710
16.1 Containers 710
16.2 Algorithms 712
16.3 Iterators 714
16.4 Using Containers 715
16.4.1
16.4.2
16.4.3
16.4.4

Vector 715
Dequeue 716
Lists 717
Maps 719

16.5 String Class 722

16.6 Data Type Boolean

725

16.6.1 Uses of Boolean Data Type 726

16.6.2 Applications of Operators 726

16.7 Wchar_t Data Type 727

16.8 Run-Time Type Information
16.8.1
16.8.2
16.8.3
16.8.4
16.8.5

Static_cast Operator

728

728

Const_cast 729
Reinterpret_cast 730
Dynamic_cast Operator 731
Typeid Operator 732

xviii

Detailed Contents

17.3 Object Oriented Software Development

Methodology 756
17.4 Object-Oriented Systems
Development 756

16.9 Explicit Keyword 734

16.10 Mutable Keyword 736
16.11 Namespaces 737
16.11.1 Nested Namespaces 738
16.11.2 Unnamed Namespaces 739
16.11.3 Similarity and Dissimilarity with
Classes 740
16.11.4 Classes Within Namespaces 740

17.4.1
17.4.2
17.4.3
17.4.4

Object-Oriented Analysis 757

Object-Oriented Design 758
Prototyping 759
Objectives of OO Analysis and
Design 760
17.4.5 Tools in OO Analysis and OO
Design 760
17.4.6 Implementing Component-based
Development 761

16.12 Operator Keywords 741

16.13 Specifying Header Files 741
Annexure 4 Volatile and Restrict
Qualifiers 750
Annexure 5 Smart Pointers 752

17.5 Unified Modelling Language

17. Object Oriented System Analysis,

Design, and Development
754
Introduction 754
17.1 Traditional Software Development
Process 755
17.2 Building High-Quality Software 755
Appendix A C++ Standard Library Functions
Appendix B C++ Interview Questions 772
Index 778
About the Author 781

769

17.5.1
17.5.2
17.5.3
17.5.4
17.5.5
17.5.6
17.5.7
17.5.8

Class Diagrams 762

Object Diagram 763
Component Diagram 763
Deployment Diagram 763
Use Case Diagram 764
Sequence Diagram 764
State Chart Diagram 764
Activity Diagram 765

762