BLDEAs Association

V.P Dr. P.G.H. College of Engineering &

Technology, Bijapur-586103.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
Master of Technology
In
Digital Communication & Networking

DEC-LAB I
LABORATORY MANUAL
2014-15

SUBJECT: DEC LAB I (14ECS16)

Expt. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

SEMESTER: IstSem M.Tech (DCN)

Name of the Experiment

Study of digital modulation techniques using trainer kit(ASK,PSK,FSK)
Measurement of guide wave length, frequency and VSWR using the
Klystron Power Source.
Determination of coupling coefficient and insertion loss of directional
couplers.
Matlab implementation to obtain the radiation pattern of an antenna.
(Dipole Antenna )
Radiation pattern of different antennas using matlab.
(Loop Antenna & linear array)
Analysis of E & H plane horns using matlab.
Determination of the modes transit time, electronic timing range and
sensitivity of klystron source.
Significance of pocklington's integral equation using matlab.
Matlab Program to generate the pseudo random sequence.
Determine the directivity and gains of Horn/ Yagi/ dipole/ Parabolic
antennas using matlab.

STUDY OF DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Expt No: 1A

Date:
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)

Aim: To study ASK modulation with the help of Trainer kit

Apparatus:
SI No

Apparatus

Quantity

1.

ASK Trainer kit

2.

CRO
Patch cords and
probes

3.

--

Theory:
The binary ASK signaling is one of the earliest forms of digital modulation used in the wireless
telegraphy of the beginning of the century. While ASK is no longer widely used in the digital
communication. It is smallest form of the digital modulation and serves as useful model for
introducing certain concept. One binary ASK waveform can be described as
Z(t) = 1 ( t - ( k 1 ) Tb )
2 ( t - ( k 1 ) Tb )

if bk = 0
if bk = 1 ( k 1 ) Tb t kTb

Where 2(t) = A cos ct (0 t Tb) & S1(t) = 0 we will assume that the carrier frequency c =
2n/Tb where n is an integer.
In amplitude shift keying the carrier amplitude is varied with variables in the binary bit
stream. An ASK wave can be generated by using product modulator whose input is the binary bit
stream in unipolar format and a sinusoidal carrier of the amplitude A and frequency f. For
detection of binary ASK signal we make use of coherent detection scheme.
In coherent detection scheme a multiplier is used to multiply the incoming signal with a
locally generated carrier. The output of the multiplier is integrated by an integrator circuit for every
successive bit interval. The integrated output is input to comparator or a three hold level is therefore
very important in coherent detection of ASK.

Procedure:

Modulation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Switch ON the experimental board.

Observe the bit clock frequency on oscilloscope. Adjust frequency to 10 KHz.
Set the SPDT switch pattern to desired code.
Parallel load by changing the switch to opposite side for a short duration and get back to shift
position.
Observe the 8-bit word pattern at output of the 8 bit word generator.
Adjust the carrier frequency of 100KHz and 5V(p-p) & give this input to ASK modulation input
using patch cords.
Connect the 8 bit word generator output to data input terminal of ASK modulator.
Observe the data input and ASK output simultaneously on CRO.
Change the 8 bit word sequence with the help of SPDT switches and load it. Check the output
of ASK modulator with respect to data signal.

Observations:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Amplitude of data I/P =

Frequency of the data I/P =
Amplitude of clock signal =
Frequency of clock signal =
ASK MODULATION

Modulator

+ 5

-5

1 6

A n a lo g
I/P
1 4

1 3
A S K O /P

C D 4 5 0 2
A n a lo g
I/P

1 K
1 K

1 0
D a ta I/P

1 2
6

1 5

1 1

PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)

Expt No: 1B

Date:

Aim: To study the operation of phase shift keying Modulation with the help of PSK kit.
Apparatus:
SI No

Apparatus

Quantity

1.

PSK Trainer kit

2.

CRO

3.

Patch cords and probes

--

Theory:
Digital PSK modulation scheme is a binary 1 is represented by a sinusoidal carrier of
amplitude A & frequency fc with phase 1 which a binary 0 is represented by sinusoidal carrier
amplitude A & frequency fc with phase 2. Generally 1=0 & 2=180 which implies that the
difference in phase of the two carrier used to represent 0 & 1 is 180. Mathematically binary PSK
wave can be represented as,
S(t) = Ac cos(2fct) symbol 1
= Ac cos(2fct+) symbol 0
a) Generation of BPSK wave:
A binary PSK wave is generated using a product modulator whose input are the sinusoidal
carrier Acos(2fct) & binary bit scheme in the polar form. The PSK wave is somewhat similar to a
DSB-SC wave.
b) Detection of BPSK wave:
The scheme of the detection of BPSK signal consists of multiple in the first phase which
is used to multiply the coming BPSK wave with a logically generated carrier. The output of the
multiplier is integrated by integrator circuit for every bit interval. The integrated O/P is the I/P to the
comparator or a threshold device whos O/P is either logic 1 or 0.
Procedure:
1. Switch ON the PSK kit.
2. Apply the carrier signal to the input of modulator.
3. Apply the modulating signal to modulation input and observe on channel 1 of CRO.
4. Observe the output of PSK modulator on channel 2 of CRO.
5. Apply this PSK output to the demodulator input & also apply carrier input.
6. Observe the demodulator output & compare it with modulating data signal applied to the
modulator input.
Observations:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Amplitude of the modulating signal=

Frequency of the modulating signal=
Amplitude of the carrier signal=
Frequency of the carrier signal=
PSK MODULATION

Modulator
47k

47k
c a rrie r
i/p

+5

-5

16

5V
TL084
-5V

6
8
11

9
10

D a ta i/p

FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)

P S K O /P

Expt No: 1B

Date:

Aim: To study FSK modulation using FSK Trainer kit.

Apparatus:
SI No
1.

Apparatus
FSK Trainer kit

Quantity
1

2.

CRO

3.

Patch cords and probes

--

Theory:
In an FSK system a sinusoidal wave of amplitude A & frequency fc is used to represent
a binary 1 where as a sinusoidal of amplitude 0.
Mathematically a binary wave can be represented by
(t) = Ac cos(2*22/-7*fc*t) symbol 1
= Ac cos(2*22/7*fc*t) symbol 0
Generation of BPSK wave:
A sinusoidal carrier of amplitude A and frequency fc and a binary bit stream in polar
form is applied to frequency modulator. As the bit stream i/p changes from one level to another, the
transmitted frequency also changes proportionally thus yielding a BPSK signal.
Demodulation of BPSK wave:
A coherent detection is used for demodulation of binary PSK wave. Two characters
which are tuned for different frequency corresponding to binary 1 and 0 are used. The two
correlations o/p is compared using a comparator or CRO.
Procedure:
Modulator:
1.
Switch ON the experimental board.
2.
Observe the bit clock frequency on oscilloscope. Adjust frequency to 10KHz.
3.
Set the DIP switches to the desired patterns.
4.
Parallel load by the switch to PL side for a short duration.
5.
Observe the 8-bit word pattern at output of the shift register. This is the modulating signal.
6.
Connect the Oscilloscope to the o/p of the VCO

7.

Connect modulating I/p to GND. Measure the o/p freq. It should be 307.2 KHz otherwise adjust
the 1M trim pot at pin2 to get freq.

8.
9.
10.
11.

Connect modulating I/p of VCO to + 5V. Observe o/p freq of VCO on CRO. It should be 614.4
KHz otherwise adjust the 50K pot.
VCO is tuned properly to match demodulator.
Connect the shift register o/p and modulating signal to the modulator.
Charge the DIP pattern and observe the o/p for different bit patterns.

Observations:
1.
Amplitude of the modulating signal =
2. Frequency of the modulating signal =
3. Amplitude of the carrier signal =
4. Frequency of the carrier signal =

FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

Modulator
50k

4 .7 k

1k

+5V
16

11

9
M o d u la tin g
i/p

16
10

5
7

+5V

12

C D 4046

1M

H F FSK
O /P

L F A S K o /p
8

11

50pF

VCO

13

C D 4020

D E V ID E R

MEASUREMENT OF GUIDE WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY & VSWR USING

KLYSTRON POWER SOURCE
Expt No:

Date:

Aim: To determine the Guide wavelength, Frequency & VSWR of a rectangular waveguide.
Apparatus:
SI NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Apparatus
Gunn Power supply
Reflex klystron Mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Slotted section
Tunable Detector probe
CRO
Matched load

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Theory:
A Rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube used to guide an electromagnetic wave.
Educational purpose Microwave benches are operating in X Band. But their general frequency range
is between 3-100 GHz. Within this range they are superior to Co-axial transmission lines. The power
handling capability is due to reflection from the walls. Also the power loss in waveguides is less than
of transmission lines.
Modes of propagation:
1. Transverse Electric mode(TE mode): In this mode there is no component of Electric field in the
direction of propagation.
2. Transverse Magnetic mode(TM mode): In this mode there is no component of Magnetic field in
the direction of propagation.
When a TEM wave is passed through the waveguide, electric field is short circuited
through the walls, no potential exists. Hence, TEM wave cannot propagate.
Guide wavelength: It is defined as the distance traveled by the EM wave in the z-direction when
there is phase change of 2 radians. It also represents the axial length corresponding to one cycle i.e,
distance between two consecutive minima of variation of electric field configuration.

We have,

g =Vp / f =2f / f
g =2 / 1-( / c)2
g =1 / 1-( / c)2 f
g = / 1-( / c)2
The standing wave ratio is defined as,
SWR=Vmax / Vmin
SWR results due to in phase & out of phase components. Thus we get maxima & minima and Guide
wavelength g.
Procedure:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Keep the Beam voltage minimum & Repeller voltage greater than 250V.
Observe the Detected output (Square wave) on CRO.
Observe the DIP on CRO & Record the Frequency with the help of frequency meter.
Moving the probe carriage between maxima & Minima, record the distance between two
consecutive minima on vernier scale.
5) Calculate g , Using g =2d in cms.
6) Repeat the procedure for three different frequencies.
7) Compare the observed and calculated.
Observations:
1. Horizontal Dimensions of the waveguide = a = 2.3 cms.
2. Cut-off wavelength = c = 2a = 4.6 cms.
3. Cut-off frequency = fc = c / c
Where c = Velocity of light in free space = 3 x 108 mts /sec.
fc = (3x108)/(4.6) = 6.52 GHz.
4. Repeller voltage =
5. Beam voltage =
6. Beam current =

TABLE 1

SI
No

Frequency
in GHz (f)

Wavelength
in cms =c/f

Load type

Vmax

Distance
between 2
consecutive
minima in
cms

Measured
Guide
wavelength
g in cms.

Calculated
Guide
wavelength g
in cms.

1
2
3
TABLE 2
SI
No
1
2
3

Vmax
AVG

Vmin

Vmin
AVG

VSWR=Vmax/Vmin

Matched
Load
Open
Circuited
Short
circuited

Calculation for guide wavelength:

LC =

1 Main Scale Division

Total No of Vernier Scale Division
0.1
10

= 0.01
Total Reading (TR) = MSR + (CVD x LC)
Where MSR = main scale reading & CVD = Coinciding vernier scale reading.

MEASUREMENT OF GUIDE WAVELENGTH , FREQUENCY, VSWR

E x p e rim e n ta l s e tu p
C R O
K ly s tro n
pow er
s u p p ly

R e fle x
K ly s tro n
O s c illa to r

T u n a b le
D e te c to r
p ro b e

Is o la to r

F re q u e n c y
M e te r

S lo tte d
s e c tio n

O pen
c irc u it

S h o rt
T e rm in a tio n

M a tc h e d
lo a d

NATURE OF GRAPH

DETERMINATION OF COUPLING COEFFICIENT AND INSERTION

LOSS OF STRIPLINE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
Expt no:

Date:

Aim: To measure the coupling and isolation characteristics of a strip line directional coupler.
Equipments/Components:
1. Microwave signal source(2.2-3 GHz)
2. VSWR meter.
3. Coaxial detector.
4. Attenuator pads- 3dB,6dB,10dB
5. Matched Loads(50)-2
6. SMA/BNC connector fitted cables
7. Microstrip parallel coupled directional coupler.
Theory:
A directional coupler is a 4-port reciprocal passive network. The basic function of a
coupler is to sample power flowing in one direction in a transmission line and reject power
flowing in the opposite direction. It also performs the function of power division but with the
output signals having 900 phase difference between them.
In microstrip and stripline configurations, two basic forms of directional couplers are
commonly used. They are called branch line coupler and parallel coupled directional coupler.
These couplers form the basic blocks of many other microwave components, such as balanced
mixers, variable attenuators and PIN diode shifters. In this experiment, the parallel coupled
directional coupler is used.
Procedure :

Matlab/C implementation of to obtain the radiation pattern of an antenna

Expt No:

Date:

Aim: Write a C/Matlab program to obtain the radiation pattern of an antenna

Tools Required:

Matlab 7.0
Windows xp

Theory :
Dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used class of antenna. It
consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods, which are
usually bilaterally symmetrical. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for
receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the
antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the
conductors.
Dipoles are resonant antennas, meaning that the elements serve as resonators,
with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends. So the length of
the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves used. The radiation
pattern of a vertical dipole is omnidirectional ; it radiates equal power in all azimuthal directions
perpendicular to the axis of the antenna. Dipoles may be used as standalone antennas themselves,
but they are also employed as feed antennas (driven elements) in many more complex antenna
types, such as the Yagi antenna, parabolic antenna, reflective array, turnstile antenna, log
periodic antenna, and phased array.
Procedure :
1) Open the software matlab version 7.8
2) Write the program in the editor command
3) Run the script form the command window .
4) Enter the inputs and compare the result with analytic result.
5) Plot the figure for the obtained result.

Program for radiation pattern of dipole antenna:

clc;
lamda=1;
l=input('enter your dipole length l in terms of lamda(for ex: 0.5 for 0.5lamda)= ');
ratio=l/lamda;
B=(2*pi/lamda);
theta= pi/100:pi/100:2*pi;
if ratio<= 0.1 %check if Short Dipole
E=sin(theta);
En=abs(E);
polar(theta,En);
else %check if not short dipole
f1=cos(B*l/2.*cos(theta));
f2=cos(B*l/2);
f3=sin(theta);
E=(f1-f2)./f3;
En=abs(E);
polar(theta,En);
end

Simulation Results
Enter your dipole length l in terms of lamda(for ex: 0.5 for 0.5lamda)= 0.5

90

120

60

0.8
0.6

150

30

0.4
0.2

180

210

330

240

300
270

Enter your dipole length l in terms of lamda(for ex: 0.5 for 0.5lamda)= 1.8

90

2.5

120

60

1.5

150

30

1
0.5

180

210

330

240

300
270

Experimental study of radiation pattern of an antenna

Expt No:

Date:

Aim: Write a Matlab program to obtain the radiation pattern of any antennas
Tools Required:

Matlab 7.0
Windows xp

Theory : A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop (or loops) of wire, tubing, or
other electrical conductor with its ends connected to a balanced transmission line. Within this
physical description there are two very distinct antenna designs: the small loop (or magnetic
loop) with a size much smaller than a wavelength, and the resonant loop antenna with a
circumference approximately equal to the wavelength.
Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving antennas at low
frequencies. Except for car radios, almost every AM broadcast receiver sold has such an antenna
built inside it or directly attached to it. These antennas are also used for radio direction finding.
In amateur radio, loop antennas are often used for low profile operation. Loop antennas are
relatively easy to build.
A small loop antenna, also known as a magnetic loop, generally has a circumference of
less than one tenth of a wavelength, in which case there will be a relatively constant current
distribution along the conductor. As the frequency or the size is increased, a standing wave starts
to develop in the current, and the antenna starts to acquire some of the characteristics of a
resonant loop (but isn't resonant); these intermediate cases thus cannot be analyzed using the
concepts developed for the small and resonant loop antennas described below. Resonant loop
antennas are relatively large, governed by the intended wavelength of operation.
Procedure :
1)

Open the software matlab version 7.8

2)

Write the program in the editor command

3)

Run the script form the command window .

4)

Enter the inputs and compare the result with analytic result.

5)

Plot the figure for the obtained result.

a)Program for radiation pattern of loop antenna:

clc;

lamda=1;
a=input('enter your loop radius a= ');
B=(2*pi/lamda);
theta= pi/100:pi/100:2*pi;
E=besselj(1,B*a.*sin(theta));
polar(theta,E);
Simulation Results :
Enter your loop radius a= 0.5
90
120

0.6

60

0.4
150

30
0.2

180

210

330

240

300
270

b)Program for radiation pattern of linear Array:

clc;

lamda=input('enter the value of wave length= ');

N=input('enter the no. of elements(3,4,5...)= ');
alfa=input('enter your progressive phase(alpha=0,45...)= ');
d=input('enter the seperation distance between elements(in terms of lamda for ex: 0.3 for
0.3lamda)= ');
B=(2*pi/lamda);
theta= pi/100:pi/100:2*pi;
w=alfa+B*d.*cos(theta);
AF=sinc(N*(w./2))./sinc(w./2);
polar(theta,AF)
Simulation Results :
Enter the value of wave length= 1
Enter the no. of elements(3,4,5...)= 6
Enter your progressive phase(alpha=0,45...)= 0
Enter the separation distance between elements (in terms of lamda for ex: 0.3 for 0.3lamda) = 0.3

ANALYSIS OF E AND H PLANE OF HORN ANTENNA

Expt No:

Date:

Aim: To perform the analysis of the E And H Plane of the Horn antenna
Tools Required:

Matlab 7.0
Windows xp

Theory: It is regarded as flared out ( or opened out ) waveguide antenna. The function of the
horn is to produce a uniform phase front with a larger aperture than that of the waveguide and
hence greater directivity.
Rectangular horns are energized from rectangular wave guides .The types of antenna
shown in the figure are the Sectoral H Plane and Sectoral E Plane horns. These are the
rectangular types with a flare in only one dimension. Assuming that the rectangular waveguide is
energized with a TE10 mode wave electric field (E in the y direction) , the horn in the figure 1 is
flared out in a plane perpendicular to E . This is the plane of the magnetic field H. Hence this
type of horn is called a sectoral horn flared in the H plane or simply an H-Plane sectoral horn.
The horn in the figure 2 is flared out in the plane of the electric field E and hence is called an
E-Plane sectoral horn.

Procedure:
1) Open the software Matlab version 7.8.
2) Write the program in the editor command .
3) Run the script form the command window.
4) Enter the inputs and compare the result with analytic result.
5) Plot the figure for the obtained result.
Program to analysis the E and H Plane of the Horn antenna
function []=horn;
disp('E-Plane and H-Plane Horn Specifications');
R1=6; R2=6;a=0.5; b=0.25; a1=5.5; b1=2.75;
u = (1/sqrt(2))*((sqrt(R2)/a1)+(a1/sqrt(R2)));
v = (1/sqrt(2))*((sqrt(R2)/a1)-(a1/sqrt(R2)));
u = Fresnel(u);
v = Fresnel(v);

w = Fresnel(b1/sqrt(2*R1));
DH = 4*pi*b*R2/a1*((real(u)-real(v))^2 + (imag(u)-imag(v))^2);
DE = 64*a*R1/(pi*b1)*((real(w))^2 + (imag(w))^2);

DP = pi/(32*a*b)*DE*DH;
k = 2*pi;
Emax = 0;
Hmax = 0;
% E and H plane Outputs
% E-Plane Amplitude
for(theta = 0:0.5:360);
I = theta*2 + 1;
theta = theta*pi/180;
phi = pi/2;
ky = k*sin(theta);
kxp = pi/a1;
kxdp = -pi/a1;
t1 = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R1))*(-k*b1/2-ky*R1);
t2 = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R1))*(k*b1/2-ky*R1);
t1p = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R2))*(-k*a1/2-pi/a1*R2);
t2p = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R2))*(k*a1/2-pi/a1*R2);
t1dp = -t2p;
t2dp = -t1p;
I1 =.5*sqrt(pi*R2/k)*(exp(j*R2/(2*k)*kxp^2)*(Fresnel(t2p)-Fresnel(t1p)) + exp(j*R2/
(2*k)*kxdp^2)*(Fresnel(t2dp) - Fresnel(t1dp)));
I2 = sqrt(pi*R1/k) * exp(j*R1/(2*k)*ky^2) * (Fresnel(t2) - Fresnel(t1));
y(I) = (1 + cos(theta))*I1*I2;
y(I) = abs(y(I));
end
for(I = 1:721)
if(y(I) > Emax)
Emax = y(I);
end
end
for(I = 1:721)
if(y(I) <= 0)
Edb = -100;
else
Edb = 20*log10(abs(y(I))/Emax);
end
theta = (I-1)/2;
x(I)=theta;
q1(I)=Edb;
end
% H-Plane Amplitude
for(theta = 0:0.5:360);
I = theta*2 + 1;
theta = theta*pi/180;

phi = 0;
kxp = k*sin(theta) + pi/a1;
kxdp = k*sin(theta) - pi/a1;
t1 = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R1))*(-k*b1/2);
t2 = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R1))*(k*b1/2);
t1p = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R2))*(-k*a1/2-kxp*R2);
t2p = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R2))*(k*a1/2-kxp*R2);
t1dp = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R2))*(-k*a1/2-kxdp*R2);
t2dp = sqrt(1/(pi*k*R2))*(k*a1/2-kxdp*R2);
I1 = .5*sqrt(pi*R2/k)*(exp(j*R2/(2*k)*kxp^2)*(Fresnel(t2p)-Fresnel(t1p)) + exp(j*R2/
(2*k)*kxdp^2)*(Fresnel(t2dp) - Fresnel(t1dp)));
I2 = sqrt(pi*R1/k) * exp(j*R1/(2*k)*ky^2) * (Fresnel(t2) - Fresnel(t1));
y(I) = (1 + cos(theta))*I1*I2;
y(I) = abs(y(I));
end
for(I = 1:721)
if(y(I) > Hmax)
Hmax = y(I);
end
end
for(I = 1:721)
if(y(I) <= 0)
Hdb = -100;
else
Hdb = 20*log10(abs(y(I))/Hmax);
end
theta = (I-1)/2;
x(I)=theta;
q2(I)=Hdb;
end
% Figure 1
ha=plot(x,q1); set(ha,'linestyle','-','linewidth',2);
hold on; hb=plot(x,q2,'r--'); set(hb,'linewidth',2);
xlabel('Theta (degrees)');
ylabel('Field Pattern (dB)');
title('Horn Analysis');
legend('E-Plane','H-Plane');
grid on;
axis([0 360 -60 0]);
% Figure 2
figure(2)
ht1=polar(x*pi/180,q1,'b-');
hold on;

ht2=polar(x*pi/180,q2,'r--');
set([ht1 ht2],'linewidth',2);
legend([ht1 ht2],{'E-plane','H-plane'});
title('Field patterns');
% Directivity Output
directivity = 10*log10(DP)
end
Simulation results
Field patterns
90
120

100
80

60

E-plane
H-plane

60

150

30

40
20

180

210

330

240

300
270

Polar plot of E&H plane analysis

Horn Analysis

E-Plane
H-Plane

Field Pattern (dB)

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

50

100

150
200
Theta (degrees)

250

Rectangular plot of E&H plane analysis

300

350

Modes of Reflex Klystron

Expt No:

Date:

Aim: To study the repeller mode characteristics of a reflex klystron and hence to determine mode
no , transit time , electronic tuning range and electronic tuning sensitivity.
Apparatus:
SI NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Apparatus
Klystron Power supply
Klystron Mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Slotted section
CRO
Matched load

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Theory :
Reflex klystron is a single cavity device and is used as a microwave oscillator in X-band .
It operates on the principle of velocity and current modulation. Here electrons are made to pass
through the same cavity twice. By properly adjusting the supply voltages , the returning electrons
from repeller electrode form bunches and during return journey give more energy to the gap than
they have taken from it on the onward journey . The bunches deliver energy once per cycle and
sustained oscillations can be obtained.
It is a low power generator of 10-500mW output power at a frequency range of 1 10 25
GHz . The efficiency is about 20 % -30%. This type is widely used in the laboratory for
microwave measurements and in microwave receiver as local oscillator in commercial, military
and airborne Doppler RADARs as well as missiles. The theory of the two cavity klystron can be
applied to the analysis of the reflex klystron with slit modifications.
Calculation from graph :
Knowing the modes of the top voltages of two adjacent modes , number of modes can be
calculated as.
N2/N1 = V1 / V2 = {(n+1) + } / (n+3/4) = ( n+1.75) / (n+0.75)
From Graph :
N2/N1 = V1 / V2
V1 / V2 = ( n+1.75) / (n+0.75)

Knowing the mode number , transit time can be calculated as

t1 = (n+3/4) F01 = N1 / F01
t1 = (n+3/4) F02 = N2 / F02
Calculation of electronic tuning range from one end as mode to another
Electronic Tuning Range (ETR)
N1 = ( F2 F1) = GHz
N2 = ( F2 F1) = GHz
Electronic Tuning Sensitivity (ETS)
(N1 Mode ) ETS = ( F2 F1) / ( V2 V1 )
(N2 Mode ) ETS = ( F2 F1) / ( V2 V1 )
F2 and F1 are the half power frequency in GHz and V1 and V2 are the corresponding
voltages for particular modes

Procedure :
1. Arrange the set up as shown in the figure and switch on the supply .
2. Adjust the beam voltage , beam current and repeller voltage to get maximum oscillations.
3. Vary the repeller voltage from maximum negative , in steps of 5V and notedown the
corresponding output .
4. Using the frequency meter note down the frequency corresponding to each mode and
detune it .
5. Plot the graph for output voltages VS repeller voltage and frequency VS repeller voltage
to get more curves.
Obsevation :
Repeller Voltage = ..
Beam Voltage = ..
Beam Current = ..

Tabular Column:

Sl.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Repeller Voltage ( in V)

Output Voltage ( in V)

Frequency(In GHz)

Significance of Pocklingtons Integral Equation

Expt No:

Date:

Aim: To analysis the pocklingtons integral equation

Tools Required:

Matlab 7.0
Windows xp

Theory:
It is known that the current distribution in any conductor can indicate its
electromagnetic behavior. For the electrical engineer this is the key for determining the
electromagnetic field at any point of the surrounded space (through the magnetic and electric
potential), and hence all the electric characteristics would be determined, i.e. input impedance,
radiation pattern, directional gain, etc The theoretical analysis is based upon two philosophies.
The first one, the classical analysis, makes a great effort in guessing how the current is
distributed along the antenna. For simple structures this method brings us accurate results, but in
complex structures (such as helical antennas or cross antennas) we do not have a prior
knowledge about the current distribution itself. However, in order to improve the results, the
second philosophy brings us a better solution. This is based upon the well known method of
moments (MM) .This is the equation used for the treatment of wire antennas . It shows that the
current distribution on thin wires is approximately sinusoidal and propagates with nearly the
speed of light.

Procedure:
1) Open the software Matlab version 7.8.
2) Write the program in the editor command .
3) Run the script form the command window.
4) Enter the inputs and compare the result with analytic result.
5) Plot the figure for the obtained result.

Program of the pocklingtons Integral Equation

function [I,z,cnd] = pockling(L,a,E,Nint,type)

if nargin==0, help pockling; return; end
if nargin<=4, type=1; end
if nargin==3, Nint=16; end
E = E(:);
N = length(E);
if rem(N,2)~=1, fprintf('pockling: E must have odd length\n'); return; end
M = (N-1)/2;
eta = etac(1);
lambda = 1;
k = 2*pi/lambda;
h = L/2;
Dz = h/(M + type*0.5);
F0 = Dz * j*eta*lambda/8/pi^2;
m = (0:2*M)';
R1 = sqrt(a^2+(m-0.5).^2*Dz^2);
R2 = sqrt(a^2+(m+0.5).^2*Dz^2);
F1 = F0 * (m-0.5) .* (1+j*k*R1) .* exp(-j*k*R1) ./ R1.^3;
F2 = F0 * (m+0.5) .* (1+j*k*R2) .* exp(-j*k*R2) ./ R2.^3;
[w,x] = quadr(-1/2,1/2,Nint);
G = zeros(2*M+1,1);
for i=1:Nint,
R = sqrt(a^2+(m-x(i)).^2*Dz^2);
G = G + F0 * k^2 * w(i) * exp(-j*k*R)./R;
end
F = F1 - F2 + G;
Z = toeplitz(F,F);
Z/10000
cnd = cond(Z);
z = (m-M) * Dz;
I = Z\E;
Simulation results
>> pockling(1,0.4,1)
ans = 0.0022 - 0.0285i
cnd =
z=

1
0

I = 0.0003 + 0.0035i
ans = 0.0003 + 0.0035i

Program to Generate the Pseudo Random Sequence

Expt No:

Date:

Aim: Program to generate the pseudo random sequence

Tools Required:

Matlab 7.0
Windows xp

Theory: Pseudo random signal processing has proven to be a critical enabler of modern
communication, information, security and measurement systems. The signals pseudo random,
noise-like properties make it vitally important as a tool for protecting against interference,
alleviating multipath propagation and allowing the potential of sharing bandwidth with other
users. One of the major applications of Pseudo random generation is to generate a key, which is
then used to encrypt the data. There are various algorithms to generate pseudo random code. One
such is the LFSR
Linear-feedback shift register (LFSR) is a shift register whose input bit is a linear
function of its previous state. The most commonly used linear function of single bits
is exclusive-or (XOR). Thus, an LFSR is most often a shift register whose input bit is driven by
the XOR of some bits of the overall shift register value.
Right Shift

Figure: LFSR (Linear Feedback Shift Register)

Procedure:
1) Open the software Matlab version 7.8.
2) Write the program in the editor command .
3) Run the script form the command window.
4) Enter the inputs and compare the result with analytic result.
5) Plot the figure for the obtained result.

Program :
clear
clc
shiftRegLength = 7;
shiftReg = round(rand(1,shiftRegLength));
for i = 1:2^shiftRegLength-1
outputSeq(i)= shiftReg(shiftRegLength);
c = xor(shiftReg(shiftRegLength),shiftReg(shiftRegLength-1));
shiftReg = [c shiftReg(1:shiftRegLength-1)];
end
plot(xcorr(outputSeq,outputSeq))
Simulation Results
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10

50

100

150

200

250

300

Figure: Correlation Properties of the generated PSEUDO Random Signal

Program to determine the Directivity and Gain of Horn and Dipole antennas
Expt No:

Date:

Aim: To determine the Directivity and Gain of Horn and Dipole antennas.
Tools Required:

Matlab 7.9
Windows xp

Theory: Directivity is a fundamental antenna parameter. It is a measure of how 'directional' an

antenna's radiation pattern is. An antenna that radiates equally in all directions would have
effectively zero directionality, and the directivity of this type of antenna would be 1 (or 0 dB).
When a directivity is specified for an antenna, what is meant is 'peak directivity'. Directivity is
technically a function of angle, but the angular variation is described by its radiation pattern.
An antenna's normalized radiation pattern can be written as a function in spherical coordinates:

A normalized radiation pattern is the same as a radiation pattern; it is just scaled in magnitude
such that the peak (maximum value) of the magnitude of the radiation pattern is equal to 1.
Mathematically, the formula for directivity (D) is written as:

This equation for directivity might look complicated, but the numerator is the maximum value of
F, and the denominator just represents the "average power radiated over all directions". This
equation then is just a measure of the peak value of radiated power divided by the average, which
gives the directivity of the antenna.
The directivity of an antenna can vary over several order of magnitude. Hence, it is
important to understand directivity in choosing the best antenna for your specific application. If
you need to transmit or receive energy from a wide variety of directions (example: car radio,
mobile phones, computer wifi), then you should design an antenna with a low directivity.
Conversely, if you are doing remote sensing, or targetted power transfer (example: received
signal from a mountain top), you want a high directivity antenna, to maximize power transfer
and reduce signal from unwanted directions.
Antenna gain is usually defined as the ratio of the power produced by the antenna from a
far-field source on the antenna's beam axis to the power produced by a hypothetical
lossless isotropic antenna, which is equally sensitive to signals from all directions. This ratio is
expressed in decibels, and these units are referred to as "decibels-isotropic" (dBi).

Procedure:

1) Open the software Matlab version 7.9.

2) Write the program in the editor command.
3) Run the script form the command window.
4) Enter the inputs and compare the result with analytic result.
5) Plot the figure for the obtained result.
Program :
1) Dipole Antenna
sum=0.0;
N=input('Enter the number of segments in the theta direction\n');
Rr=input('enter the value of radiation resistance:\n');
Roh=input('enter the value of ohmic resistance:\n');
for i=1:N
thetai=(pi/N)*(i-0.5);
sum=sum+(cos((pi/2)*cos(thetai)))^2/sin(thetai);
end
D=(2*N)/(pi*sum)
RA=Rr+Roh;
e=Rr/RA;
G=e*D
2) Horn Antenna
%Horn Antenna directivity and gain taking in consideration as TE01 mode and
%Rectangular
delta=input('Enter the path length difference in meters \n');
a=input('Enter the aperture in meter\n');
lambda=input('enter the wavelength in terms of meters');
% We have to calculate the calculate the horn length L = a*a / 8 * delta
L = square(a) / ( 8 * delta );
% Need to calculate the Flare angle in the E and H Plane
Theta_E = 2 * (1/(tan(a/2*L)));
% Taking 3 Lambda / 8 H Plane
delta_H = (3 * lambda)/ 8 ;
Theta_H = 2 * (1/(cos(a/2*delta_H)));
% EPlane Aperature
AE = 2*L*tan ( Theta_E / 2 );
% HPlane Aperature
AH = 2*L*tan ( Theta_H / 2 );
% Effective Aperature
Eaperture = AE/AH;
% Directivity is calculated as
D=(4*pi*AE)/((lambda)*(lambda))
% Gain is calculated as
G=(Eaperture)*D
Simulation Results:

1)Dipole antenna
Enter the number of segments in the theta direction
10
enter the value of radiation resistance:
10
enter the value of ohmic resistance:
10
D = 1.6410
G = 0.8205
2)Horn Antenna
Enter the path length difference in meters
1
Enter the aperture in meter
3
Enter the wavelength in terms of meters
1
D = -5.0299
G = 3.2977