Jainam Solved Paper Electronic Instrumentation

Unit-1

Digital Electronic Instruments

Q.1: Explain the terms:

(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2007, April- May 2008, April-May 2009,
April- May 2010, April- May 2012)
a) Resolution
b) Sensitivity
c) Accuracy
d) Root mean square value
e) Crest factor
f) Form factor
Ans:
a) RESOLUTION:
It is defined as the number of digit positions or simply the
number of digits used in a meter. If number of full digits is n, then
resolution,
R=

1
10n

Lets for n=2

R=

1
1
= 2 =0.01
n
10 10

b) SENSITIVITY:

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It is the smallest change in input which an electronic instrument

is able to detect. Thus, it is the full scale value of the lowest
voltage range multiplied by the resolution of the meter.
Sensitivity,

Where,

fs

S=

f
( s)min

=Lowest full-scale value of digital meter

R= Resolution in decimal

c) ACCURACY:
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the
output reading of the instrument is to the correct value. In the
i)
ii)

accuracy specifications, the following two quantities are included.

A percentage of range.
A percentage of reading.
It is an important system design rule that instruments are
chosen such that their range is appropriate to the spread of
values being measured, in order that the best possible accuracy is
maintained in instrument readings.

d) AVERAGE/TRUE ROOT MEAN SQUARE:

The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the Square
root of the sum of all the individual deviations squared divided by
the number of readings.
It may be expressed as
=

d 12+ d 22 + d 32 +dn2
n

The standard deviation is also known as root mean square

deviation, and is the most important factor in the statistical
analysis of measurement data. Reduction in this quantity
effectively means improvement in measurement.
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e) CREST FACTOR:
The crest factor or peak-to-average ratio (PAR) is a measurement of
a waveform, calculated from the peak amplitude of the waveform
divided by the RMS value of the waveform [1]:

The purpose of the crest factor calculation is to give an analyst a

quick idea of how much impacting is occurring in a waveform.
Impacting is often associated with roller bearing wear, cavitation
and gear tooth wear.

f) FORM FACTOR:
Form factor is defined as the ratio of root mean square value to
the average value of the unit.
In the case of a sinusoidal wave ie, an analogue wave, the form
factor is approximately 1.11. In the case of a square wave i.e., a
digital wave, the RMS and the average values are equal; therefore,
the form factor is 1.
Q. 2: What do you understand by the following terms:
i) Normal mode rejection ratio
ii) Common mode rejection ratio
iii)Effective common rejection ratio
iv)Zero or offset frequency response (CSVTU April- May 2009)
Ans:
i)

NORMAL MODE REJECTION RATIO:

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Normal-mode rejection ratio (NMRR) describes the ability of the

DMM to reject an AC normal-mode signal, usually at power line
frequencies. NMRR is given by the following formula:
NMRR = 20*log(Vin/Verror)
Where Verror is the value returned by the DMM for an applied AC
normal-mode voltage Vin.
NMRR is useful for measurement systems that can eliminate
signals at a given frequency or over a range of frequencies. NMRR,
which is often used to indicate the capability of the instrument to
reject powerline noise of 50 or 60 Hz, is valid only at the specified
frequency and is useful when making DC measurements.

ii)

COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO:

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a differential

amplifier (or other device) is the tendency of the devices to reject
the input signals common to both input leads. A high CMRR is
important in applications where the signal of interest is
represented by a small voltage fluctuation superimposed on a
(possibly large) voltage offset, or when relevant information is
contained in the voltage difference between two signals.
The CMRR is a measure of how well the device rejects a commonmode signal.

Its simply the ratio of the differential gain Av over the commonmode gain Acm.

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iii)

EFFECTIVE COMMON REJECTION RATIO:

Effective common-mode rejection ratio (ECMRR) is the sum of

CMRR and NMRR at a given frequency and is only valid for DC
measurements. It is the effective rejection on a given noise signal
that is applied to both input leads because it is rejected first by
the CMRR capability of the instrument and then again by its
NMRR capability. This specification is useful at powerline
frequencies, particularly for laboratory and manufacturing floor
environments. An equivalent equation to represent ECMRR is as
follows:
ECMRR = 20*log10(VCM/Verror)
where Verror is the value returned by the digital multimeter in
response to an applied common mode voltage VCM.
iv)

ZERO OR OFFSET FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Proportional control action is characterized by a permanent

residual error in the operating point of the controlled variable
when a change in load occurs. This error is called the OFFSET.
The offset can be reduced by selecting higher value of controller
gain (KP) corresponding to narrow bandwidth.

Fig.1. Offset Error

Figure 1, shows how offset error occurs in a proportional
control action. Let the system error be zero at nominal load with
controller output P = 50% corresponding.

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If, however, a transient error occurs, the system tends to adjust

the controller output so that the point A (corresponding to zero
error) is reached again. But for this to happen there must be
change in the load system. This changed controller load produces
a new value (P new) of the characteristic output, which gives rise
to point B on the linear characteristic of the proportional
controller. The permanent small difference between the percentage
error values corresponding to point B and A is called the offset
error of the f control.
Q. 3: - Explain digital voltmeters?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec 2009, April-May 2009, Nov-Dec
2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
DIGITAL VOLTMETERS (DVMS)
The digital voltmeter (DVM) displays measurements of ac or
dc voltages as discrete numerals instead of a pointer deflection on
a continuous scale as in analog instruments. It is a versatile and
accurate instrument that is employed in many laboratory
measurement applications.
Digital voltmeters (DVMs) are measuring instruments that
convert analog voltage signals into a digital or numeric readout.
This digital readout can be displayed on the front panel and also
used as an electrical digital output signal. Any DVM is capable of
measuring analog dc voltages. However, with appropriates signal
conditioners preceding the input of the DVM, quantities such as
ac voltages, ohms, dc and ac current, temperature, and pressure
can be measured. The common element in all these signal
conditioners is the dc voltage, which is proportional to the level of
the unknown quantity being measured. This dc output is then
measured by the DVM.

in

It is a versatile and accurate instrument that is employed

many laboratory measurement applications. Because of

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development and perfection of IC modules, the size, power

requirements and cost of the digital voltmeter has been drastically
reduced and, therefore, DVMs can actively compete with
conventional analog instruments, both in price and portability.
The block diagram of a simple digital voltmeter is shown in
Fig. 1.

The unknown voltage signal is fed to the pulse generator

which generates a pulse whose width is directly proportional to
the input unknown voltage. The output of the pulse generator is
applied to one leg of an AND gate. The input signal to the other leg
of the AND gate is a train of pulses. The output of the AND gate is,
thus, a positive trigger train of duration t seconds and the inverter
converts it into a negative trigger train. The counter, counts the
number of triggers in t seconds which m proportional to the
voltage under measurement. Thus, the counter can be calibrated
to indicate voltage in volts directly.
Thus, we see that the DVM described above is an ADC
which converts an analog signal into a train of pulses, the number
of which is proportional to the input voltage. So a digital voltmeter
can be made by using any one of the A/D conversion methods and
can be represented by a block diagram shown in Fig. 2. Thus the
DVMs can be classified on the basis of ADCs used.

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The input range of the DVM may vary form 1.00000 V to

1,000.00 V and its limiting accuracy is as high as 0.005 per cent
of the reading. Its resolution may be 1 part in 10 6, giving 1 V
reading of the 1 V input range. It has a high input resistance of
the order of 10 M and input capacitance of the order of 40 pF.
Q. 4:-Classify digital voltmeters. Explain them.
(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2011, NovDec 2010, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2009, April-May 2009,
April-May 2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
Classification of Digital Voltmeters (DVMs)
The digital voltmeters can broadly be classified as follows:
1. Ramp-type DVM.
2 Dual-slope integrating type DVM.
3. Integrating type DVM (Voltage-to-frequency conversion).
4. Successive-approximation DVM.
1) RAMP TECHNIQUE TYPE DVM:
The principle of operation of the ramp-type DVM is based on the
measurement of the time it takes for a linear ramp voltage to rise
from 0'v to the level of input voltage, or decrease from the level of
the input voltage to zero. This internal of time is measured with an
electronic time- interval counter, and the count is displayed as a
number of digits on electronic indicating tubes.

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Fig. 2 shows the, "voltage-to-time conversion" using gated -dock

pulses.

At the start of the measuring cycle, a ramp voltage is

initiated; this voltage can be positive going or, negative goings the
negative-going ramp, shown in fig.2 is continuously compared
with the unknown input-voltage.
At the instant that the ramp voltage equals the unknown
voltage, a coincidence circuit, or comparator generates a pulse
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which opens a gate, the ramp voltage continues to decrease with

time until finally reaches 0 V and a second comparator generates
an output pulse which closes the gate. An oscillator generates
clock pulses which are allowed to pass through-the-gate to a
number of decades counting units (DCUs) which totalize the
number of pulses passed through the gate. The decimal number
displayed by the indicator tubes associated with the DCUs, is a
measure of the magnitude of the input voltage.
The sample-rate multivibrator (MV) determines the rate
at which the measurement cycles are initiated. The sample-rate
circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start
its next ramp voltage. At the same time, a reset pulse is generated
which returns all the DCUs to their zero state, removing the
display momentarily from the indicator tubes.
Advantages:
1) The ramp technique circuit is easy to design and its cost is
low.
2) The output pulse can be transmitted over long feeder lines.
However, the single ramp requires excellent characteristics
regarding linearity of the ramp and time measurement.
Disadvantage:
Large errors are possible when noise is superimposed on the
input signal. Input filters are usually required with this type
of converter.
2)DUAL SLOPE INTEGRATING TYPE DVM:
In ramp techniques, superimposed noise can cause large errors.
In the dual ramp technique, noise is averaged out by the positive
and negative ramps using the process of integration.
The basic Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM consist of Five basic
building blocks ,
1. Op-amp, used as an integrator;
2. A level comparator;
3. A basic block, for generating timing pulses;
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4. A set of decimal counters;

5. A block of logic circuitry.

The unknown voltage Vi is applied through switch S to the

integrator for a known period of time T as shown in figure below
This period is determined by counting the clock frequency is
decimal counters. During time period T, C is charged at the rate
proportional to V.

At the end of the interval T, S is shifted to the reference voltage V ref

of opposite polarity. The capacitor charge begins to decrease with
time and results in downward linear ramp voltage. During the
second period a known voltage (i.e., Vref) is observed for an
unknown time (t).
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This unknown time t is determined by counting timing pulses from

the clock until the voltage across the capacitor reaches its basic
reference value (reference may be ground or any other basic
reference level ).
Then, from similar triangles of Figure shown above we have :

The count after t which is proportional to the input voltage Vi is

displayed as the measured voltage.
This instrument can be used to measure currents, resistances and
A.C. voltages by using appropriate signal conditioners.
Advantages:
i)
The averaging characteristics and cancellation of errors that
usually limit the performance of ramp-type DVM are the
main advantages of such DVMs:
ii)
The integration characteristics provide the average value of
the input signal during the period of first integration.
Consequently, disturbance, such as spurious noise pulses,
are minimized.
iii) Long-term drifts in the time constant, as may result from
temperature variations or aging, do not affect conversion
accuracy. The long-term alterations in clock frequency have
no effect.
iv) Higher accuracy and resolution.
v)
Greater speed.
vi) No parallax.
vii) Reduced human error.
viii) Compatibility with other digital equipment for further
processing and recording.
Q. 5: Discuss digital frequency meters? (CSVTU April-May
2011, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2008)
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Ans:
DIGITAL FREQUENCY METERS:
The principle of operation and basic circuit of a digital frequency
meter are briefly described below:
Principle of operation:
From Figure 1

1. The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied

continuously to an AND gate, as shown.
2. A pulse of 1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the number
of pulses counted during this period indicates the frequency.
3. The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into
a train of pulses one pulse for each cycle of the signal. The
number of pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is then
counted by an electronic counter.
Since each pulse represents the cycle of the unknown signal the
number of counts a direct indication of the frequency of the
unknown signal. Since electronic counters have a high speed of
operation, high frequency signals can be measured.
Basic circuit shows below is the block diagram of a basic circuit of
a digital frequency meter

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1. The signal may be amplified before being applied to Schmitt

trigger.
2. The Schmitt trigger converts the input signal into square wave
with fast rise and fall times, which is then differentiated and
clipped. As a result, the output from a Schmitt trigger is a train
of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to 'Start'/'Stop'
gate. When this gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through
this gate and are fed directly to the electronic counter, which
counts the number of pulses. When this gate is disabled, the
counter stops counting the incoming pulses. The counter displays
the number of pulses that have passed through it in the time
interval between start and stop. If this interval is known, the
unknown frequency can be measured.

Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement

1. The basic circuit for frequency measurement as shown in
Fig.1.The output of the unknown frequency is applied to a Schmitt
trigger, producing positive pulses at the output. These pulses are
called the counter signals and are present at point A of the main
gate.
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Fi
g.1 Basic circuit for measurement of frequency showing gate
control F/F
2. Positive pulses from the time base selector are present at point B
of the START gate and at point B of the Stop gate initially the FlipFlop (F/F-1) is at its logic 1 state.
3. The resulting voltage from output Y of the F/F-1 is applied to
input A of the START gate and enables this gate.
Y

4. The logic 0 stage at the output

of the F/F-1 is applied to the
input A of the START Gate and disables the gate.
5. As the STOP gate is enabled, the positive pulses from the time
base pass through the STOP gate to the Set (S) input of the F/F-2
thereby setting F/F-2 to the 1 state and keeping it there.
6. The resulting 0 output level from Y of F/F-2 is applied to terminal
B of the main gate.
7. Hence no pulses from the unknown frequency source can pass
through the main gate. In order to start the operation, a positive
pulse is applied to (read input) reset input of F/F-1, thereby
Y

causing its state to change. Hence

= 1, Y = 0, and as a result
the STOP gate is disabled and the START gate enabled.
8. This same read pulse is simultaneously applied to the reset input
of all decade counters, so that they are reset to 0 and the counting
can start.
9. When the next pulse from the time base arrives, it is able to pass
through the START gate to reset F/F-2, therefore, the F/F-2
output changes state from 0 to 1, hence
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changes from 0 to 1.
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Y

10.
This resulting positive voltage from called gating signal, is
applied to input B of the main gate thereby enabling the gate.
11.
Now the pulses from the unknown frequency source pass
through the main gate to the counter and the counter starts
counting.
12.
This same pulse from the START gate is applied to the set
input of F/F-1, changing its state from 0 to 1. This disables the
START gate and enables the STOP gate.
13.
However, till the main gate is enabled, pulses from the
unknown frequency continue to pass through the main gate to the
counter.
14.
The next pulse from the time base selector passes through
the enabled stop gate to the set input terminal of FIF-2, changing
Y

its output back to 1 and = 0.

15.
Therefore the main gate is disabled, disconnecting the
unknown frequency signal from the counter. The counter counts
the number of pulses occurring between two successive pulses
from the time base selector.
If the time interval between this two successive pulses from the
time base selector is 1 second, then the number of pulses counted
within this interval is the frequency of the unknown frequency
source, in Hertz.
Q. 6: -Explain digital multimeters?
Ans: DIGITAL MULTIMETERS:
Digital multimeter offers increased versatility due to its additional
capability to measure A.C. voltage and current, D.C. current, and
resistance.
Figure shows the block diagram of a digital multimeter (DMM) :

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In the "A.C. voltage mode", the applied input is fed

through a calibrated, compensated attenuator, to a precision fullwave rectifier circuit followed by a ripple reduction filter. The
resulting D.C. is fed to ADC and the subsequent display system.
For current measurements, the drop across an internal
calibrated shunt is measured, directly by the ADC in the "D.C.
current mode", and after A.C. to D.C. conversion in the "A.C.
current mode". This drop is often in the range of 200 mV
(corresponding to full scale).
Due to the lack of precision in the A.C.-D.C. conversions,
the accuracy in the A.C. range is in general of the order of 0.2 to
0.5%. In addition, the measurement range is often limited to
about 50 Hz at the lower frequency end due to the ripple in the
rectified signal becoming a non-negligible percentage of the
display and hence results in fluctuation of the displayed number.
At the higher frequency end, deterioration of the performance of
the AC/DC converter limits the accuracy.
The A.C. measurement, is often average reading, r.m.s.
calibrated.

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In the "resistance range" the digital multimeter operates by

measuring the voltage across the externally connected resistance,
resulting from a current forced through it from a calibrated
internal current source.
The accuracy of resistance measurement is of the order of 0.1
to 0.5% depending on the accuracy and stability of the internal
current sources. The accuracy may be proper in the highest range
which is often about 10 to 20 M. In the lowest range, the full
1

scale may be = 200 with a resolution of about 0.01 for a 4 2

digit digital multimeter. In this range of resistance measurement,
the effect of the lead resistance will have to be carefully
considered.
Q. 7: -Explain digital tachometers?
Ans: DIGITAL TACHOMETER:
The technique employed in measuring the speed of a rotating shaft
is similar to the technique used in a conventional frequency
counter, except that the selection of the gate period is in
accordance with the rpm calibration.
Let us assume that the rpm of a rotating shaft is R. Let P
be the number of pulses produced by the pickup for one
revolution of the shaft. Therefore, in one minute the number of
pulses from the pickup is R x P. Then, the frequency of the signal
from the pickup is (R x P)/60. Now, if the gate period is G s the
pulses counted are (R x P x G)/60. In order to get the direct
reading in rpm, the number of pulses to be counted by the
counter is R. So we select the gate period as 60/P, and the counter
counts
R P 60
=R pulses
P 60

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And we can read the rpm of the rotating shaft directly. So,
the relation between the gate period and the number of pulses
produced by the pickup is G = 60/P. If we fix the gate period as
one second (G = 1 s), then the revolution pickup must be capable
of producing 60 pulses per revolution.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of a digital tachometer.

Q. 8: - Discuss digital pH meter? (CSVTU April-May 2010)

Ans: DIGITAL PH METER:
The measurement of hydrogen ion activity (pH) in a solution can
be accomplished with the help of a pH meter. For those unfamiliar
with the terminology, a very brief review is included.
pH is a quantative measure of acidity. If the pH is less
than 7, the solution is acidic (the lower the pH, the greater the
acidity). A neutral solution has a pH of 7 and alkaline (basic)
solutions have a pH greater than 7.
The pH unit is defined as
pH = - log (concentration of H+)
where H+ is the hydrogen or hydronium ion.
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A digital pH meter differs from an ordinary pH meter, in this the

meter is replaced by an analog to digital converter (ADC) and a
digital display. A frequently used ADC for this application is the
dual slope converter. A basic block diagram of a digital pH meter
is shown in Figure below.

The dual slope circuit produces a pulse which has

duration proportional to the input signal voltage, that is, a T pulse
width signals. The pulse width is converted to a digital signal
using the pulse to turn an oscillator On or Off, generating a count
digital signal. The count signal is in turn counted or converted to
a parallel digital signal for display by the counter.
Q. 9: - Explain digital phase meter?
Ans:
DIGITAL PHASE METER:
The simplest technique to measure the phase difference between
two signals employs two flip-flops. The signals to be fed must be of
the same frequency.
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First, the signals must be shaped to a square waveform without

any change in their phase positions, by the use of a zero crossing
detector. The process of measuring the phase difference can be
illustrated by the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 1.

The block diagram consists of two pairs of preamplifier's,

zero crossing detectors, J-K Flipflops, and a single control gate.
Two signals having phases P0 and Px respectively are applied as
inputs to the preamplifier and attenuation circuit The frequency of
the two inputs is the same but their phases are different. As the
P0 input signal increases in the positive half cycle, the zero
crossing detector changes its state when the input crosses zero (0)
giving a high (1) level at the output. This causes the J-K flipflops -l
to be set (1), that is, the output (Q) of flipflops -l goes high. This
high output from the flipflops -l enables the AND gate, and pulses
from the clock are fed directly to the counter. The counter starts
counting these pulses. Also this high output level of flipflops -l is
applied to the clear input of flipflops-2 which makes the output of
the flipflops-2 go to zero (0).

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Now as the input Px which has a phase difference with

respect to P0 crosses zero (0) in the positive half cycle, the zero
detector is activated, causing its output to go high(1). This high
input in turn toggles the J-K flipflops-2, making its output goes
high. This output (Q) of flipflops-2 is connected to the clear input
of flipflops-l forcing the flipflops-l to reset. Hence the output of
flipflops-l goes to zero (0). The AND gate is thus disabled, and the
counter stops counting.
The number of pulses counted while enabling and
disabling the AND gate is in direct proportion to the phase
difference, hence the display unit gives a direct readout of the
phase difference between the two inputs having the same
frequency. If the input signal frequency is f, then the clock
frequency must be 360times the input frequency for accurate
measurements.
Q. 10: - What do you mean by digital capacitance meter?
Ans:
DIGITAL CAPACITANCE METER:
Since the capacitance is linearly proportional to the time constant,
when a capacitor is charged by a constant current source and
discharged through a fixed resistance, we can use a 555 timer
along with some digital test equipment to measure capacitances.
One obvious way is to measure the time period of the
oscillations. By choosing the right size of charging resistance, we
can get a reading directly in microfarads or nanofarads. Unlike
many capacitance measuring schemes, this one easily handles
electrolytics up to the tens of thousands of microfarads.
A better way is to measure only the capacitor discharge
time, as shown in Figure below

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With this method, any leakage in the capacitor under test

will make the capacitor appear smaller in value than it actually is,
and is an effective indicator of how the test capacitor will behave
in most timing and bypass circuits.
In this circuit, the 555 timer is used as an astable
multivibrator. At the peak of the charging curve, a digital counter
is reset and a clock of 100 kHz pulses is turned on and routed to
the counter. When the discharge portion of the cycle is completed,
the display is updated and the value of the capacitor is readout.
By selecting the proper reference frequency and charging currents,
one can obtain a direct digital display of the value of the
capacitance.
Be sure to properly shield the leads and keep them short
for low capacity measurements, since the 50 Hz hum can cause
some slight instability.
Q. 11: -Explain the advantages of electronic voltmeters over
conventional type voltmeters are regards(CSVTU Nov-Dec
2010)
(i) detection of low level signals
(ii) power consumption
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(iii) loading effects

(iv) frequency range.
Ans:
In all electronics voltmeter circuits the principle involved is
that an indicator on a permanent magnet moving coil
instrument portional to the input voltage is obtained by means
of amplification in one or more stages with a high input
impedance.
Being costlier than electrical instrument but it has many
advantages over conventional ones, as discussed below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

High Sensitivity
Low Power Consumption
High Accuracy
High Frequency range
Low level signal detection
Less loading effect
High input impedance
Let us explain the advantage of electronic voltmeter with

example:
Analog instruments use PMMC movement for indication.
This movement cannot be constructed with a full scale sensitivity
of less than 50 A. Any measurement using a P'MMC movement
must draw a current of 50 A from the measured quantity for its
operation for full scale deflection if conventional voltmeters are
used. This would produce great loading effects especially in
electronic and communication circuits. Electronic voltmeters avoid
the loading errors by supplying power required for measurement
by using external circuits like amplifiers. The amplifiers not only
supply power for the operation but make it possible for low level
signals, which produce a current less than 50 A for full scale
deflection, to be detected which otherwise cannot be detected in
the absence of amplifiers.
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A conventional P'MMC voltmeter is a rugged and an

accurate instrument, but it suffers from certain disadvantages.
The principle problem is that it lacks both high sensitivity and
high input resistance. It has a sensitivity of 20 k /V with a 0 0.5 V range and has an input resistance of only 10 k at its 0.5 V
range with the result it has a full scale current of 50 A which
loads

the

measured

considerably.

In

electronic

and

communication circuits as even this low value of current may not

be tolerable on account of the fact that these circuits have very
low operating currents.
Electronic voltmeters utilize the amplifying properties of
vacuum tubes and transistors and therefore the power required
for operating the deflecting element of PMMC instrument can be
supplied from an auxiliary source. Thus, while the circuit whose
voltage is being measured controls the sensing element of the
voltmeter, the power drawn from the circuit under measurement is
very small or even negligible.
The most important feature of electronic voltmeters is that
their response can be made practically independent of frequency
within extremely wide limits. Some electronic voltmeters permit
the measurement of voltage from direct current to frequencies of
the order of hundreds of MHzs The high frequency range may also
be attributed to low input capacitance of most electronic devices.
The capacitance may be of the- order of a few pF.
Q: 12- Define any five from the following :
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2008)

(i) Zero error

(ii) Sensitivity
(iii) Non-Confirmity
(iv) Hysteresis Error
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(v) Dynamic Error

(vi) Cross Sensitivity
Ans:
i) Zero error:
In zero error condition the output Vs input graph follows
a linear curve. But there is a residual value in overall all curve
when we draw practical curve with respect to theoretical curve.

ii) Sensitivity Error:

Quotient of the change in an indication of a measuring
system and the corresponding change in a value of a quantity
being measured. Sensitivity of a measuring system can depend on
the value of a quantity being measured increasing linearly with
heavier loads. Sensitivity relates to the test's ability to identify
positive results.

iii)

Non Confirmity Error:

A nonconformity (also known as a defect) is a deviation

from

specification,

standard,

or

an

expectation,

nonconformity is the nonfulfilment of a requirement.

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iv) Hysteresis Error:

The maximum separation due to hysteresis between
upscale-going and downscale-going indications of a measured
variable. The delay between the action and reaction of a
measuring instrument. Hysteresis is the amount of error that
results when this action occurs.
The maximum differences in outputs at any measured value
within the specific range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing input may be termed as
Hysteresis.

v) Dynamic Error:
The Dynamic Error also called measurement error is the
difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
Time and the value indicated by the measurement system if no
static error is assumed.
vi) Cross Sensitivity:
It is a factor which is to be taken into account when we
measure mechanical quantity. It is a situation where the actual
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quantity is being measured is in one plane and another quantity

which is subjected to variations is on another plane.

Q: 13: - A 3 digit DVM has an accuracy specification of

0.05% of the reading 1 digit.
(i)

What is the error in volt when reading is 2 V on its 10

V range?
(ii) What is the error in volt when reading is 5 V on its 10
V range?
(iii) What is the % error of reading, when the reading is
0.1 V on its 10 V range?
7
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2011)
Ans:
1. Number of full digits on display, n=3
1

So, resolution, R= 10 n 103

= 0.001

i.e. the meter cannot distinguish between values that differs

from each other by less than 0.001 of full scale.
f s R

For full scale range of 1 V, the resolution is

i.e.

1x0.001=0.001V
For full scale range of 10 V, the resolution is 10 x 0.001 = 0.01 V
2. The display for 2 V reading on 10 V scale of

1
2

digital

meter would be 02.00

The digit in the least significant digit has a value of
5x

1
10 3

f s R

i.e.

= 0.005 V
0.5

Total possible error = 100

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0.5
100

x 2 + 0.005= 0.01+0.005= 0.015 V

Resolution for 10v range 10 x 0.001 =0.01 v

1 digit = 0.01v on 10 v range.
(ii) Error due to 5v reading

0.5
5=0.025 v
0.5% of 5v = 100

For 1 digit error =0.01 v

Total error 0.025 + 0.01 = 0.035 v
(iii) when reading is 0.10v error due to reading
0.5

= 100

0.5% of 0.1v

0.1=0.005 v

For 1 digit error = 0.0050.1 v = 0.0105v

Error as % of reading =

Q:

14:

digit

measurements.

voltmeter

0.0105
100=10.5
0.1

is

used

for

voltage

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec 2009, AprilMay 2009, April-May 2008)
(i) Find its resolution
(ii) How would 12.98 V be displayed an a 10 V range.
(iii) How would 0.6973 be displayed on 1 V and 10 V
ranges.
Ans:
1

(i) Resolution= 10 n 10 4

0.0001

Where the number of full digit is n= 4

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1
(ii)There are 5 digit places in 4 2

digits, therefore 12.98 would be

displayed as 12.980.
Resolution on 1 V range is 1 V x 0.0001, any reading up to the
4th decimal can be displayed. Hence 0.6973 will be displayed as
(iii)

0.6973.
Resolution on 10 V range=10 V x 0.0001=0.001 V.
Hence decimals up to the 3rd decimal place can be displayed.
Therefore on a 10 V range, the reading will be 0.697 instead of
0.6973.

Q. 15: -A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7 in the

unknown arm of the bridge to produce a change in deflection
of 3 mm of the galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity. Also
determine the inverse sensitivity or scale factor. (CSVTU NovDec 2011, Nov-Dec 2009)

Ans:
Bridge sensitivity=S B=

3
= =0.4288 mm/
R /R 7

Inverse Sensitivity=1/

SB

= 7/3 = 2.333 /mm

Q. 16: -A 5 digit voltmeter is used for voltage measurement:

7
(i) Find its resolution.
(ii) How would 13.46 V be displayed on a 10 V range?
(iii) How would 0.54867 be displayed on 1 V and 10 V
ranges. (CSVTU Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
Number of full digits on 5 digit display, n=5
1) Resolution=
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10 n =

1
10 5

=0.00001
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2) There are 6 digit faces in 5 display, so 13.46 would be

displayed as 13.4600 V.
3) Resolution on 1V range is 0.00001 * 1=0.00001
Any reading up to the 5th decimal can be displayed.
Hence 0.54867 will be displayed as 0.54867 V.
4) Resolution on 10V range is 0.00001 * 10=0.0001
Any reading up to the 4th decimal can be displayed.
Hence 0.54867 will be displayed as 0.5486 V.
Q. 17: - What do you mean by analog and digital systems.
Write some advantages and limitations of digital over
analog system?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, Nov-Dec2009, April-May 2008)
Ans:
Analog System:
An analog system comprises devices that manipulate the
physical

quantities

represented

in

analog

form.

Example:

automobile speedometer.
Digital System:
A digital system is a combination of devices for manipulating
physical quantities or information represented in digital form.
Example: digital computer.
Advantages of digital system over analog system:
1) Easier to design.
2) Easy storage of information
3) Greater accuracy and precision.
4) Operation is programmable.
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5) Digital circuits are less affected by the noise.

Limitation of digital technique:
1) Cost is more than analog
2) Isolation problems are more.
3) Construction is complicated.

Examination, April May, 2012

Q.1. (a) Define the terms sensitivity& accuracy.

Ans: Refer Answer 1-(b) and(c).

(b) Compare the characteristic of ramp & dual slope type DVM.
7
Ans: Refer Answer 4.
(c) In the wheatstone bridge shown in figure, the values of
resistance of various arms are given. The galvanometer has a
current sensitivity of 10 mm/A & an internal resistance of
100. Calculate the deflection of galvanometer & sensitivity of
bridge in terms of deflection per unit change in resistance. 7

Ans:
Resistance of unknown resistance in balance condition
R=(P/Q)*S
R=(1000/100)*200=2000
R=2005-2000=5
Thevenins source generator emf
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Eo=E{(R/R+S)-(P/P+Q)}
= 1.0307*10-3 V
Internal resistance of bridge
Ro= {(2005*200/2005+200)-(1000*100/1000+100)}
=272.8
There fore current through galvanometer
I=(1.0307*10-3/272+100)
= 2.77A
Deflection of galvanometer
= Si*2.77 * 10-6 = 27.7 mm
Sensitivity of bridge
Sb=( /R)= 27.7/5
= 5.54 mm/
1/ 2
(d) State the advantages of digital voltmeters. A 4
digital

voltmeter is used for voltage measurements. (a) Find resolution (b)

How would be 12.98 V be displayed on 10 V range?
7
Ans: Refer answer 4 and 14(i), (ii)
Examination, Nov Dec, 2011
Q.1 (a) For the wheat stone bridge shown in figure, find the least
tolerance value of

R4

for the balanced condition.

Ans: -501%

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(b) Explain the operational principle of a dual slope integrating

type DVM with help of diagrams. If the DVM has maximum
range of 255 V, determine the time it will take to read the
unknown voltage

V X =180V ,

using a clock oscillator of 10 kHz.

Ans: For dual slope integrating type DVM refer answer.

Remaining solution:
Maximum range of DVM Vmax = 255 V
Unknown voltage Vx = 180 V
Frequency of clock oscillator = 10 kHz
Time taken to read unknown voltage
T= {(Vmax - Vx)/2f Vmax = 4.68 sec
(c) What is the resolution of a
ranges? A

1
2

1
2

digit display on 1V & 10V

digital voltmeter has an accuracy specification

of 0.5 of reading 1 digit. What is the possible error in

volts, when instrument is reading 2.00 V on 5 V scale.
Ans: Refer answer 13.

(d) Explain the merits of digital systems over analog

systems.

Also, discuss the limitations of digital techniques.

Ans: Refer answer 17.
Examination, April May, 2011
Q.1.(a) What is resolution of 3 digit?
Ans: Refer answer 13.

(b) Describe any one method of integrating type DVM with their
advantage & disadvantage.
7
Ans: Refer answer 4.
(c) Explain digital frequency meter.
Ans: Refer answer 5.

(d) A 3 digit DVM has an accuracy specification of 0.05% of the

reading 1 digit.
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(i) What is the error in volt when reading is 5 V on its 10 V range?

(ii) What is the % error of reading, when the reading is 0.1 V on its
10 V range.
7
Ans: Refer answer 13.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2010
Q.I.What are the advantages of dual slope over ramp type DVM.2
Ans: Refer answer 4.
Q. II. Explain the advantages of electronic voltmeters over
7

conventional type voltmeters are regards

(i) detection of low level signals
(ii) power consumption
(iii) loading effects
(iv)

frequency range.

Ans: Refer answer 3.

Q. III. Explain the operating principle of a ramp type DVM.

Ans: Refer answer 4.

Q. IV. A 4 digit voltmeter is used for voltage measurements. 7
i) Find its resolution
ii) How would 12.98 V be displayed on a 10 V range.
iii)How would 0.6973 be displayed on 1 V and 10 V ranges.
Ans: Refer answer 14.
Examination, April May, 2010
1
Q.1.(a) Define resolution. Give the resolution of a 4 2

digit

display.2
Ans: Refer answer 1 and 14.
(b) Discuss dual slope integrating type digital voltmeters.

Ans: Refer answer 4.

(c) Explain digital frequency meter.
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Ans: Refer answer 5.

(d) Describe the digital phase meter.

Ans: Refer answer 9.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2009
Q.1. (a) A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7 in the
unknown arm of the bridge to produce a change in deflection of
3 mm of the galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity. Also
determine the inverse sensitivity or scale factor.

Ans: Refer answer 15.

(b) Describe the working principle and block diagram of Dual slope
integrating type DVM.

Ans: Refer answer 4.

(c) State the advantages of a DVM (digital voltmeter) over an analog
meter. Also explain the basic principle of a digital voltmeter. 7
Ans: Refer answer 3 and 17.
1
(d) A 4 2

digit voltmeter is used for voltage measurements:

(i) Find its resolution.

(ii) How would 0.6973 be displayed on 1 V and 10 V rages.
(iii)A moving coil voltmeter has uniform scale with 100 divisions.
The full scale reading is 200 V and 1/10th of scale division can be
estimated by the instrument. Determine resolution of instrument
in volts.
Ans: Refer answer 14.
Examination, April May, 2009
Q.1. (a) A 4 digit voltmeter is used for voltmeter measurement,
find its resolution.
2
Ans: Refer answer 14.
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(b) Describe the working principle and block diagram of Ramp type
DVM.
7
Ans: Refer answer 4.
(c)Explain basic principle and block diagram of Digital Voltmeter.7
Ans: Refer answer 3.
(d) Write short notes on Resolution, Sensitivity, Accuracy, RMS,
Form factor & zero or offset frequency response.
7
Ans: Refer answer 1 for resolution, sensitivity, accuracy, rms and
form factor and answer 2 for offset frequency response.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2008
Q.1. (a) What is the stability of DVM in numeric value?

Ans: Stability of DVMs is:

For short term-0.002% of the reading for a 24-hour period.
For long term-0.008% of the reading for 6 months period.
(b) Define any five from the following:

(i) Zero error

(ii) Sensitivity
(iii) Non-Confirmity
(iv) Hysteresis Error
(v) Dynamic Error
(vi) Cross Sensitivity
Ans: Refer answer 12.
(c) Explain Digital Voltmeters (DVM).

Ans: Refer answer 3.

(d) Explain Digital Frequency Meter on the basis of basic circuit
and circuit for measurement of frequency.

Ans: Refer answer 5.

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Examination, April May, 2008

Q. I. Define Accuracy, Average value, Root mean square value &
2

Form factor.
Ans: Refer answer 1.

Q. II. What are the advantages of Digital instruments over Analog

instruments? What are the different types of Digital Voltmeters,
7

compare their performance.

Ans: Refer answer 17 and 3.
Q. III. Describe the arrangement of Digital Voltmeter based on
Dual Slope integration method. What are the advantages of

integrating type DVM?

Ans: Refer answer 4.
Q. IV. (a) Define Resolution and Sensitivity as related to digital

2+5

instruments.
(b) The lowest range on a 4 digit DVM is 10 mV full scale.
Determine:
(i) Sensitivity and resolution of meter

(ii) How would 0.6789 be displayed on 10 V and 100 V ranges.

Ans: Refer answer 1 for (a) and 14 for (b).
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2007
Q.1 (a) Define sensitivity and resolution of a digital meter.2
Ans: Refer answer 1.
(b) Describe the digital meters and its working in detail.
Ans: Refer answer 3.

(c) Describe the working principle and block diagram of a dual

slope integrating type digital voltmeter.
7
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Ans: Refer answer 4.

(d) A 5 digit voltmeter is used for voltage measurement:
(i) Find its resolution.
(ii) How would 13.46 V be displayed on a 10 V range?
(iii) How would 0.54867 be displayed on 1 V and 10 V ranges.7
Ans: Refer answer 16.

Unit-II

Transducers

Q. 1: - What do you mean by transducer?

(CSVTU April-May 2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to
another. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical,
mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic
or thermal energy. Transducers are widely used in measuring
instruments.

Q. 2: -Write selection criteria of transducers?

Or
Write down the factors which effect the choice of
transducers?
Ans:
The following is the summary of the factors influencing
the choice of a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity.
1. Operating Principle: The transducers are many a times
selected on the basis of operating principle used by them.
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The operating principles used may be resistive, inductive,

capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to
produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirements and have a good resolution over its entire
range.
4. Accuracy: High degree of accuracy is assured if the
transducer does not require frequent calibration and has a
small value for repeatability.
5. Cross sensitivity: Cross sensitivity is a further factor to be
taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities.
There are situations where the actual quantity is being
measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variations in another plane.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input
out relationship as described by its transfer function so as to
avoid errors.
7. Transient and Frequency Response: The transducer should
meet the desired time domain specifications like peak
overshoot, rise time, settling time and small dynamic error. It
should ideally have a flat frequency response curve. In
practice, however, there will be cutoff frequencies and higher
cut off frequency should be high in order to have a wide
bandwidth.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and a low output impedance to avoid loading
effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input-output relationship and does
not break down.
10.
Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals: The transducer
should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and
highly sensitive to desired signals.
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11.

Usage

and

Ruggedness:

The

ruggedness

both

of

mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer versus its

size and weight must be considered while selecting a suitable
transducer.
12.
Electrical aspects: The electrical aspects that need
consideration while selecting a transducer include the length
and type of cable required.
13.
Stability : The transducer should exhibit a high degree
of stability to be operative during its operation and storage
life.
14.
Reliability: Reliability should be assured in case of
failure of transducer in order that the functioning of the
instrumentation system continues uninterrupted.
Q. 3: - Discuss transducers characteristics.
Ans:
The important characteristics of transducers are
1. Input characteristics
i)
Type of Input and Operating Range
ii)
Loading Effects
2. Transfer characteristics
(i)
transfer function
(ii) error, and
(iii) response of transducer to environmental influences.
3. Output characteristics
i)
ii)
iii)

type of electrical output,

output impedance,
useful range.

Input Characteristics
a) Type of Input and Operating Range:
The foremost consideration for the choice of a
transducer is the input quantity it is going to measure and its
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operating range. The type of input, which can be any physical

quantity, is generally determined in advance. However, the choice
of a particular transducer that depends upon the useful range of
input quantity ever which the transducer can be used. The useful
operating range of the transducer may be a decisive factor in
selection of a transducer for a particular application. The upper
limit is decided by the transducer capabilities while the lower limit
of range is normally determined by the transducer error or by the
unavoidable noise originating in the transducer.
b) Loading Effects:
Ideally a transducer should have no loading effect on
the input quantity being measured. In theory, it is impossible,
although in practice steps may be taken to reduce the loading
effects to negligible proportions.
Transfer Characteristics
The transfer characteristics of transducers require
attention of three separate elements,
Transfer Function:
The transfer function of a transducer defines a
relationship between the input quantity and the output. The
transfer function is,
q 0 =f(qi)
Where, q0 and qi are respectively output and input of the
transducer.
The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the differential
quotient,
dq 0
S= dq 1

In general, the sensitivity of transducers is not constant but is

dependent upon the upon quantity q1.
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The scale factor is defined as the inverse of sensitivity and is

therefore,1/S.

Error:
The errors in transducers occur because they donot
follow, in many situations the input-output relationship given by
q 0 = f(q1) . Any departure from the above relationship results in
errors. For example, the output on account of input, q1 has to be
q0 but in practice an output q0' is obtained, then the error of the
instrument is,
= q0 - q0
The error, can be expressed in terms of either input or the
output quantity.
The error can be split into three components,
(1) scale error : - Zero, Sensitivity, Non-Conformity, Hysteresis
(2) dynamic error
(3) error on account of noise and drift.
(4) Error due to change in frequency.
Explanation:
(1) Error:
(2) Zero error:
In zero error condition the output Vs input graph follows
a linear curve. But there is a residual value in overall all curve
when we draw practical curve with respect to theoretical curve.

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(3) Sensitivity Error:

Quotient of the change in an indication of a measuring
system and the corresponding change in a value of a quantity
being measured. Sensitivity of a measuring system can depend on
the value of a quantity being measured increasing linearly with
heavier loads. Sensitivity relates to the test's ability to identify
positive results.

(4) Non Confirmity Error:

A nonconformity (also known as a defect) is a deviation
from

specification,

standard,

or

an

expectation,

nonconformity is the nonfulfilment of a requirement.

(5) Hysteresis Error:

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The maximum separation due to hysteresis between

upscale-going and downscale-going indications of a measured
variable. The delay between the action and reaction of a
measuring instrument. Hysteresis is the amount of error that
results when this action occurs.
The maximum differences in outputs at any measured value
within the specific range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing input may be termed as
Hysteresis.

(2) Dynamic errors are those which produce when input change
with respect to time.
(3,4) Environmental Response(due to noise and drift and due to
change in frequency):
The response of the transducer to environmental
influences is of a great importance. This is often given insufficient
attention when choosing the best transducer for a particular
measurement. This gives rise to results that are not as accurate as
expected, or, worse, results that are accepted as more accurate
than they actually are. The performance of the transducer is fully
defined by its transfer function and errors, provided that the
transducer is in constant environments and not subject to any
disturbances like stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature changes, pressure
and humidity changes, changes in supply voltage and improper
mechanical mountings. If transducers are subjected to the above
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environmental disturbances, which they are, precautions are

taken, so that changes in transfer function and resulting errors
there from do not occur.
Output Characteristics
The three conditions in the output characteristics which should
be considered are,
(i) type of electrical output,
(ii) output impedance,
(iii) useful range.
Type of Electrical Output:
The types of output which may be available from the
transducers may be a voltage, current, impedance or a time
function of these amplitudes. These output quantities may or may
not be acceptable to the latter stages of the instrumentation
system. They may have to be manipulated i.e. their magnitudes
changed or they may have to be changed in their format by signal
conditioning equipment so as to make them drive the subsequent
stages of instrumentation system.
Output Impedance:
The output impedance, Z0 of a transducer determines to
the extent the subsequent stages of instrumentation is loaded.
Ideally, the value of output impedance should be zero if no loading
effects are there on the subsequent stage. However, the output
impedance, Zn, cannot made equal to zero and therefore, its value
should be kept as low as possible to minimize the loading effects.
The output impedance determines the amount of power
that can be transferred to the succeeding stages of the
instrumentation system for a given output signal level. If the
output impedance is low compared to the forward impedance of
the system, the transducer has the characteristics of a constant
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voltage source (provided the output of the transducer is a voltage),

while in case the forward impedance is high as compared with the
output impedance of transducer, it behaves as constant current
source.
When the output impedance of the transducer is equal
to that of the following stages of instrumentation system, matching
takes place and maximum power is transferred from the
transducer to the succeeding stages. However, it must be
understood that in case maximum power transfer takes place,
when the output resistance of transducer, is equal to the
resistance of the succeeding stages, the efficiency is only 50%.
Useful Output Range:
The output range of a transducer is limited at the lower
end by noise signals which may shroud the desired input signal.
The upper limit is set by the maximum useful input level. The
output range can be increased, in some cases, by the inclusion of
amplifier in the transducer. However, the inclusion of an amplifier
also increases the noise level and therefore in such situations the
amplifier may not be of any use at all.
Q. 4: - Classify transducers.
(CSVTU April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2009, April-May 2009, AprilMay 2008)
Ans:
The transducers can be classified as follows:
1. On the basis of transduction form used,
2. Primary and secondary transducers,
3. Passive and active transducers,
4. Analog and digital transducers,
5. Transducers and inverse transducers.
On the basis of Transduction:The transducers can be classified on the basis of
principle of transduction as:
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I.
II.
III.

resistive
inductive
capacitive
It depends upon how they convert the input quantity into

resistance, inductance or capacitance respectively. They can be

classified as piezoelectric, thermoelectric, magneto restrictive,
electro kinetic and optical,
Primary and secondary transducers:When the input signal is directly sensed by the
transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into the
electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the
primary transducer. For example a thermistor used for the
measurement of temperature fall in this category. The thermistor
senses the temperature directly and causes the change in
resistance with the change in temperature.
When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or
sensor and then its output being of some form other than input
signal is given as input to a transducer for conversion into
electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary

transducers.

For

example,

in

case

of

pressure

measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts

pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is
converted into an output voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is
secondary transducer.
Passive and active transducers:Active transducers:
They are also known as self-generating type
transducers. The transducers develop their own voltage or
current. The energy required for production an output signal is
obtained from the physical phenomenon being measured.
Examples: Thermocouples and thermopiles, piezoelectric pick-up,
photovoltaic cell.
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Passive transducers:
They are known as externally-powered transducer.
These transducers derive the power required for the energy
conversion from an external power source. However, they may
absorb some energy from the physical phenomenon under study.
Examples:

Resistance

thermometers

and

thermistors,

potentiometric devices, differential transformer, photoemission cell

etc.
Analog and digital transducers:
1. Analog Transducers. These transducers convert the input
quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of
time. Thus a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a
thermistor may be called as "Analog Transducers" as they give an
output which is a continuous function of time.
2. Digital Transducers. These transducers convert the input
quantity into an electrical output which is in the form of pulses.
As the binary system uses only two symbols 0 and 1 it can be
easily represented by opaque and transparent areas on a glass
scale or non-conducting and conducting areas on a metal scale.
Transducers and inverse transducers:
1. Transducers. A transducer can be broadly defined as a device
which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity.
2. Inverse Transducers. An inverse transducer is defined as a
device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical
quantity. It is a precision actuator which has an electrical input
and a low power non-electrical output. A piezoelectric crystal acts
as an inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied across
its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a mechanical
displacement.
Q. 5: Explain resistance transducers.
(CSVTU April-May 2010)
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Ans:

The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a

simple equation that involves a few physical quantities. The

relationship is given by
R=

L
A

where,

R = Resistance,

= Resistivity of conductor materials, Q-m,

L = Length of conductor, m, and

A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor, m2.
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved
in the above relationship can be the designed basis of an electrical
resistance transducer. There are a number of ways in which
resistance can be changed by a physical phenomenon.
1. The translational and rotational "potentiometers" which work on
the basis of change in the value of resistance with change in
length of the conductor can be used for measurement of
translational or rotary displacements.
2. "Strain gauges" work on the principle that the resistance of a
conductor or a semiconductor changes when strained. This
property can be used for measurement of displacement, force
and pressure.
3. The resistivity of materials changes with the change of
temperature thus causing a change of resistance. This property
may be used for measurement of "temperature".
4. In a resistance transducer an indication of measured physical
quantity is given-by a change in the resistance. It may be
classified (as discussed above) as follows :
Mechanically varied resistance Potentiometer
Thermal resistance change Resistance thermometers
Resistivity change Resistance strain gauge

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Q. 6: What are potentiometers, explain their working?

(CSVTU April-May 2010)
Ans:
Potentiometers convert the linear motion or the angular motion
of a rotating shaft into changes in resistance. The device is a
variable resistor whose resistance is varied by the movement of a
slider over a resistance element.
1. Translatory devices have strokes from 2.5 mm to 5 mm.
2. Rotational devices have full scale from 10 to 60 full turn.
3. Helipot Potentiometer is there which is combination of both
translatory type and rotational type.
The potentiometer shown in Figs. 1 is Linear motion
potentiometer

and Fig 2 Rotary motion potentiometer is form a

part of the bridge circuit whose output voltage is changed by the

slider position is shown in fig 3.

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1. The slider is powered by the mechanical part on which the

linear displacement or angular measurement are to be made.
2. Due to arm movement, the slider moves over the resistance
element and thus shorts out a portion of the resistance. The
change in resistance in the, potentiometer is then an indication of
the amount of motion and the direction of movement is indicated
by whether the resistance is increasing or decreasing. The
unbalanced voltage is measured directly or fed into an amplifier
and recorded.
The output voltage under ideal condition is given by
e0 = (resistance at output terminal/resistance at input terminal)x
input voltage
RP(

xi
)
xt

RP

ei

xi
) e i
xt

Sensitivity S

output e o ei
= =
input
x i xt

Q. 7: - How can we measure the temperature in industries?

(CSVTU April-May 2012)
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Ans:
Temperature is one of the most widely measured and controlled
variable in industry, as a lot of products during manufacturing
requires controlled temperature at various stages of processing.
A wide variety of temperature transducers and
temperature measurement systems have been developed for
different applications requirements. Most of the temperature
transducers are of Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD),
Thermistors and Thermocouples. Of these RTD's and Thermistors
are passive devices whose resistance changes with temperature
hence need an electrical supply to give a voltage output. On the
other hand thermocouples are active transducers and are based
on the principle of generation of thermoelectricity, when two
dissimilar metals are connected together to form a junction called
the sensing junction, an emf is generated proportional to the
tempera
ture of the junction.
Q. 8: -Discuss the following:
i) Resistance Temperature Detectors
ii) Thermistors
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2009)
Ans:
i)

RTD:
The resistance of a conductor changes when its

temperature is changed. This property is utilized for measurement

of temperature.
The variation of resistance R With temperature T (K)
can be represented by the following relationship for most of the
metals as :
R = R0 (1 + 1T + 2T2 ++ nTn + ...)
Where,

R0 = resistance at temperature T= 0 and 1, 2, n, are

constants.
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The resistance thermometer uses the change in

electrical resistance, of conductor to determine the temperature.
The requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTDs are:
1) The change in resistance of material per unit change in
temperature should be as large as possible.
2) The material should have a high value of resistivity so that
minimum volume of material is used for the construction of
RTD.
3) The resistance of materials should have a continuous and
stable relationship with temperature.

The most common RTDs are made of either platinum,

nickel or nickel alloys. The economical nickel wires are used over a
limited temperature range. They are quite non-linear and tend to
drift with time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the
obvious choice.
ii)
THERMISTOR:
Thermistor is a contraction of a term "thermal resistors".
Thermistors are generally composed of semi-conductor materials.
Although positive temperature co-efficient of units (which exhibit
an

increase

in

the

value

of

resistance

with

increase

in

temperature) are available, most thermistors have a negative

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coefficient of temperature resistance i.e. their resistance decreases

with increase of temperature.
The negative temperature coefficient of resistance can
be as large as several percent per degree Celsius. This allows the
thermistors circuits to detect very small changes in temperature
which could not be observed with an RTD or a thermocouple.
Thermistors are widely used in applications which
involve measurements in the range of - 60C to 15C. The
resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 ohm to 0.75 M-ohm.
Thermistor is a highly sensitive device. The price to be paid off for
the high sensitivity is in terms of linearity. The thermistor exhibits
a

highly

non

linear

characteristic

of

resistance

versus

temperature.
Resistance-Temperature Characteristics of Thermistors:
The mathematical expression for the relationship
between the resistance of a thermistor and absolute temperature
of thermistor is :
RT2 = RT1 exp [ (

1
1
T2 - T1

)]

where
RT1 =resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T 1 at K,
RT2= resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T2 at K
= a constant depending Upon the material of thermistor,
typically 3500 to 4500 K.
The resistance temperature characteristics of a typical thermistor
are given in Fig. The resistance temperature characteristics of Fig.
show that a thermistor has a very high negative temperature coefficient of resistance, making it an ideal temperature transducer.

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The characteristics of thermistors are no doubt nonlinear but a linear approximation of the resistance-temperature
curve can be obtained over a small range of temperatures. Thus,
for a limited range of temperature, the resistance of a thermistor
varies as given by Equation:
R= R0(1+0 ).
Q. 9: - Describe strain gauge in detail. Find the expression
for gauge factor?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2009)
Ans:
The strain gauge is basically a device used for measuring
mechanical surface strain and is one of the most extensively used
electrical transducers. Its popularity stems from the fact that it
can detect and convert force or small mechanical displacements
into electrical signals. Many other quantities such as torque,
pressure, weight, and tension etc., which involve effects of force or
displacement,

can

Furthermore,

if

also
the

be

measured

mechanical

by

strain

displacements

gauges.
under

measurement have a time-varying form, such as vibration motion,

signals with frequencies of up to 100 kHz can be detected or
measured. The applications of strain gauges may be broadly
classified into two areas

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(i) Applications where the gauge measure strain as the primary

objective of measurement as in the case of stress analysis of
machines and structures.
(ii)Applications where measurement

of

strain

is

utilized

in

transducers as a measure of another parameter such as load,

pressure, acceleration, or another force associated variable.
The working of strain gauge is based on the fact that when
stress is applied on the metal conductor its resistance changes
owing to change in length and X-sectional area of the conductor
(Fig.). Resistance of conductor under stress is also changed due to
change in resistivity of the conductor, this property called the
piezo-resistive effect. That is why strain gauges are also called the
piezo-resistive strain gauges.

If a conductor of length L, area of cross-section A is subjected to

axial tension, the resistance will change because of change in
length, area and resistivity of the material.
Resistance of an unstrained conductor is given by an expression
R= L / A
Also area of the Wire A= (/4)D2 =KD2
2
Then R= L /K . D --------------------------------------------1

Let under strained conditions resistance of conductor be changed

by R because of change in length by L, cross-sectional area by
A and resistivity by p. These quantities can be related with each

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other by differentiating Resistance expression with respect to

stress i.e.,
dR=

K D2 ( . dL+ L. d) L(2 KD . dD)

(K . D 2)2

dR=

1
K . D2

dR
R

dL
= L

----------------------------2

( . dL+ L . d2 L(dD /D) )

+

dD
-2 D

--------------------------------------3

Also we know that possions ratio is defined as ratio of lateral

strain to longitudinal strain.

i.e. =-

dD
D
dL
L

-----------------------------------------4

Putting value of equation 4 in equation 3 we get

dR
R
dR
R

dL

= L
=

+2

dL
L

dL
+ (1+2 L ----------------------------------------5

Dividing both side by

dR
dL
R / L ) = 1+ 2 +

dL
L

we get

d
/dL

(
) ------------------------------6
L

But we know that Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit
change in resistance to the per unit change in length.
i.e. Gf =

dR
dL
R / L ) ----------------------------------------7

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Now equation 6 becomes

Gf

d
/dL

(
)
L

Gauge factor=(Resistance change due to change of length) +

(Resistance change due to change of Area) + (Resistance change
due to piezoresistive Effect).
Q. 10: - A resistance strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is
fastened to a steel member subjected to a stress of 10.5
104 KN/m2. The modulus of steel is 2.1 108 kN/m2.
Calculate the change of resistance due to stress in the
strain gauge.
(CSVTU April-May 2011)
Ans:
s 10.5 104
6
Strain== =
=500 10 (500 microstrain)
E 2.1 108

We have
R
=Gf =2 500 106 =0.001=0.1
R

The change in resistance is only 0.1%.

Q. 11: -

A strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is fastened to

a metallic member subjected to a stress of 1000 kg/cm2.

The modulus of elasticity of the metal is 2 106 kg/cm2.
Calculate the percentage change in resistance of the strain
gauge. What is the value of Poissons ratio.
(CSVTU April-May 2008)
Ans:
Given:

Gf =2

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F
2
=1000 kg/ cm
Stress= A
6
2
Modulus of Elasticity = Y = 2 10 kg /cm

To Calculate:
1) % change in resistance
2) Poissons ratio
Solution:
Y=

stress 1000
=
strain L
L

L 1000 1000
=
=
=5 104
6
L
Y
2 10
R
R
R
R
Gf =2=
=
L 5 104
L
R
R
=10 104 =
=10 106
R
R

( )

(Ans)

Gf =2=1+2
=0.5

(Ans)

Q. 12: - A strain gauge is bounded to a beam of 0.1 m long

and has a cross-sectional area 4 cm2. Youngs modulus for
steel is 207 GN/m2. The strain gauge has an unstrained
resistance of 240 and a gauge factor of 22. When a load
is applied, the resistance of gauge changes by 0.013 .
Calculate the change in length of the steel beam and the
amount of force applied to the beam.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010)
Ans:
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Given:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

A strain gauge is bounded to a beam of 0.1 m long

Cross-sectional area 4 cm2.
Youngs modulus for steel is 207 GN/m2.
strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 240
Gauge factor of 22.
The resistance of gauge changes by .013.

Calculation:
1. The change in length of the steel beam
2. The amount of force applied to the beam.
Solution:
Gauge Factor Gf =

R/ R
L/ L

Change in length L =

( R /R) L
=
Gf

(0.013/240) 0.1
2.2

= 2.46

106

m
Stress = E = (207 109

2.46 106

/0.1

6
5.092 10 N/m2
6
4
3
Force = s A= 5.092 10 4 10
= 2.037 10 N

Q. 13: - Two electrical strain gauges each of resistance 150

are mounted on a cantilever as shown in fig. and

connected in the bridge circuit (half bridge circuit).

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The supply to bridge is of 6 volt and G = 2. The applied

stress is 300 MN/m2 and Youngs Modulus of elasticity of
cantilever material is 60 gN/m2. Determine
(a)Strain
(b) Change in resistance
(c) The output voltage

(CSVTU April-May 2009)

Ans:
Given:
Resistance of strain gauges. R = 150
Fixed resistances. R = 150
Applied stress. P = 300 x 106 N/m2
Modulus of elasticity, E = 60 x 109 N/m2
Calculation:
Strain
Change in resistance
The output voltage
Solution:

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One of the gauges, sayR1, is subjected to tensile stress and the

other to compressive stress soR1 increases while R 3 decreases.
1. Strain =

P/ E

= (300 x 106 N/m2)/(60 x 109 N/m2) = 5xl0-

2. Change in the resistance of strain gauges,

R = G x x R = 2 x 5xl0-3 x 150 = 1.5
3. Output voltage when the detector connected across output
terminals is of infinite resistance
Vout =

Gx=
2

6
2

x 2 x 5xl0-3 = 30 mV

4. Output voltage when the detector connected across output

terminals is of 600
VOL = [1 /(( /Rm )+1)]

Vout =

[1 /((150 /600)+1)]

30

24 mV
5. Detector current. I = VOL / Rm =24mV/600 =40 n A
6. Current through strain gauges = V/2R = 6/( 2 x 1 5 0 )
= 20 mA
7. Change in resistance R2 for restoration of balance
R2 =

R 4( R 1+ R 1)
R 3 R 3

150 (150+1.5)
1501.5

= 3.03

Q. 14: - Explain any inductive transducer?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2011, NovDec 2008, April-May 2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
Linear-variable-differential transformer (LVDT)
LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and is commonly employed
to measure force (or weight, pressure and acceleration etc. which
depend on force) in terms of the amount and direction of
displacement of an object.

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Construction.
1. It consists of one primary winding (P) and two secondary
windings (S1 and S2) which are placed on either side of the
primary mounted on the same magnetic core.
2. The magnetic core is free to move axially inside the coil
assembly and the motion being measured is mechanically
coupled to it.
3. The two secondarys S1 and S2 have equal number of turns but
are connected in series opposition so that e.m.fs, (E 1 and E2)
induced in them are 180 out of phase with each other and
hence, cancel each other out.
4. The primary is energized from a suitable A.C source.
Working:
1. When the core is in the centre (called reference position) the
induced voltages E1 and E2 are equal and opposite. Hence they
cancel out and the output voltages V0 is zero.
2. When the external applied force moves the core towards coil S 2,
E2 is increased but E1 is decreased in magnitude though they
are still antiphase with each other. The net voltage available is
(E2 E1) and is in phase with E2.
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3. Similarly, when the movable core moves towards coil S 1, E1 > E2

and V0 = E1 - E2 and is in phase with E1.
4. Thus, from above discussion, we find that the magnitude of V0
is a function of the distance moved by the core and its polarity or
phase indicates as to in which direction it has moved.
5. If core is attached to moving object, the magnitude of V0 gives the
position of that object.

Advantages:
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1. It gives a high output and therefore many a times there is no

need for intermediate amplification devices.
2. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity as high as 40
V/mm.
3. It shows a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions.
4. Most of the LVDTs consume a power of less than 1 W.
5. Less friction and less noise (due to absence of sliding contacts).
6. These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock
and vibration without any adverse effects.
7. It can operate over a temperature range from -265C to 600C.
8. It is available in radiation-resistant design for operation in
nuclear reactors.
Disadvantages:
1. These transducers are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but
shielding is possible. This is done by providing magnetic shields
with longitudinal slots.
2. Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable
differential output.
3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on A.C.
signals or demodulator network must be used if a D.C. output
is required.
4. Several times, the transducer performance is affected by
vibrations.
5. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of
core and electrically by the frequency of applied voltage. The
frequency of the carrier should be at least ten times the highest
frequency component to be measured.
Applications:
1. Measurement of material thickness in hot strip or slab steel
mills.
2. In accelerometers.
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3. Jet engine controls in close proximity to exhaust gases.

Q. 15: -

A LVDT has the following data :

Input = 12 V
Output = 10.4 V for range = 1 cm.
Determine The output voltage Vs. Core position for a
core movement going from + 0.9 cm to 0.6 cm.
(CSVTU April-May 2008)
Ans:
C1

Suppose

and

C2

are respectively the values of capacitance

before and after application of pressure. Let

d1

and

d2

be the

values of distance between the diaphgrams for corresponding

pressure conditions.
C1 =

A
d1

and

C2 =

A
d2

C 1 d1
=
C 2 d2

If,

d 1=2.5

then

d 2=2.50.5=2.0 mm

Value of capacitance after application of pressure

C2 =

4001012 2.5
=500 1012 F
2

Q. 16: -Explain capacitive transducers?

(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2008)
Ans:
The principle of operation of capacitive transducer is based on the
familiar equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor:
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Capacitance C =

A
d

r 0 A
d

0 =Free space permittivity

r =Relative Permittivity
=Permittivity of medium

A=Overlapping Area of Plate

d = Distance between two plates
The displacement is measured by measuring the change in
capacitance brought about by:
1. Change in area
2. Change in distance between the plates
Differential capacitor System:
The Differential capacitor System is used for the measurement of
the linear displacement.
In this system two capacitance C1 and C2 are taken and an
alternating voltage E is applied to both the capacitor.
The two capacitor are identical to each other and placed one over
the other as shown in figure1,at this time
C=C1 =C2 =

A
d

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When the plate is displaced parallel to itself through a distance x

towards the capacitance C2 ,then capacitance will become
C1=
C2 =

A
d+ x
A
dx

As the voltage is applied end terminal of both capacitance ,then

the voltages across C1 and C2 both changes and are given by
EC 2
E1= C 1+C 2

d+ x
= E 2d

EC 1

E2= C 1+C 2

=E

dx
2d

When the differential measurement circuit is fed with output from

the terminals pairs 1 and 3 , and 2 and 3 ,the difference voltage
would be recorded:
E1-E2= E

x
d

Hence the difference voltage will give the linear function of the
displacement of the central plate.

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Advantages:
1. Require extremely small force for operation (hence very useful
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

for use in small systems).

Extremely sensitive.
Require small power for operation,
High input impedance; therefore, loading effects are minimum.
Frequency response is good.
A resolution of the order of 2.5 x 10-3 mm can be obtained.
Can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields render
the inductive transducers useless.

Disadvantages.
1. The metallic parts must be insulated from each other. The
frames must be earthed to reduce the effects of stray
capacitances.
2. They show non-linear behaviour several times on account of
edge effects ; guard rings must be used to eliminate this effect.
3. The cable connecting the transducer to the measuring point is
also a source of error. The cable may be source of loading
resulting in loss of sensitivity. Also loading makes the low
frequency response poor.
Uses of the capacitive transducers.
1. To measure both linear and angular displacements.
2. To measure force and pressure.
3. Used as pressure transducers in all those cases where the
dielectric constant of a medium changes with pressures.
4. To measure humidity in gases.
5. Used in conjunction with mechanical modifiers

for

measurement of volume, density, weight, input level etc.

Q. 17: - A capacitive transducer uses two quartz diaphragms
of area 600 mm2 separated by a distance of 2.5 mm. A
pressure of 8 105 N/m2. When applied to the top diaphragm
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F when no pressure is applied to diaphragms. Determine

the value of capacitance after the application of pressure.

(CSVTU April-May 2008)
Ans:
C1

Suppose

and

C2

are respectively the values of capacitance

before and after application of pressure. Let

d1

and

d2

be the

values of distance between the diaphgrams for corresponding

pressure conditions.
C1 =

A
d1

and

C2 =

A
d2

C 1 d1
=
C 2 d2

If,

d 1=2.5

then

d 2=2.50.5=2.0 mm

Value of capacitance after application of pressure

12

C2 =

40010

2.5

=500 1012 F

Q. 18: - A capacitive transducer circuit used for

measurement of linear displacement. Suppose a flat
frequency response with an amplitude ratio within 5% is
required down to a frequency range of 20 Hz. What is the
minimum allowable value of time constant?
Calculate phase shift at this frequency. Area of plates is
300mm2 & the distance between plates is 0.125 mm.
calculate the value of series resistance R. what is the
amplitude ratio at 5 Hz with the above time constant?
(CSVTU April-May 2012)
Ans:
For a flat response with 5%, the amplitude ratio is:
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M=1-0.05 = 0.95
M = 0.95 = 1/{1+(1/)2}1/2
So, = 24.2 * 10-3 sec = 24.2 msec
Phase shift = (/2)-tan-1 = 18.20
Capacitance (C) = A/d = 21.24* 10-12
Therefore series resistance R = /C = 1140 M
Amplitude ratio at 5 Hz = 0.605
Q. 19: - A capacitance transducer of two parallel plates of
4 2
overlapping area of 5 10 m is immersed in water. The

capacitance C has been found to be 9.5 pF. Calculate the

separation d between the plates & the sensitivity, S. Given
r

for water = 81;

0 =8.854 pF /m .

(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011)

Ans:
C = 0 r A/d
On substituting the values we get the value of displacement as
d=37.75 mm
Sensitivity = dC/dd = - 0 r A/d2 = 0.025 * 10-8 F/m
Q. 20: Discuss piezoelectric transducer and derive the
expression for output voltage? (CSVTU Nov-Dec 2009)
Ans:
A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential
appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of
the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force.
This potential is produced by the displacement of charges. The
effect is reversible i.e. conversely, if a varying potential is applied to
the proper axis of the crystal, it will change the dimension of the
crystal thereby deforming it. This effect is known as piezoelectric
effect. Element exhibiting piezoelectric qualities are called as
electro resistive elements.
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The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to

mechanical deformations of the material in many different modes.
The modes can be thickness expansion, thickness shear and face
shear.
The piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. The tensile
force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force
produces a voltage of opposite polarity. The magnitude and
polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied force F.
A piezoelectric element generates a charge and this charge
appears as a voltage across the electrodes. i.e.
E=Q/C
We know that charge Q= d*F Coulamb

(i)

Where, d= charge sensitivity of the crystal (C/N)

And F=force applied in N.
F= AEt/t
Where A= cross sectional area and E= Youngs modulus
Also, E=stress/strain = (F/A)/( t/t)
So, from equation (i) Q = dAEt/t
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The charge at the electrodes give rise to an output voltage:

Voltage Eo=Q/Cp

(Cp = capacitance between electrodes)

And Cp = orA/t
Eo=Qt/ orA = dFt/ orA
Eo= gtP
Where, g= dt/ orA, and P= F/A
Q. 21: - Explain the loading effect and frequency response of
piezoelectric transducers. (CSVTU April-May 2010)
Ans:
Let the transducer be loaded by a capacitance of C L and a
resistance of R L . The capacitance C L is the combination of the
capacitance of the load, the capacitance of the cable and the stray
capacitance.

The value of leakage resistance R P , of the crystal is very large. It

is of the order of 0.1 x 1012 Q. The value of the load resistance,
R L , is considerably smaller than R P and hence the equivalent
circuit of the piezoelectric crystal under load conditions is shown
in figure in which the leakage resistance, R P , of the crystal has
been dropped.
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The voltage output of the transducer under no load conditions, is

therefore E 0 . Under conditions of load: Impedance of load ZL =

RL
1+ ( jC L R L )

Total impedance of circuit Zt=

1
jC p

RL
1+ j R L C L

Voltage across the load EL will be

EL =

ZL
E0
Zt

EL =

j C p RL
E0
1+ j(C L +C p) R L

The Magnitude of voltage across the load is:

EL =

p+ C L
C

2 R L2

1+ 2

Cp RL

dF
We know that E0= C p

Then EL =

p+ C L
C

2 R L2

1+ 2

Cp RL

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EL =

p+ C L
C

2 R L2

1+ 2

RL

At medium and High Frequency

p+ C L
C

EL =

Cp
E0
(C L +C p )

Q. 22: - A Barium titanate pickup has the dimension of 5 mm

5 mm 1.25 mm. The force acting on it is 5 N. The

charge sensitivity of Barium titanate is 150 pc/N & its

permittivity is 12.5 109 F/m. If the modulus of elasticity
of Barium titanate is 120 106 N/m2. Calculate strain,
charge & capacitance.
(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2011, AprilMay 2010)
Ans:
Given:
1. Dimension of barium titanate = 5 mm 5 mm 1.25 mm
2. Force F =5N
3. Charge Sensitivity d =150pC/N
9
4. Permittivity = 12.5 10 F/m

5. Modulus of elasticity= 12 x 106 N/m2

To Calculate:
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1. Strain
2. Charge
3. Capacitance
Solution:
Area of Plate (A) = 5 mm 5 mm

6
= 25 10
m2

6
Pressure (P) = F/A=5/ 25 10
=0.2 MN/m2

12

Voltage sensitivity g = d/ = ( 150 10

12.5 10
)/

3
= 12 10
Vm/N

Voltage Generated Eo = g t P =12 x 10-3 x 1.25 x 10-3 x 0.2 x 106

=3 V
3
12 106
0.2
10
Strain= Stress/Youngs Modulus = (
)/
)

= 0.0167
Charge Q= d F = 150 1012 )* 5 ) = 750 pC
Capacitance C= Q/Eo = (750 pC)/3
Q. 23: -

=250 pF

A piezo electric transducer has a capacitance of

1000 pF and a change sensitivity of 40 10-3 C/m. The

connecting cable has a capacitance of 300 pF while the
oscilloscope

used

for

readout

has

read-out

resistance of 1 m with a parallel capacitance of 50

(i)

input
pF.

What is the high frequency sensitivity (V/m) of the

entire measuring system?

(ii) What is the sensitivity (V/m) of the transducer alone?
(iii) What is the lowest frequency that can be measured
with 5% amplitude error by the entire system?
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(iv)

What is the value of an external shunt capacitance

that can be connected in order to extend the range of
5% error down to 10 Hz? (CSVTU Nov-Dec 2008)

Ans:
Given:
1. A piezo electric transducer has a capacitance of 1000 pF
2. a change sensitivity of 40 10-3 C/m.
3. capacitance of 300 pF
4. input resistance of 1 m
5. a parallel capacitance of 50 pF.
Calculate:
(v)

What is the high frequency sensitivity (V/m) of the entire

measuring system?
(vi) What is the sensitivity (V/m) of the transducer alone?
(vii) What is the lowest frequency that can be measured with
5% amplitude error by the entire system?
(viii) What is the value of an external shunt capacitance that
can be connected in order to extend the range of 5% error
down to 10 Hz
Solution:
1. Charge sensitivity of transducer Kq = 40

Capacitance of transducer Cp = 1000

10

12

10

C/m

Hence Sensitivity Of Transducer K = Kq/Cp = (40

103

)/(1000

1012 )

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= 29.63

10

V/m

2. The Total Capacitance of the measuring circuit

C=Cp + Cc + CA = 1000 + 300 + 50 = 1350 pF
Hence High frequency sensitivity of entire system =K q/C
=(40

10

)/ 1350 = 29.63

3. Time Constant of System = RC = 1

10

V/m

106 1350 1012 =1.35 ms

The lowest frequency that can be used for 5 % magnitude error is

found as under:
1

0.95 =

( )

1+

= 3.04

= 2254 rad/s

Minimum frequency that can be used with 5% error F=2254/2

=358.7 Hz
4. It is now required that a frequency of 10 Hz be measured with
5% error.
Hence Time Constant = 3.04/ = 48.38

Total Capacitance C = 48.38

103

/1

103

106

s =48.380 pF

External Capacitance required Cc = 48380 1350 = 47030 pF

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5. High Frequency sensitivity with external capacitance = 40

103 /48.380

= 827kV/m

Q. 24: - Explain photovoltaic cells?

Ans:
The photo-voltaic or solar cell, produces an electrical
current when connected to a load. Both silicon (Si) and selenium
(Se) types are known for these purposes.

Multiple unit silicon photo-voltaic devices may be used for

sensing light in applications such as reading punched cards in the
data processing industry.
Gold-doped germanium cells with controlled spectral
response characteristics act as photo-voltaic devices in the infrared region of the spectrum and may be used as infra-red
detectors.
The silicon solar cell converts the radiant energy of the
sun into electrical power. The solar cell consists of a thin slice of
single crystal P-type silicon, up to 2 cm 2 into which a very thin
(0.5 micron) layer of N-type material is diffused. The conversion
efficiency depends on the spectral content and intensity of
illumination

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Q. 25: - What do you mean by Hall Effect? Explain Hall Effect

transducers?
(CSVTU April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, a transverse effect is noted. This effect is called
Hall Effect (discovered by Hall in 1879). Hall found that: "When a
magnetic field is applied at right angles to the direction of electric
current an electric field is set up which is perpendicular to both
the direction of electric current and the applied magnetic field".
In other words:
"When any specimen carrying a current I is placed in the
transverse magnetic field B, then an electric field E is induced in
the specimen in the direction perpendicular to both I and B. The
phenomenon is known as Hall effect".

The principle of working of a Hall Effect transducer is

that if a strip of conducting material carries a current in the
presence of a transverse magnetic field, a difference of potential is
produced between the opposite edges of the conductor. The
magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength
of magnetic field and the property of the conductor called Hall
Effect.

The

Hall

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Effect

is

present

in

the

metals

and

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semiconductors

in

varying

amounts,

depending

upon

the

densities and motilities of carriers.

When the transverse magnetic field passes through the
strip, an output voltage across the output leads. This voltage is
proportional to the current and the field strength.

The output voltage

Where,

KH I B
T

KH = Hall Effect coefficient

T = thickness of strip
I = current
B = flux density
Thus, the voltage produced may be used for measurement

of either the current or the magnetic field strength B.

Hall effect transducers are the transducers in which Hall
effect is utilized to measure various electrical or non-electrical
quantities.
Commercial Hall effect transducers are made from
germanium or other semiconductor materials.
Q. 26: - Write some applications of Hall Effect transducers?
Ans:
The following are the applications of Hall Effect transducers:
1. Displacement measurement:
Hall Effect transducer may be used to measure a linear
displacement or to locate a structural element is cases where it is
possible to change the magnetic field strength by variation in the
geometry of a magnetic structure.
2. Current measurement:
Hall Effect transducer can be used to measure current in a
conductor without interrupting the circuit and without making
electrical connection between the conductor circuit and the meter.
When a D.C. or A.C. current flows through the conductor,
it sets up a magnetic field around. This magnetic field is
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proportional to the current. A Hall effect transducer is insert it in

a

slotted

ferromagnetic

tube

which

acts

as

magnetic

concentrator. The voltage produce* at the output terminals is

proportional to the magnetic field strength and hence is
proportion to the current, flowing through the conductor.
3. Magnetic flux measurement:
The magnetic flux can be measured by using Hall Effect
transducer. Here, i semiconductor plate is inserted into the
magnetic field which is to be measured. Tin magnetic lines of force
are perpendicular to the semiconductor. The transducer gives an
output voltage which is proportional to the magnetic field intensity
(B).
4. Fluid level measurement:
Hall Effect sensors can be used as position, displacement
and proximity sensors if object is being sensed with a small
permanent magnet. Such a sensor can be used to determine the
level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank.
Q. 27: - Describe semiconductor photo-diode?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
The photodiode incorporates a P and an N type - layer. The system
has the electrical characteristics of a rectifier. Radiation directed
in the vicinity of the PN junction and causes a flow of current. Fig.
shows the circuit of a photodiode.

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The photodiode is reverse biased. The reverse biased

saturation current is dependent upon the intensity of the incident
light.
Fig. shows the typical characteristics of a photodiode.

The photodiode is very useful for applications where the

space is restricted. The effective area of a photodiode is about 0.2
mm2 and it has a pinhead (serving as electrode) of a diameter of
0.5 mm.
The photocurrent versus light relationship is linear over
a wide range. In order to maintain the linearity the bias voltage
should be kept constant. From Fig. it is clear that the output
resistance R = AV/AI, is very high and is of the order of tens of
M. The d.c. resistance, V / I , is the diode leakage resistance and
that too is very high. This d.c. resistance depends upon the light
intensity.
The frequency response of a photodiode is largely
dependent upon the intrinsic capacity which is typically 2 pF for a
reverse bias of - 10 V.
The cut off frequency is given by fc = 1/2 RLC where C
is capacitance of photodiode and RL is the load resistance. The cut
off frequency is of the order of MHz. Even in dark there is always
leakage current of the photodiode and this current is known as
dark current: The dark current doubles about every 10C increase
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in temperature for silicon and this decreases the signal to noise

ratio.
Comparing photodiodes with photoconductors, the
photodiode possesses considerably better frequency response;
linearity, spectral response and lower noise.
The disadvantages of photodiodes include small active
area, rapid increase in dark current with temperature, bias voltage
requirement, and the necessity of amplification at low illumination
levels. The photodiodes are very small and they give rise to very
small signal currents, typically as low as a few picoampere.
Applications of Photodiode:
It is important to realize that the photodiode and photo-voltaic cell
are similar types of devices operating on the same principle.
1. In the case of photodiodes, a way of reducing the capacitance of
the device and hence its time constant (x = RC), a special device
called PIN Photodiode may be used. A 7 or intrinsic layer is
introduced between P and N ends. This effectively increases, the
width of depletion layer thus reducing the capacitance. Thus
faster response and low noise are obtained.
2. Typical values for a photodiode are :
Junction capacitance = 10 pF, reverse resistance = 50 MT2 and
forward resistance = 100 Q.
The use of the photodiode in the circuits used is
becoming more popular as integrated Circuit operational
amplifiers come down in price. It has the disadvantage of
requiring a dual power supply but has a linear output voltage
capable of driving the meter directly. Thus it is used in high
quality light meters for photometry and studio photographic
work. Some of the applications of photo-voltaic cell can be
applied to a photodiode.
3. Because of their fast response time, photodiodes are used in
film sound track readers. The sound track is printed on the film
as a variable area. As it moves through the protector, it is
examined through a fine ( < 0.1 mm slit) and the light falling on
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the photodiode is varied. The highest mode that can be

reproduced is thus dependent upon the response of the
photodiode as well as the film speed, the width of slit and the
definition of photographic emulsion.
4. Photodiodes can be used as detectors of modulated light in
optical communication systems.
5. The photodiodes can be used in switching circuits as they have
a fast response time. A switching circuit using a photodiode is
the transistor is normally 'ON* due to the bias resistor. When
the photodiode is illuminated, the base current is reduced
taming the transistor OFF.
Q. 28: Explain phototransistor? (CSVTU Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
A phototransistor is a normal transistor in which the
envelope enclosing the junction is transparent to allow light to fall
on the base emitter junction . At any PN junction hole-electron
pairs are generated when light fall on the junction, so that any
light falling on the base-emitter junction, produces a current
which is amplified by transistor action, making the device way
sensitive.

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Illumination of the central region causes the release of

electron hole pairs. This lowers the barrier potential across both
junctions, causing an increase in the flow of electrons from the
left region into the centre region and on to the right region.The
sensitivity of a photo diode can be increased by as much as 100
times bv adding a junction, resulting in an NPN device.
The advantages of the phototransistor are: low power
consumption, small size, immediate operation on switching on,
low voltage operation and long life.
A phototransistor gives a high gain. These transistor digital
applications because of the small rise and fall times. The rise
time, which represents the response to dark-to-light irradiance
is about 1 microseconds and the fall time which represents
light-to-dark light irradiance is about 10 microseconds.
Q. 29: -What are frequency generating transducers?
Ans:
PRESSURE INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
A simple, arrangement, where in a change in the inductance of a
sensing element is produced by a pressure change, is given in Fig.
below

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Here the pressure acting on a movable magnetic core

causes an increase in the coil inductance corresponding to the
acting pressure. The change in inductance can again be made on
the basis of an electrical signal, using an ac bridge.
An advantage of the inductive type over the resistive type
is that no moving contacts are present, thereby providing
continuous resolution of the change, with no extra friction load
imposed on the measuring system.
In a slightly modified form, this principle is used to
obtain a change in mutual inductance between magnetically
coupled coils, rather than in the self-inductance of a single coil.
When a change in an induced voltage is involved, the transducer
is sometimes called a variable reluctance sensor or magnetic
pickup. A very important example of the mutual type is the LVDT.
Q. 30: - Discuss inductive position transducers (synchro's).
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
Synchro is a generic name for a faculty of inductive
devices which can be connected in various ways to form shaft
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angle measurement. All these devices work essentially on the

same principle that is of a rotating transformer. A Synchro
appears like an AC motor consisting of a rotor and a stator.
Synchro's are normally used in control system, but have
properties that can be used in instrumentation also.
A Synchro can be an angular position transducer working
on inductive principle, wherein a variable coupling between
primary and secondary winding is obtained by changing the
relative orientation of the windings.
Internally, most synchro's are similar in construction.
They have a rotor with one or three windings capable of revolving
inside a fixed stator. There are two common types of rotors, the
salient pole and the wound rotor.
The primary winding is a single phase winding wound on
a rotor made of laminations. The connection to the rotor windings
are made through precision slip rings.

The stator has a 3-phase winding with the windings of the

3-phase displaced by 120o. The Synchro may be viewed as a
variable coupling transformer. A Synchro is also called as Selsyn.

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Synchro systems consists of two or more interconnected

Synchro. They are grouped or connected together according to the
purpose to be used.
A Synchro system formed by interconnection of the
devices called the Synchro transmitter and Synchro control
transmitter is perhaps the most widely med error detector in
feedback control system. It measures and compares two angular
displacements and its output voltage is approximately linear with
angular displacement.
The conventional Synchro transmitter (TX) uses a salient
pole rotor with sleeved slot When an ac excitation voltage is
applied to the rotor, the resultant current produces a magnetic
field and by transformer action induces voltage in the stator coils.
The effective voltage induced in any stator coil depends upon die
angular position of the coil axis with respect to the rotor axis
(when the coil voltage is known, the induced voltage at any
angular displacement can be determined).
Q. 31: - Discuss the method for measurement of angular
velocity?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2009, April-May 2009)
Ans:
The measurement of angular velocity is more prominent than that
of linear velocity. In many cases the only way for measuring linear
velocity is by its conversion into an angular velocity.
The main problem with linear velocity measurement is in use of a
fixed reference and in detection in case of moving body travelling
over a long distance. The various devices used in measurement of
angular velocity are described below.
1. DC Generator Tachometer.
This generator consisting of a small armature which is coupled to
the shaft of the machine whose speed is to be measured.
It is an ordinary miniature de generator consisting of a small
armature rotating in a constant magnetic field.
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The magnetic field is created either by a permanent magnet

mounted on the stator or by a separately excited electromagnet on
the stator.
The emf generated by this transducer is proportional to the flux
and speed of rotation of armature coupled mechanically to the
shaft of the test machine.
Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant ,the voltage
generated is proportional to speed.
The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation.
One nice feature of this type of transducer is that the polarity of
the generated emf reverses when direction of rotation reverses.
This EMF is measured with the help of a moving coil Voltmeter
having a uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of speed.
The emf is measured with a high resistance voltmeter (say TVM)
which may be calibrated in terms of rpm. Hence such a
transducer indicates the speed as well as direction of rotation.

2. A.C. Tachometer
In order to overcome some of the difficulties mentioned in
D.C.Tachometer, we use A.C Tachometer.
The Tachometer generator has rotating magnet which may be
either a permanent magnet or an electro magnet.
The coil is wound on a stator and therefore the problems
associated with commutation as in D.C Tachometer are absent.
The rotation of magnet causes a EMF to be induced in a stator coil
the amplitude and frequency of the emf are both proportional to
the speed of rotational.
Thus either amplitude or frequency of induced voltage may be
used as measure of rotational speed.
The output voltage of this is rectified and is measured with
permanent magnet moving coil instrument.
Such a tachometer is shown in Figure below. It consists of a
permanent magnet NS coupled mechanically with the test shaft
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and an aluminum disc facing the poles of the permanent magnet,

the disc being mounted on the shaft carrying the instrument
pointer.

3. Reluctance pulse pick-ups:

This transducer is very suitable for the measurement of shaft
speed and liquid flow. It is based on the principle that if the field
of any magnet is varied momentarily by the motion of an external
magnetic body near it, a voltage pulse is generated at the coil of
the magnet because of the change in flux surrounding the coil.
The transducer consists of a permanent magnet on which a coil is
wound. The output voltage depends upon the rate of change of
magnetic flux and the number of turns. Flux depends upon the
clearance between the pick up and the actuating medium, the rate
of movement and size of the actuating medium. The output voltage
is inversely proportional to the distance between the head of the
pick up and the actuating medium.
The pick up is actuated by the teeth of a gear or blades of
turbines. In rpm measurement, the pick up is placed near the
teeth of a gear. The motion of the gear tooth distorts the magnetic
field around the core magnet.
A voltage pulse is produced every time a tooth enters or leaves the
area of the pick up coil. The frequency of pulse is then
proportional to the speed of the gear. This can be used for a
tachometer.
Similarly, a pick up can be used to determine the flow, as the
speed of the turbine through which the liquid flows is proportional
to the flow. The total pulses counted are proportional to the total
flow.

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This tachometer essentially consists of a metallic toothed rotor

mounted on the shaft of the machine whose speed is to be
measured and a permanent magnet with a coil of wire wrapped
around it. This arrangement is shown in Figure below,

Variation in reluctance causes variation in flux, which in turn

induces an emf in the coil wrapped on the permanent magnet.
This induced emf or output voltage is in the form of pulses with a
variety of wave shapes. The frequency of the output pulses
depends on the number of teeth on the rotor and the rotor speed
and is given by the expression
f (pulses per second) = Speed of rotation in rps x number of teeth
on rotor
Rotational speedrps=

f
Number of teeth on rotor

Rotational speed rpm=

60 f
Number of teeth on rotor

Such tachometers are simple and rugged in construction, easy to

calibrate, do not need any maintenance and give the information
that can be easily transmitted.
Q. 32: - A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of
small dia. The gauge factor is +4.2. Neglecting the piezoresistive effects, calculate the poissons ratio.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
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Poisson s ratio==

G1 4 .21
=
=1. 6
2
2

Examination, April May, 2012

Q. 2: - (a) Give the order (highest to lowest) in which the
temperature transducers inhibit non-linear behavior.
2
Ans: Refer answer 7.
(b) A capacitive transducer circuit used for measurement of linear
displacement. Suppose a flat frequency response with an
amplitude ratio within 5% is required down to a frequency
range of 20 Hz. What is the minimum allowable value of time
constant?
Calculate phase shift at this frequency. Area of plates is
300mm2 & the distance between plates is 0.125 mm. calculate
the value of series resistance R. what is the amplitude ratio at
5 Hz with the above time constant?
7
Ans: Refer answer 18.
(c) Describe the construction & working principle of LVDT.

Ans: Refer answer 14.

(d) a barium titanate pickup has the dimensions of 5 mm5
mm1.25 mm. the force acting on it is 5 N. The charge sensitivity
of barium titanate is 150 pc/N & its permittivity is 12.510 -9F/m.
6
2
if the modulus of elasticity of barium titanate is 12 10 N/ m

calculate the strain . also calculate the charges & capacitance.

Ans: Refer answer 22.

Examination, Nov Dec, 2011

Q.2 (a) Why are strain gauges called the piezo - resistive strain
gauges?
Ans: Refer answer 9.

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(b) Explain the principle of action of a capacitive displacement

transducer having a linear characteristics.
A capacitance transducer of two parallel plates of overlapping
4 2
area of 5 10 m is immersed in water. The capacitance C has

been found to be 9.5 pF. Calculate the separation d between

the plates & the sensitivity, S. Given

for water = 81;

0 =8.854 pF /m .

Ans: Refer answer 16 and 19.

(c) A barium titanate piezoelectric pickup has dimensions of
6 mm 6 mm 1.5 mm

& a voltage sensitivity of 0.012Vm / N . Relative

permittivity of barium titanate is 1400 & modulus of elasticity
10
2
of barium titanate is 12 10 N / m . Determine :

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Output voltage
Charge sensitivity
Strain
Charge generated & the capacitance of the pickup. The
force applied to the pick is 10N.
Ans: Refer answer 22.
(d)Write short note on LVDT.
Ans: Refer answer 14.
Examination, April May, 2011
Q.2. (a) A resistance strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is fastened
to a steel member subjected to a stress of 10.5 104 KN/m2.
The modulus of steel is 2.1 108 kN/m2. Calculate the change
of resistance due to stress in the strain gauge.
2
Ans: Refer answer 10.
(b) Explain LVDT with diagram, advantages & disadvantages & its
applications.
7
Ans: refer answer 14.
(c) Explain Hall effect transducer. Also, mention the applications.7
Ans: Refer answer 25.
(d) A Barium titanate pickup has the dimension of 5 mm 5 mm
1.25 mm. The force acting on it is 5 N. The charge sensitivity
of Barium titanate is 150 pc/N & its permittivity is 12.5 109
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F/m. If the modulus of elasticity of Barium titanate is 120 106

N/m2. Calculate strain, charge & capacitance.
7
Ans: Refer answer 22.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2010
Q. I. What are the differences between active and passive
2

transducers.
Ans: Refer answer 4.

Q. II. Explain the principle of working constructional details and

application of photo diodes. Draw the characteristics.

Ans: Refer answer 27.

Q. III. A strain gauge is bounded to a beam of 0.1 m long and has
a cross-sectional area 4 cm2. Youngs modulus for steel is 207
GN/m2. The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 240
and a gauge factor of 22. When a load is applied, the resistance
of gauge changes by .013 . Calculate the change in length of
the steel beam and the amount of force applied to the beam. 7
Ans: Refer answer 12.
Q. IV. Describe the method for measurement of temperature with
7

use of:
(i)

RTDs

(ii)

Thermistor

Ans: Refer answer 8.

Examination, April May, 2010
Q. 2. (a) Define gauge factor.

Ans: Refer answer 9.

(b) Explain resistive transducer especially potentiometer.

Ans: Refer answer 5 and 6.

(c) A barium titanate pickup has the dimension of 5 mm 5 mm
1.25 mm. The charge sensitivity of barium titanate is 150 pc/N
& its permittivity is 12.5 10-9 P/N. If the modulus of elasticity
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of barium titanate is 12 106 N/m2. Calculate the strain. Also,

7

calculate the charge & the capacitance.

Ans: Refer answer 22.

(d) Explain loading effects & frequency response of piezoelectric

7

transducers.
Ans: Refer answer 21.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2009

Q.2. (a) What are primary and secondary transducers? Give one
example each.
Ans: Refer answer 4.
(b) Explain the working of strain gauge and derive the expression
for gauge factor.
Ans: Refer answer 9.
(c) What is piezoelectric transducer? Prove that the output of
Piezoelectric transducer does not depend on frequency.
Ans: Refer answer 20.
(d)Explain

the

reluctance

pulse

pick-ups

method

for

measurement of angular velocity.

Ans: Refer answer 31.
Examination, April May, 2009
Q.2. (a) What are active & passive transducer? Give the example
for each.
2
Ans: Refer answer 4.
(b) Explain the working principle of thermistor. Also describe
atleast 2 application of thermistor.

Ans: Refer answer 8.

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(c) Explain any one method for measurement of angular velocity.7

Ans: Refer answer 31.
(d) Two electrical strain gauges each of resistance 150 are
mounted on a cantilever as shown in fig. and connected in the
bridge circuit (half bridge circuit).

The supply to bridge is of 6 volt and G = 2. The applied stress

is 300 MN/m2 and Youngs Modulus of elasticity of cantilever
material is 60 gN/m2. Determine
(a) Strain
(b)Change in resistance
(c) The output voltage

Ans: Refer answer 13.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2008
Q.2. (a) A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of
small dia. The gauge factor is +4.2. Neglecting the piezo-resistive
effects, calculate the poissons ratio.

Ans: Refer answer 32.

(b) Explain Hall Effect Transducers?
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Ans: Refer answer 25.

(c) Describe Linear Variable Differential Transducer with
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appropriate figure. Also discuss some of its advantages.

Ans: Refer answer 14.

(d) A piezo electric transducer has a capacitance of 1000 pF and a

change sensitivity of 40 10-3 C/m. The connecting cable has a
capacitance of 300 pF while the oscilloscope used for readout
has a read-out input resistance of 1 m with a parallel
7

capacitance of 50 pF.
(i)

What is the high frequency sensitivity (V/m) of the entire

(ii)
(iii)

measuring system?
What is the sensitivity (V/m) of the transducer alone?
What is the lowest frequency that can be measured with

(iv)

5% amplitude error by the entire system?

What is the value of an external shunt capacitance that
can be connected in order to extend the range of 5% error
down to 10 Hz?

Ans: Refer answer 23.

Examination, April May, 2008
Q. I. What is a transducer? List four physical quantities that a
2

Transducer measures.
Ans: Refer answer 1.
Q. II. (a) Explain the use of capacitive transducers for the

4+3

measurement of linear displacement.

Ans: Refer answer 16.

(b) A capacitive transducer uses two quartz diaphragms of area

600 mm2 separated by a distance of 2.5 mm. A pressure of 8
105 N/m2. When applied to the top diaphragm causes a
deflection of 0.5 mm. The capacitance is 400 10-12 F when no
pressure is applied to diaphragms. Determine the value of
capacitance after the application of pressure.
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Ans: Refer answer 17.

Q. III. (a) Explain the operating principle of a LVDT.

4+3

Ans: Refer answer 14.

(b) A LVDT has the following data :
Input = 12 V
Output = 10.4 V for range = 1 cm.
Determine The output voltage Vs. Core
Position for a core movement going from + 0.9 cm to 0.6 cm.
Ans: Refer answer 15.
Q. IV.(a) Distinguish between active and passive electrical
4+3

transducers and give one example of each.

Ans: Refer answer 4.

(b) A strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is fastened to a metallic

member subjected to a stress of 1000 kg/cm 2. The modulus of
elasticity of the metal is 2 106 kg./cm2. Calculate the
percentage change in resistance of the strain gauge. What is the
value of Poissons ratio.
Ans: Refer answer 11.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2007
Q.2. (a) Define Electrical transducer.
2
Ans: Refer answer 1.
(b) Describe the construction & operation of linear variable
differential transducer (LVDT).
Ans: Refer answer 14.

(c) What is pressure inductive transducer and its types? Explain

Synchro in detail.
7
Ans: Refer answer 30.

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(d) Describe semiconductor photodiode and phototransistor for

illumination measurement.
7
Ans: Refer answer 27 and 28.

Unit-III

Data Acquisition System (DAS)

And Recorders

Q. 1: -What do you mean by Data acquisition system?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011, Nov-Dec 2010, AprilMay 2009)
Ans:
Data acquisition system (DAS) may be defined as a system
used for data processing, data conversion, data transmission and
data storage
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A typical data acquisition consists of individual sensors

with necessary signal conditioning, multiplexing, data conversion,
data processing, data handling and associated transmission,
storage and display systems.
In order to optimize the characteristics of a system in
terms of performance, handling capability, and cost, the relevant
sub-systems may often be combined together. The analog data is
usually acquired and converted into digital form for the purpose of
processing, transmission, display, and storage.
Data acquisition generally relates to the process of collecting
the input data in digital form as rapidly, accurately, completely
and economically as required. The basic instrumentation used
may be a standard digital panel meter with digital outputs, a shaft
digitizer or a sophisticated high-speed high-resolution device.
Data acquisition is the process of using output signals and
inputting that into a computer. The output signal may be one that
originates from direct measurement of electrical quantities such
as voltage, frequency, resistance etc. or that originates from
sensors.
Data acquisition systems are employed for measuring
and recording signals obtained in basically two ways:
1) Signals originating from direct measurement of-electrical
quantities such as de and ac voltages, frequency or
resistance.
2) Signals originating from transducers, such as strain gauges
and thermo-couples.
Instrumentation systems can be grouped into two classes viz
analog systems and digital systems. Analog systems deal with
measurement information in analog form while digital systems
handle information in digital form.
Q. 2:- Explain the configuration of DAS?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2009)
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Ans:
Configuration of DAS: The important factors that decide the
configuration and the sub-systems of a acquisition system are as
follows :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The number of channels to the monitored.

Sampling rate per channel,
Signal conditioning requirement of each channel.
Resolution and accuracy.
Cost.

The various general configurations include :

1. Signal channel possibilities :
(1) Direct conversion.
(2)Pre-amplification and direct conversion,
(3)Sample and hold, and conversion.
(4)Pre-amplification, sample and hold, and conversion.
(5)Pre-amplification, signal conditioning, and any of the
above.
2. Multi-channel possibilities :
1) Multiplexing the outputs of single channel converters.
2) Multiplexing the outputs of sample-hold circuits.
3) Multiplexing the inputs of the sample-hold circuits.
4) Multiplexing low level data.
3. Noise-reduction options
1) Filtering.
2) Integrating converters and digital processing.
Q. 3: - Explain analog data acquisition system?
Ans:

An analog data acquisition system typically consists of some

or all of the following elements:

1. Transducers: It is desirable that an emf, obtained from the
transducer proportional to the quantity under measurement, is
used as an input to the data-acquisition system. Therefore,
transducers such as strain gauges, thermocouples, piezoelectric
devices, and photo-sensitive devices are used.
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2. Signal conditioners for amplifying, modifying or selecting

certain portions of such signals. Signal conditioning equipment
includes

any

equipment

that

assists

in

transforming

the

transducer output to the desired magnitude or form required by

the next stage of the data acquisition system. It also produces the
required conditions in the transducers so that they work properly.

Fig 1.Block Diagram of General Data Acquisition System

3. Calibrating Equipment. Before each test there is a pre
calibration, and often after each test there is a post calibration.
4. Integrating Equipment. An analog integrating circuit can be
used for a qualitative test. It has the possible danger of becoming
overloaded and also its accuracy is low. Therefore, digital
techniques are normally used for integration purposes.
5. Visual devices, such as single or multi-channel oscilloscopes,
storage oscilloscopes, and panel meters, numerical displays etc.,
for continuous monitoring of input signals.
6. Graphic recording instruments (such as stylus-and-ink
recorders to provide continues records on paper charts, optical
recording systems such as mirror galvanometer recorders, and
ultra-violet recorders) for having permanent records of the input
data.
7. Magnetic tape instrumentation for acquisition of input data,
preservation of their original electrical form and reproducing them
at a later date for more detailed analysis.
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8. Analog Computers. The function of a data acquisition system

is not only to record data acquired by the transducers and the
sensors but also to reduce this data to the desired form. An
analog computer may be used as a data reduction device. The
output voltage of an analog computer can either be recorded in
analog form or be converted to a digital form for recording and
further computations.
9. High Speed Cameras and TV Equipment. closed circuit TV is
used to enable the operator to make visual observations of the
test. Also high speed cameras are employed to obtain a complete
visual record of the process for further analysis.
Q. 4: - Discuss digital data acquisition system?
Ans:
A digital data acquisition system may include some or all
of the elements shown in Fig.2 the essential functional operations
within a digital system include handling of analog signals,
carrying out of measurements, conversion and handling of digital
data and internal programming and control.
The function of each of the system elements shown in fig.2
is given above.

Fig. 2: Block Diagram of Digital Data Acquisition System

1.

Transducer

translates

physical

parameters

(such

as

temperature, pressure, acceleration, velocity, weight displacement

etc.) into electrical quantities (such as voltage, resistance or
frequency etc.). Electrical quantities also may be measured
directly.
2. Signal conditioner. Usually includes the supporting circuitry
for the transducer. This circuitry may provide excitation power,
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balancing circuits and calibration elements. Strain-gauge bridge

balance and power supply unit is an example of a signal
conditioner.
3. Scanner or multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and
sequentially connects them to one measuring instrument.
4. Signal converter translates the analog signal to a form
acceptable by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). An example of
a signal converter is an amplifier for amplifying low level voltages
produced by strain gauges or thermo-couples.
5. ADC converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form.
The output of ADC may be displayed visually and is also available
as voltage outputs in discrete steps for further processing or
recording on a digital recorder.
6. Auxiliary equipment consists of instruments for system
programming functions and digital data processing. Typical
auxiliary functions include linearizing and limit comparison. Such
functions may be performed by individual instruments or by a
digital computer.
7. Digital recorder records digital information on punched cards,
perforated paper tape magnetic tape, typewritten pages or a
combination of such systems. The digital recorder may be
preceded by a coupling unit that translates the digital information
to the proper form for entry into the particular digital recorder
selected.
8. Digital Printers. After all the tests have been completed and
the data generated, it becomes necessary to record the numbers
and in some cases reduce the data to a more meaningful form. A
digital printer can be specified to interface with an electronic
instrumentation system in order to perform this work, and thus
provide a high quality hard copy for records and minimizing the
labour of the operating staff.

Q. 5: - Write the objective of DAS?

(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2010)
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Ans:
OBJECTIVE OF DAS:
The objectives of a data acquisition system may be summed up as
follows:
1. To be reliable, flexible and capable of being expanded for future
requirement.
2. To acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at correct
time.
3. Down time not be more than 0.1 percent.
4. To be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line,
real-time data.
5. To maintain on-line optimum and safe operations, it must
monitor the complete plant operation.
6. To make use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about
the state of the plant.
7. To be able to collect, summarize and store data for diagnosis of
operation record purpose.
8. To provide an effective human communication system and be
able to identify problem areas, thereby minimizing unit
availability and maximizing unit through point at minimum
cost.
Q. 6: -Describe single and multichannel data acquisition
system?
(CSVTU April-May 2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
SINGLE CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
A single channel data acquisition system consists of a signal
conditioner followed by an analog to digital (A/D) converter,
performing repetitive conversions at a free running, internally
determined rate. The outputs are in digital code words including
over range indication, polarity information and a status output to
indicate when the output digits are valid. ^
A single channel DAS is shown in Fig..
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The digital outputs are further fed to a storage or printout device,

or to a digital computer device, or to a digital computer for
analysis. The popular Digital panel Meter (DPM) is a well-known
example of this. However, there are two major drawbacks in using
it as a DAS.
It is slow and the BCD has to be changed into binary coding, if the
output is to be processed by digital equipment.
While it is free running, the data from the A/D converter is
transferred to the interface register at a rate determined by the
DPM itself, rather than commands beginning from the external
interface.
MULTI-CHANNEL ANALOG MULTIPLEXED SYSTEM
The multi-channel DAS has a single A/D converter preceded by a
multiplexer, as shown in Figure below.

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The individual analog signals are applied directly or after

amplification and/or signal conditioning, whenever necessary, to
the multiplexer. These are further converted to digital signals by
the use of A/D converters, sequentially.
For the most efficient utilization of time, the multiplexer is
made to seek the next channel to be converted while the previous
data stored in the sample/hold is converted to digital form.
When the conversion is complete, the status line from the
converter causes the sample/hold to return to the sample mode
and acquires the signal of the next channel. On completion of
acquisition, either immediately or upon command, the S/H is
switched to the hold mode, a conversion begins again and the
multiplexer selects the next channel. This method is relatively
slower than systems where S/H outputs or even A/D converter
outputs are multiplexed, but it has the obvious advantage of low
cost due to sharing of a majority of sub-systems.
Sufficient accuracy in measurements can be achieved even
without the S/H, in cases where signal variations are extremely
slow.
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Q. 7: -How can we multiplex the output of sample hold

circuit?
Ans:
When a large number of channels are to be monitored at the same
time (synchronously) but at moderate speeds, the technique of
multiplexing the outputs of the S/H is particularly attractive.
An individual S/H is assigned to each channel as shown in Fig.
and they are updated synchronously by a timing circuit.

The S/H outputs are connected to an A/D converter through a

multiplexer, resulting in a sequential readout of the outputs.
(Applications that might require this approach include wind
tunnel measurements, seismographic experimentation, radar and
fire control systems. The event to be measured is often a one-shot
phenomenon and information is required at a critical point during
a one-shot event.)
Q. 8: -How can we multiplex the output after A/D conversion?
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Ans:
It is now economically feasible to employ an A/D converter for
each analog input and multiplex the digital outputs.
Since each analog to digital converter (A/D) is assigned to an
individual channel, the conversion rate of the A/D need only be as
fast as is needed for that channel, compared to the higher rates
that would be needed if it were used as in a multi-channel analog
multiplexed system.

The parallel conversion scheme shown in Fig. provides additional

advantages in industrial data acquisition systems where many
strain gauges, thermocouples and LVDTs are distributed over large
plant areas. Since the analog signals are digitised at the source,
the digital transmission of the data to the data centre (from where
it can go on to a communication channel) can provide enhanced
immunity against line frequency and other ground loop
interferences. The data converted to digital form is used to
perform logic operations and decisions. Based on the relative
speed at which changes occur in the data, the scanning rate can
be increased or decreased.
Q. 9: - Explain computer based DAS?
Ans:
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If a large number of inputs are to be measured, some

equipment is needed to measure them and display the results in a
meaningful and operationally useful fashion. All this is possible
with DAS, which utilizes a computer driven visual display unit
(CRT) as an operator aid.
A screen display can be obtained within two seconds by
pressing a button. Information may be displayed only when called
up. The screen display can be designed in several ways, using a
combination of graphical and numeric displays, so as to be of
maximum utility to the operator. DAS aids operate in the following
manner.
1. Display information instantly in condensed, understandable
and legible manner so that it can be easily assimilated.
2. Display spatial as well as time variation.
3. Display vital parameters grouped together logically

and

concisely, eliminating the need of looking at many scattered

instruments.
4. Display CRT graphic displays of plant sub-systems.
5. Display short trends on a long and short term basis, as
required.
6. Analyze the data and present the highest priority problem first,
and display operator guidance messages.
7. Analyze the data and present the derived data; do performance
calculations to depict the performance of several equipments
and plants.
8. Display alarms, indicating abnormal plant operating conditions
on the CRT.
9. Provide trending of analog variables on strip chart recorders, in
the form of a histogram on the CRT, and provide dynamic
updating of parameters.
10. Produce a hard copy record of all plant operating events and
various plant logs.
11. Provide a recording of the sequence of events, whenever an
emergency occurs.
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Q. 10: - What do you mean by sample and hold circuit?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2009)
Ans:
A number of signals are received by data acquisition
system from several different sources. The signals are transmitted
in a suitable form to a computer or some other communication
channel. Each signal is selected by a multiplexer and the information is converted into a constant voltage by means of a sample and
hold (S/H) circuit. The constant output of the sample and hold
circuit may be converted into a digital signal by means of analog to
digital converter (ADC).
In its simplest form, S/ H circuit can be represented by
a switch and a capacitor, as illustrated in Fig. 1

In the sample mode, the switch is closed and the

capacitor C charges to the instantaneous value of the input
voltage while in the hold mode, the switch is opened and the
capacitor holds the voltage that it had at the instant the switch
was opened.
If the switch drive is synchronized with the ring counter
pulse, the actual measurement and conversion takes place when
the S/H circuit is in the hold mode.
The output waveform of S/H circuit is shown in Fig 2.

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A practical sample and hold (S/H) circuit using an op-amp

with an E-MOSFET is shown in Fig. 3

In this circuit the E-MOSFET acts as a switch that is

controlled by the sample-and-hold control voltage V g, and the
capacitor C acts as a storage element. The operation of the circuit
is explained below.
The analog signal vin to be sampled is applied to the drain
terminal while sample-and-hold control voltage Vg is applied to the
gate terminal of the N-channel E-MOSFET.
When a positive pulse of V s appears at the gate of EMOSFET it starts conducting between drain and source and thus
acts as a closed switch.

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This allows input voltage vin to charge capacitor C i.e.

input voltage appears across capacitor C and in turn at the
output.
When V s becomes zero, the E-MOSFET is off (nonconductive) and acts as an open switch. The only discharge path
for C is through the op-amp follower, which is of high input
resistance, so capacitor C holds the charge and voltage across it
remains constant.
The time periods during which capacitor C charges or
positive pulse is applied, are called the sample periods ts and
during this period the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the
input voltage.
The time periods during which voltage across capacitor C
is held constant or gate pulse is absent are called the hold
periods. The output of the op-amp is usually processed / observed
during hold periods.
For obtaining close approximation of the input waveform
the frequency of sample-and-hold control voltage V s must be
significantly larger than that of input voltage vin so that input
signal can be sampled more than once in a cycle.
Q. 11: - What are digital to analog converters? Explain their
types?
(CSVTU April-May 2011, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2008, NovDec 2007)
Ans:
Digital to analog and analog to digital conversion form two very
important aspects of digital data processing.
D/A involves translating digital information into equivalent
analog information. For example, the output of a digital system
might be changed to analog form to drive a pen recorder. Similarly,
a signal might be required for the servo-motors which drive the
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arms of a plotter. D/A can also be considered as a decoding

device, since it operates on the output of a digital system.
The basic problem in converting a digital signal into an
equivalent analog signal is to change the n digital voltage levels
into one equivalent analog voltage. This can be achieved most
easily by designing a resistive network which changes each of the
digital levels into an equivalent binary weight voltage (or current).
Looking into any load from the left side we always see a
resistor R. Similarly looking from the right side for any load, one
always sees a resistor 2R. This impedance phenomenon is the key
to analyzing a D/A converter.
Binary Ladder
A binary ladder is constructed of resistors having only two
values and thus overcomes the disadvantages of weighted
resistors. The left end of the ladder is terminated in 2R as shown
in figure.

Assuming that all digital inputs are at ground, beginning at point

A of Figure 1, the total resistance looking into the terminating
resistors is 2R, as seen from Figure 2.

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The total resistance looking out towards the 2 input is 2R. These
two resistors combine to form a value of R. At node B or at 21, the
input is still 2R, as seen from Figure 3.

It is clear from Figure 4 that the resistance looking back towards

node C is 2R, as is the resistance looking at the 23 input.

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From this we conclude that the resistance looking back

from any node towards the terminating resistance or out toward
the digital input is 2R. We can use this to determine the various
digital inputs.
For example first assume that the digital input signal is 1000, as
shown in Figure 5.

Since there is no voltage source to the left of the node D, it can be

replaced by 2R.

Hence a 1 in the MSB position provides an output voltage of +V/2.

The various output voltages for the corresponding MSB are given
in Table below:

Q. 12: -What are analog to digital converters? Explain

successive type A/D converter?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2009)
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Ans:
The "analog-to-digital conversion" process changes a
sampled

analog

voltage

into

digital

form.

This

process,

conceptually involves the following two steps:

(i) Quantizing. It is defined as the transformation of a
continuous analog input into a set of discrete output states.
(ii) Coding. It is assignment of a digital code word or number to
each output state.
An analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is an electronic
device that converts an analog voltage to a digital code. The
output of the A/D converter can be directly interfaced to digital
devices such as microcontroller and computers.
The "resolution" of an A/D converter is the number of bits
used to digitally approximate the analog value of the input. The
number of possible states N is equal to the number of bit
combinations that can be output from the converter:
N = 2n where,

n = The number of bits.

The number of analog decision points" that occur in the

process of quantizing is (N -1). The "analog quantization size" Q is
defined as the full scale range of the A/D converter by the number
of output states.
Analog-to-Digital (AID) converters are designed based on a
number of different principles; these are:
1. Successive approximations.
2. Flash or parallel encoding.
3. Single-slope and dual-slope integration.
4. Switched capacitor,
5. Delta sigma.
Successive approximation A/D converter :
The successive approximation A/D converter is very widely
used because :
It is fast in operation;
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It has high resolution;

It is less expensive.
The various subsystems involved in this type of converter are
shown in Fig.

1) The "clock" generates a voltage, emitting a regular sequence of

pulses which are counted, in a binary manner, and the
resulting binary word is converted into an analog voltage by a
"DAC" (digital-to-analog converter). This voltage rises in steps
and is compared with the 'analog input voltage' from the sensor.
2) When the clock-generated voltage passes the input analog
voltage the pulses from the clock are stopped from being
counted by a "gate" being closed. The output from the counter
at that time is then a digital representation of the analog
voltage.
Q. 13: -Explain data loggers?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2011, April-May 2010, NovDec 2009, Nov-Dec 2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
The basic function of data loggers is to automatically make a
record of the readings of instruments located at different parts of
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the plant. Data loggers measure and record data effortlessly as

quickly, as often, and as accurately desired.
It can measure electrical output from virtually any type
of transducer and log the value automatically. Since simple
presentation of data for a large number of points at regular
intervals of time is not sufficient, present day data loggers are
designed to scan and record data very fast under fault conditions
of automatic initiation. In addition, automatic data loggers are
capable of giving plant performance computation and a logic
analysis of alarm conditions during emergency.
Basic Operation of a Data Logger
For proper understanding of a data loggers, it is
essential to understand the difference between analog and digital
signals. For example, measurement of temperature by a milli
voltmeter, whose needle shows a reading directly proportional to
the emf generated by the thermocouple, is an analog signal.
However, digital equipment presents a digital output in
terms of pulses and involves an electronic pulse counting
equipment which counts the number of pulses. The pulses are
generated such that each pulse corresponds to the smallest value
of the parameter being measured.
These digital signals are precise at all times. The data
logger senses only digital signals and hence analog signals, if any,
have to be converted to digital signals. The digital technique is
employed because it measures very small (or large) signals
accurately and fast.
Time words are printed at the start of each sequence.
Time is recorded in hours, minutes and seconds. Data consists of
the channel identity number, followed by polarity indication (+ or
-), the measured value (4 or 6 digits) and units of measurement.
Sometimes the range may also be indicated.
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Q. 14: -Discuss basic parts of data loggers?

(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2008)
Ans:
Basic parts of a data logger:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Input scanner
Signal conditioner
A/D converter
Recording equipment
Programmer

1. The input scanner is an automatic sequence switch which

selects each signal in turn. Low level signals, if any, are
multiplied to bring them up to a level of 5 V. If the signals are
not linearly proportional to the measured parameter, these
signals are linearised by the signal conditioner.
2. The purpose of the conditioner is to provide a linear law for
signals from various transducers which do not have linear
characteristics.
3. Filters are used for noise and ripple suppression at the
interface of the output of the transducers and the input of the
signal conditioner, since these signals carried by the cables are
of very low magnitude. Digital signals are then fed to the digital
interface, whereas analog signals are first amplified, linearised
and then brought to the analog interface. They are then
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converted into digital form and finally fed to the digital

interface.
4. The output from the data logger can be printed on any of the
equipment necessary.
5. This can be considered as an automatic sequence switch which
controls the operation of all other units of the data logger. The
sequential operations performed by a programmer are as
follows Set amplifier gain for individual input, Set linearization
factor, Set high and low alarm limit, Initiate alarm for abnormal
condition, Select input signal scanner switching.
The function of various optional modules are as follows.
Scanner Controller
It is an interface between the logger and the analog scanner. It
selects the channels for examination and receives the program
location address from the scanner.
Data Exchange
All data transfer within the logger is made via this module. It
ensures correct transmission of data throughout the system.
Processor
It controls the sequence of events within the logger by defining
and producing commands for the modules.
Q. 15: - Explain digital encoding transducers?
Ans:
The transducers often communicate with digital
computers and therefore transducers which have a digital output
are preferable as they are convenient to use since they can be
directly

interfaced

with

digital

computer.

However,

few

transducers exist which can provide a direct digital output. In

most of the situations in measurement systems, we come across
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transducers which provide only an analog output. Therefore, with

such transducers we have to use an analog to digital (A/D)
converters to realize the digital data which could be handled by
digital computers.
Digital transducers are called Encoders. They are
available but they are normally in the form of linear or rotary
displacement transducers.
Digital encoding transducers, or Digitisers, enable a linear
or rotary displacement to be directly converted into digital form
without intermediate forms of analog to digital (A/D) conversion.
Such digitisers may be known as digital encoders or linear
digitisers, or for rotary applications, shaft digitisers or shaft
encoders.
A digitiser is perhaps the most elementary form of analog
to digital (A/D) converter because it converts a continuous
displacement-an analog quantity to be defined incrementally in
some binary or decimal code. There are several techniques used
for achieving this conversion, each with its own advantages and
limitations, which include cost, simplicity of associated circuitry
and reliability etc.
By the use of a digital code, it is possible to identify the
position of a movable test piece in terms of a binary number. The
position is converted into a train of pulses. This is achieved by a
digital transducer and is also termed as encoder.
Since the binary system uses only two states, 0 or 1, it can
be easily represented by two different types of systems, optical or
electrical. Digital transducers using optical methods are called
Optical encoders, while those using electrical methods are called
resistive electrical encoders.

Q. 16: Explain the following as digital transducer?

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1. tachometer transducers
2. incremental transducers
3. absolute transducers.
Ans:
Tachometer Encoders:
A tachometer encoder has only a single output signal
which consists of a pulse for each increment of displacement. If
the motion were always in one direction, a digital counter could
accumulate these pulses to determine the displacement from a
known starting point. However, any motion in the opposite
direction would also produce identical pulses, which would
produce errors. Therefore, this digital transducer is usually used
for measurement of speed, rather than for displacement, and in
situations where the rotation never reverses.
Incremental Encoders:
The problems caused by reverse motion in the case of
tachometer encoder are solved by using an incremental encoder.
The incremental encoder uses at least two (and sometimes a third)
signal generating elements. The two tracks (the tachometer
encoder uses only one track), in the case incremental encoder are
mechanically shifted by 1 cycle relative to each other. This allows
detection of motion which signal rises first. Thus an up down
pulse counter can be used to subtract pulses whenever the motion
reverses. A third output, which produces one pulse per revolution
at a distinct point, is sometimes provided for zero reference.
An incremental encoder has the advantage of being able
to rotate through as many revolutions as the application requires.
However, any false pulses resulting from electric noise will cause
errors that persist even when the noise disappears
Absolute Encoders:

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Absolute Encoder are generally limited to measurement

of a single revolution They use multiple tracks and outputs, which
are read out in parallel to produce a binary representation of the
angular shaft input position. Since, there is a one-to-one
correspondence

between

binary

outputs,

position

data

are

recovered when power is restored after an outage. The transient

electric noise causes only transient measurement errors.
Q. 17: Write the classification of encoders?
Ans:
Encoders are of three types, written below:
1) optical encoder
2) resistive encoder
3) shaft encoder
Optical Encoder:
A sector may be designed as shown in Figure below with
a pattern of opaque and translucent areas. A photo sensor and a
light source are placed on the two sides of the sector. The
displacement is applied to the sector and therefore changes the
amount of light falling on the photo electric sensor. The pattern of
the illuminated sensor then carries the information to the location
of the sector.

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Figure shows a possible pattern on sector of opaque and

translucent areas. The number of levels in the encoder determines
the accuracy with which the device operates.
Advantages
1) They give a true digital readout
2) No mechanical contact is involved and therefore problems of
wear and tear and alignment are not present
Disadvantages
Light sources burn out. (However, the life of the light is about
50,000 hours.)

Resistive Digital Encoders

Another method in which a pattern may be used is the
resistive

electric

encoder.

The

shaded

areas

are

made

of

conducting material and the unshaded areas of insulating

material. Sliding contacts are used for making the contacts.
Circuits of the sliding contacts which come in contact with the
conducting areas are completed, while those which make contact
with insulated areas are not completed. The encoder gives a digital
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readout which is an indication of the position of the device, and

hence determines the displacement.
Advantages
1. It is relatively inexpensive.
2. It can be made to any degree of accuracy desired, provided
the sector is made large enough to accumulate the required
number of rows for binary numbers. The sectors are quite
adequate for a slowly moving system.
Disadvantages
1. Wear and tear of the contacts causes error.
2. There is often an ambiguity of 1 digit in LSB.
Shaft (Spatial) Encoder
A spatial encoder is a mechanical converter that translates the
angular position of a shaft into a digital number. It is therefore an
A/D converter.
An increasing number of measuring instruments are being used
to communicate with digital computers for measurement and
control applications. There are two ways of generating digital
signals. The first converts the analog variable to a shaft rotation
(or translation in linear measurements) and then uses many types
of shaft angle encoders to generate digital voltage signals.
The other form converts the analog variable into an electrical
analog signal and then converts this into digital form. These two
forms are very close to a true digital transducers.
To understand the operation of a shaft encoder, let us consider a
translational encoder (a linear displacement transducer) shown in
Figure below.

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The encoder shown has four tracks (bits) and is divided into
conducting and insulating positions, with a smallest increment of
0.01 mm. As the scale moves under the brushes, the lamp circuits
are made or broken, so that the number shown on the readout
lamps is at every instant equal to one hundredth mm.
For angular displacements, the pattern given in Figure is changed
or modified, so that the length of the scale becomes the
circumference of a circle on a flat disc. The brushes are then
placed along a radial line on the disc, as shown in Figure below

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The disc is divided into concentric circular tracks, each

of which is then divided into segments in a manner depending
upon the code being used.
For pure binary code, the inner most track is halved, the
next quartered, the next divided into eight parts, and so on. Each
track has twice as many segments as the adjacent one near the
centre. The detection method determines the treatment of the
disc. Alternate segments on each track are made transparent and
opaque, if transmitted light and photo cells are used. If the
segments are made reflecting and non-reflecting, reflected lights
and photo cells are used. Electrical methods are used for detection
in case the segments are made alternately conducting and nonconducting.
Q. 18: -Explain recorders. Give their description.
(CSVTU April-May 2011, April-May 2008)
Ans:
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A recorder is a measuring instrument that displays a time-varying

signal in a form easy to examine, even after the original signal has
ceased to exist.
Recorders generally provide a graphic record of variations in
the quantity being measured, as well as an easily visible scale on
which the indication is displayed.
Electronic recording instruments may be classified into
three groups:
1. Strip Chart Recorder:
The easiest type is simply a meter having an indicating
needle and a writing pen attached to the needle. If a strip of
paper is pulled at a constant velocity under the writing pen (at
a 90 angle to the direction of pen motion), the moving pen
plots the time function of the signal applied to the meter. A
highly special designed D'Arsonval movement is used to drive
the writing pen. This type is called a galvanometer recorder.
2. Null or Potentiometric recorder:
This recorder operates on a self balancing comparison
basis by servomotor action. This recorder is basically a voltage
responsive positional servo system using a motor to move a
writing device back and forth across a piece of paper. The servo
system can be made extremely accurate, rugged and powerful.
3. Magnetic recorder:
In it, a thin magnetic tape or wire, is magnetized in
accordance with a varying signal as the tape passes rapidly across
a magnetic recording head. The frequency response of magnetic
recorders can extend from 0 Hz to a few kHz to nearly 10 MHz.
Because of the wide bandwidth of tape recorders, several modes of
recording (direct, FM and digital) can be used.
Q. 19: -Explain strip chart recorders.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2008)
Ans:
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Strip chart recorders are those in which data is recorded on

a continuous roll of chart paper moving at a constant speed. The
recorder records the variation of one of more variables with
respect to time.
The basic element of a strip chart recorder consists of a pen
(stylus) used for making marks on a movable paper, a pen (stylus)
driving system, a vertically moving long roll of chart paper and
chart paper drive mechanism and a chart speed selector switch,
as shown in Fig 1.

The assembly of a strip chart-recorder is shown in Fig.

This

recorder uses a single pen and is servo driven.

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1. Most strip chart recorders use a servo feedback system to

ensure that the displacement of the pen (stylus) across the
paper tracks the input voltage in the required frequency range.
2. A potentiometer system is generally used to measure the
position of the writing head (stylus).
3. The chart paper drive system generally consists of a stepping
motor which controls the movement of the chart paper at a
uniform rate.
4. The data on the strip chart paper can be recorded by various
methods.
a) Pen and Ink Stylus: The ink is supplied to the stylus from a
refillable reservoir by capillary action. Modem technology has
replaced these pens by disposable fibre tip pens. In addition,
multichannel operation can be performed, i.e. at any instant,
a maximum of six pens can be used to record data. When
using multiple pens, staggering of the pens are necessary to
avoid mechanical interference.
b) Impact Printing:
The original impact system consisted of
a carbon ribbon placed between the pointer mechanism and
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paper, which provided the ink for recording data. The mark
was made on the paper by pressing the pointer mechanism
on it.
c) Thermal Writing:

In this system, a special movable pen

which is thermally heated by passing an electric current

through it is used. This system requires a thermally sensitive
paper which changes its color on application of heat.
d) Electric Writing:
This technique is based on the principle
of electrostatics. In this method, a special chart paper is
used. This paper consists of a paper base coated with a layer
of colored dye (black, blue or red), which in turn is coated
with a thin surface of aluminums.
e) Optical Writing:
In this technique of writing, a special
photo sensitive chart paper, sensitive to ultra violet light is
used. This technique is mostly used in galvanometer system.
Ultra violet light is used to reduce unwanted effects from
ambient light.
5. Paper drive system: The pager drive system should move the
paper at a uniform speed. 4 spring wound mechanism may be
used in most recorders. A synchronous motor is used for
driving the paper.
6. Chart speed: Chart speed is a term Used to express the rate at
which the recording paper in a strip chart recorder moves. It is
expressed in in/s or mm/s and is determined by mechanical
gear trains. If the chart speed is known, the period of the
recorded signal can be calculated as
Period = time/Cycle = time base/chart speed
and frequency can be determined as f= 1/period.
Q. 20: -Discuss X-Y recorders.
(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2009, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:

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In most research fields, it is often convenient to plot the

instantaneous relationship between two variables [Y =f(x)]; rather
than to plot each variable separately as a function of time.
In such cases, the X-Y recorder is used, in which one
variable is plotted against another variable.
In an analog X-Y recorder, the writing head is deflected in
either the x-direction or the y-direction on a fixed graph chart
paper.
The graph paper used is generally squared shaped, and
is held fixed by electrostatic attraction or by vacuum.
The writing head is controlled by a servo feedback
system or by a self balancing potentiometer. The writing head
consist of one or two pens, depending on the application.
In practice, one emf is plotted as a function of another
emf in an X-Y recorder. In some cases, the X-Y recorder is also
used to plot one physical quantity (displacement, force, strain,
pressure, etc) as a function of another physical quantity, by using
an appropriate transducer, which produces an output (EMF)
proportional to the physical quantity.
The motion of the recording pen in both the axis is
driven by servo-system, with reference to a stationary chart paper.
The movement in x and y directions is obtained through a sliding
pen and moving arm arrangement,
A typical block diagram of an X-Y recorder is illustrated in Fig.

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Working Of X-Y Recorder:

1. The balancing circuit then compares the attenuated signal to a
fixed internal reference voltage. The output of the balancing
circuit is a dc error signal produced by the difference between
the attenuated signal and the reference voltage.
2. This dc error signal is then converted into an ac signal with the
help of a chopper circuit.
3. This ac signal is not sufficient to drive the pen/arm drive
motor; hence, it is amplified by an ac amplifier. This amplified
signal (error signal) is then applied to actuate the servo motor
so that the pen/arm mechanism moves in an appropriate
direction in order to reduce the error, thereby bringing the
system to balance.
4. Hence as the input signal being recorded varies, the pen/arm
tries to hold the system in balance, producing a record on the
paper.
5. The action described above takes place in both the axes
simultaneously. Hence a record of one physical quantity with
respect to another is obtained.
The dynamic performance of X-Y recorders is specified by
their slewing rate and acceleration. A very high speed X-Y
recorder, capable of recording a signal up to 10 Hz at an
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amplitude of 2 cm peak to peak, would have a slewing rate of 97

cm/s and a peak acceleration of 7620 cm/s.
An X-Y recorder may have a sensitivity of 10 mV/mm, a
slewing speed of 1.5 ms and a frequency response of about 6 Hz
for both the axis. The chart size is about 250 x 180 mm. The
accuracy of X-Y recorder is about 0.3%.
Application of X-Y Recorders
1. Speed-torque characteristics of motors.
2. Regulation curves of power supply.
3. Plotting characteristics of active devices such as vacuum tubes,
transistors, zener diode, rectifier diodes, etc.
4. Plotting stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves, etc.
5. Electrical characteristics of materials, such as resistance
versus temperature.
Q. 21: -Explain galvanometer type recorder.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
The D'Arsonval movement used in moving coil indicating
instruments can also provide the movement in a galvanometer
recorder.
The D'Arsonval movement consists of a moving coil placed in a
strong magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 1

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In a galvanometer type recorder, the pointer of the D'Arsonval

movement is fitted with a pen-ink (stylus) mechanism.
1. The pointer deflects when current flows through the moving
coil. The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current flowing through the coil.
2. As the signal current flows through the coil, the magnetic field
of the coil varies in intensity in accordance with the signal.
3. The reaction of this field with the field of the permanent magnet
causes the coil to change its angular position.
4. As the position of the coil follows the variation of the signal
current being recorded, the pen is accordingly deflected across
the paper chart.
5. The paper is pulled from a supply roll by a motor driven
transport mechanism. Thus, as the paper moves past the pen
and as the pen is deflected, the signal waveform is traced on
the paper.
6. The recording pen is connected to an ink reservoir through a
narrow bore tube. Gravity and capillary action establish a flow
of ink from the reservoir through the tubing and into the hollow
of the pen.
Galvanometer type recorders are well suited for low
frequency ac inputs. Because of the compact nature of the
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galvanometer unit (or pen motor) this type of recorder is

particularly suitable for multiple channel operation.
This recorder uses a curvilinear system of tracing. The
time lines on the chart must be arcs of radius R (where R is the
length of the pointer), and the galvanometer shaft must be located
exactly at the center of curvature of a time line arc.
Improper positioning of the galvanometer or
misalignment of the chart paper in the recorder can give a
distorted response, i.e. having a negative rise time or a long rise
time.
One method of avoiding the distorted appearance of
recordings in curvilinear coordinates is to produce the recording
in rectangular coordinates. In this design, the chart paper is
pulled over a sharp edge that defines the locus of the point of
contact between the paper and the recording stylus.
These moving galvanometer type recorders are
comparatively

inexpensive

instruments,

having

narrow

bandwidth of 0 -10 Hz. They have a sensitivity of about 0.4

V/mm, or from a chart of 100 mm width a full scale deflection of
40 mV is obtained.
In most instruments, the speed of the paper through
the recorder is determined by the gear ratio of the driving
mechanism. Paper speed is an important consideration for several
reasons.
Also, the operator can determine the frequency
components of the recorded waveform, if he knows how fast the
paper has moved past the pen position.
Q. 22: -Explain potentiometric recorders?
(CSVTU April-May 2009)
Ans:

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NULL

TYPE RECORDER

work on the principle of self-balancing or

null conditions.
When an input is given to the measuring circuit of the
recorder from a sensor of transducer, it upsets the balance of the
measuring circuit, producing an error voltage which operates
some other device, which in turn restores the balance or brings
the system to null conditions.
The magnitude of the error signal indicates the amount of
movement of this balance restoring device and the direction of the
movement indicates the direction of the quantity being measured.
The different types of null recorders are as follows:
1. Potentiometric recorders
2. Bridge recorders
3. LVDT recorders (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
Potentiometric Recorders
The basic disadvantage of a galvanometer type recorder
is that is has a low input impedance and a limited sensitivity. This
disadvantage can be overcome by using an amplifier between the
input terminals and the display or indicating instruments. This
amplifier

provides

high

input

impedance

and

improved

sensitivity at the cost of low accuracy.

To improve the accuracy of the instrument, the input
signal is compared with a reference voltage using a potentiometer
circuit.
The self-balancing feature is obtained with a servomotor,
a motor whose speed and direction of rotation follows the output
of an amplified. In a dc system, this is simply a reversible motor,
such as the type that uses a permanent magnet for its field. In the
ac system, it takes the form of a two-phase motor. Figure is a
basic circuit of a potentiometric or self-balancing recorder.

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Working:
1. The difference between the input signal and the potentiometer
voltage is the error signal.
2. This error signal is amplified and is used to energize the field
coil of a dc motor.
3. In this circuit, instead of obtaining a balance between two
opposing voltages by rotating the arm of the voltage divider, an
error current is allowed to flow, either clockwise or counter
clockwise, depending on which voltage is higher.
4. This error serves as the input to the electronic detector, and the
amplified error is then fed to the balancing motor. This motor is
so connected that it turns in a direction that rotates the voltage
divider arm (geared) to it in the direction that reduces the error.
5. As the error becomes smaller, the motor slows down and finally
stops at the point where the error is zero, thus producing the
null balance.

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This is achieved by mechanically connecting the

wiper/variable arm to the armature of the dc motor. The pen is
also mechanically connected to the wiper. Hence as the wiper
moves

in

particular

direction,

the

pen

also

moves

in

synchronism in the same direction, thereby recording the input

waveform.
The wiper comes to rest when the unknown signal
voltage is balanced against the voltage of the potentiometer. This
technique results in graphical recorders having a very high input
impedance.
A sensitivity of 4 V/mm is attained with an error of less
than 0.25% with a bandwidth of 0.8Hz. Hence the speeds of the
chart drive can be changed by the use of a gear train which uses
different gear ratios. Potentiometer recorders are mostly used for
the recording and control of process temperature.
Multipoint recorders are those in which one recorder may
be used for recording several inputs.. These may have as many as
24 inputs, with traces, displayed in six colors.
Q. 23: - An analog voltage signal whose highest significant
frequency is 1kHz is to be digitally cooled with a
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resolution of 0.01 percent covering a voltage range of 010 V. find:

(i) minimum number of bits in digital code.
(ii) analog value of LSB
(iii) rms value of quantization error
(iv) minimum sampling rate
(v) aperture time required for A/D converter
(vi) dynamic range of converter in db.
(CSVTU April May 2012)
Ans:
i) Resolution=0.01%= 0.01/100 = 1/10000 = 1/2 n
Therefore number of bits n = 14 as 214 = 16384
ii) Analog value of LSB
LSB = (1/2n)*10 = (1/16384)*10 = 610.4 V
iii)RMS value of quantization error
Eq = Q/2(3)1/2
= 10/{16384*2(3)1/2} = 176 V
iv) Minimum sampling frequency
Fs=5*Fn = 5*1= 5kHz
v) Aperture time ta= E/(2fEm)= 9.71 ms
vi) Dynamic range of converter = 6*14= 84 dB

Q. 24: - Differentiate between potentiometric and

galvanometer type recorder? (CSVTU April-May 2011)
Ans:
S. N.
Aspects
Potentiometric
Galvanometric
1
Working
Self-balancing or null
DArsonval
Principle
condition. It compares
movement. It
th i/p signal with
produced deflection
reference and produces when current passes
error signal.
through the coil.
2
Recording
The error signal
The deflection of the
mechanism produced according to
galvanometer is
the difference between
proportional to the
the input signals and
current through the
referenced is amplified.
coil.
3
Response
Faster
Slower
4
Bandwidth
Higher-of the order of
Smaller of the order
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Input
impedance

Sensitivity

few hundreds of Hz.

of 0-10 Hz.
Very High, hence
Very low, hence
loading problems are
loading problems are
eliminated.
significant.
Higher-equal to 4V/mm,
Lower equal to
for error less than
0.4 V/mm.
0.25%.

Q. 25: - What is quantization error? In figure (a) shows a D/A

converter with op-amp, find output of op-amp if input digital
signal is 1011 assume that binary 1 represents 5 V.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2009)

Ans:
R = 12.5 K
I3 =

&

D 3 D2 D1 D0 =1011

V ref
V
V
V
, I 2= ref , I 1= ref , I 0= ref
R
2R
4R
8R

I =I 0 +I 1 + I 2+ I 3 ,

I=

V ref V ref V ref V ref

+
+
+
,
R 2R 4 R 8 R

I=

V ref 1 1 1 1
+ + + ,
R 1 2 4 8

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I=

V ref
[ D3 +21 D 2+22 D1+ 23 D0 ] ,
R

I=

V ref
[ 1+21 0+22 1+23 1 ] ,
R

I=

5
[ 1.375 ] =0.55 103 A=I f
3
12.5 10
3

V OUT =I f R f =0.55 10 10 10 V =5.5V

Q. 26: -What is the resolution and percentage resolution for 4

bits?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
1
Resolution = 2 1
4

= 15

Percentage Resolution = Resolution * 100 =

1
100
15

= 6.67%

Examination, April May, 2012

Q.3. (a) Draw the block diagram of DAS.

Ans: Refer answer 1.

(b) What is X-Y recorder? Explain with suitable circuit diagram,
the working of X-Y recorder. Describe its application.
7
Ans: Refer answer 20.
(c) An analog voltage signal whose highest significant frequency is
1kHz is to be digitally cooled with a resolution of 0.01 percent
covering a voltage range of 0-10 V. find:
(i) minimum number of bits in digital code.
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(ii) analog value of LSB

(iii) rms value of quantization error
(iv) minimum sampling rate
(v) aperture time required for A/D converter
(vi) dynamic range of converter in db.
Ans: Refer answer 23.

(d) Discuss the signal sampling process.

Ans: Refer answer 10.

Examination, Nov Dec, 2011
Q.3 (a) Draw the block diagram of general Data Acquisition
System.
Ans: Refer answer 1
(b) State the objectives & applications of Data Acquisition System.
Ans: Refer answer 5.
(c) Explain the principle of operation of galvanometer type
recorders.
Ans: Refer answer 21.
(d) Discuss the data loggers.
Ans: Refer answer 13.
Examination, April May, 2011
Q. 3. (a) Define data loggers.
Ans: Refer answer 13.

(b) What is the classification of Recorders? State the differences

between potentiometric recorders & galvanometric recorders. 7
Ans: Refer answer 18 and 24.
(c) Discuss the binary ladder digital to analog converter.
Ans: Refer answer 11.

(d) Explain digital loggers.

Ans: Refer answer 13.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2010
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Q. I. What is a data acquisition system and give the name of

2

various configurations used in a DAS.

Ans: Refer answer 1 and 2.
Q. II. What is the basic assembly of data logger? What are the
optical modules provided.

Ans: Refer answer 14.

Q. III. Find the successive approximation A/D output for a 4 bit
7

converter to a 8.217 V input if the reference is 5 V.

Ans: Refer answer 12.

Q. IV. Explain the basic constructional features and principle of

working of a strip chart recorder.

Ans: Refer answer 19.

Examination, April May, 2010
Q. 3. (a) Enlist the objectives of data acquisition system.

Ans: Refer answer 5.

(b) Describe digital loggers.

Ans: Refer answer 13.

(c) Explain binary ladder digital to analog converter.

Ans: Refer answer 11.

(d) Discuss galvanometer type recorder.

Ans: Refer answer 21.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2009
Q.3. (a) What is Data logger?
Ans: Refer answer 13.
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(b) Explain the working principle of MOSFET type sample and hold
circuit.
Ans: Refer answer 10.
(c) Explain the working principle of X-Y recorders.
Ans: Refer answer 20.
(d) What is quantization error? In figure (a) shows a D/A
converter with op-amp, find output of op-amp if input digital
signal is 1011 assume that binary 1 represents 5 V.

Ans: Refer answer 25.

Examination, April May, 2009
Q.3. (a) What is a data acquisition system?

Ans: Refer answer 1.

(b) Describe the generalized data Acquisition System with proper
block diagram.
7
Ans: Refer answer 2.
(c) Explain the working principle and block diagram of
Potentiometric recorders.

Ans: Refer answer 22.

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(d) Explain the working of successive approximation A/D

converter.

Ans: Refer answer 12.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2008
Q.3(a)What is the resolution and percentage resolution for 4bits?2
Ans: Refer answer 26.
b)What are data loggers? What are the functions of data loggers?7
Ans: Refer answer 13.
(c) Explain Galvanometer type Recorders with labeled diagram. 7
Ans: Refer answer 21.
(d) Explain binary ladder and resistive divider. What are some of
the advantages of a binary ladder over a resistance divider? 7
Ans: Refer answer 11.

Examination, April May, 2008

Q. I. What are recorders and name two types of graphical
2

recorders?
Ans: Refer answer 18.

Q. II. Discuss the different possibilities for a multichannel Data

7

Acquisition System (DAS).

Ans: Refer answer 6.

Q. III. With the help of block diagram state the different elements
of a data logger and explain the function of each elements.

Ans: Refer answer 14.

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Q. IV. Explain the basic constructional features and principle of

7

working of a strip chart recorder.

Ans: Refer answer 19.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2007

Q.3. (a) What is data loggers?
Ans: Refer answer 13.

(b) Explain ladder type D/A converter.

Ans: Refer answer 11.

(c) Describe multichannel analog multiplexed data acquisition

system.
7
Ans: Refer answer 6.
(d) Describe the operation and working of X-Y recorders.
Ans: Refer answer 20.

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Unit-IV

Oscilloscope &
Signal Generations

Q. 1: - What is CRT? Explain its working?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2009, AprilMay 2008)
Ans:
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of a cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO).The remaining part of the CRO consists of
circuit to operate the CRT.

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Cathode Ray Tube

Cathode ray tube essentially consists of an electron gun
for producing a stream of electrons, focusing and accelerating
anodes for producing a narrow and sharply focused electron
beam, horizontal and vertical deflection plates for controlling the
beam path and an evacuated glass envelope with phosphor screen
giving bright spot when struck by a high velocity electron beam,
and base through which connections are made to different
components.
Electron Gun Assembly. The electron gun assembly consists of
an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid surrounding the
cathode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode. The sole
function of the electron gun assembly is to provide a focused
electron beam which is accelerated towards the phosphor screen.
The cathode is a nickel cylinder coated with an oxide coating of
barium and strontium and emits plenty of electrons, when heated.
The emitting surface of the cathode should be as small as
possible, theoretically a point. Rate of emission of electrons or say
the intensity of electron beam depends on the magnitude of
cathode current, which can be controlled by the control grid in a
manner similar to a conventional vacuum tube. The control grid is
usually a metal cylinder covered at one end but with a small hole
in the cover. This is usually a metal cup of low permeability steel,
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about 15mm in diameter and 15mm long. An aperture of

approximate 0.25 mm is drilled in the grid cap for the passage of
electrons through it. The grid is kept at negative potential
(variable) with respect to cathode and its function is to vary the
electron emission and so the brilliancy of the spot on the
phosphor screen. The hole in the grid is provided to allow passage
for electrons through it and concentrate the beam of electrons
along the axis of tube. Electron beam comes out from the control
grid through 3. small hole in it and enters a pre-accelerating
anode, which is a hollow cylinder in shape and is at a potential of
few hundred volts more positive than the cathode so as to
accelerate the electron beam in the electric field. This accelerated
beam would be scattered now because of variations in energy and
would produce a broad ill-defined spot on the screen. This
electron beam is focused on the screen by an electrostatic lens
consisting of two more cylindrical anodes called the focusing
anode and accelerating anode apart from the pre-accelerating
anode. The focusing and accelerating anode may be open or close
at both ends and if covered, holes must be provided in the anode
cover for the passage of electrons. The function of these anodes is
to concentrate and focus the beam on the screen and also to
accelerate the speed of electrons. The pre-accelerating anode and
the accelerating anode are connected to a common positive high
voltage of about 1,500 V. The focusing anode is connected to a
lower adjustable voltage of 500V.
Deflection Plate Assembly. Electron beam, after leaving the
electron gun, passes through the two pairs of deflection plates.
One pair of deflection plates is mounted vertically and deflects the
beam in horizontal or X-direction and so called the horizontal or
X-plates and the other pair is mounted horizontally and deflects
the beam in vertical or Y-direction and called the vertical or Yplates. These plates are to deflect the beam according to the
voltage applied across them. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied
to Y-plates, the beam will be moved up and down according to the
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variation of plate potential. If the frequency of variation is more

than 16 Hz the deflection will be a vertical line in the centre of the
screen. In case the sinusoidal voltage is applied to X-plates and
frequency of variation is more than 16 Hz the deflection will be a
horizontal line. If potentials are applied to both sets of plates
simultaneously, the deflection will be an oblique line. The amount
of deflection is in proportion to the voltage applied to the pair of
plates.
Screen for CRT. As we know that some crystalline materials, such
as phosphor, have property of emitting light when exposed to
radiation. This is called the fluorescence characteristic of the
materials. These fluorescent materials continue to emit light even
after

radiation

exposure

is

cut

off.

This

is

called

the

phosphorescence characteristic of the materials. The length of

time

during

which

phosphorescence

occurs

is

called

the

persistence of the phosphor. Persistence is usually measured in

terms of the time required for the CRT image to decay to a certain
percentage (usually 10 per cent) of the original light output. It is
expressed as short, medium and long. Persistence is called short if
it lasts for microseconds, medium if it lasts for milliseconds and
long in case it lasts for seconds to several minutes. Short
persistence is required for extremely high speed phenomena, to
avoid smearing and interference caused when one image persists
and overlaps with the next one. Medium persistence traces are
mostly used for general purpose applications. Long persistence
traces are used for transients as they keep the fast transient on
the screen for observation after the transient has disappeared.
The end wall of the CRT, called the screen, is coated with
phosphor. When electron beam strikes the CRT screen, a spot of
light is produced on the screen. The phosphor absorbs the kinetic
energy of the bombarding electrons and emits energy at a lower
frequency in a visual spectrum.
The intensity of light emitted from the screen of CRT,
known as luminance, depends upon several factors such as:
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On the number of bombarding electrons striking the screen per

second
On the energy with which the bombarding electrons strike the
screen which is determined by the accelerating potential (more the
accelerating potential more the luminance)
On the time the beam strikes a given area of the phosphor i.e,
sweep speed
On the physical characteristics of the phosphor itself. Almost all
manufacturers provide their customers with a choice of phosphor
materials.
Glass Body and Base. The whole assembly is protected in conical
highly evacuated glass housing through suitable supports. The
inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are usually coated
with a conducting material known as aqua dag and this coating is
electrically connected to the accelerating anode. The coating is
provided in order to accelerate the electron beam after passing
between the deflecting plates and to collect the electrons produced
by secondary emission when electron beam strikes the screen.
Thus the coating prevents the formation of -ve charge on the
screen and state of equilibrium of screen is maintained.
Q. 2: -Explain the Electrostatic Deflection in CRT?
Ans:

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Figure shows a general-arrangement for electrostatic deflection.

There are two parallel plates with a potential applied between.
These plates produce a uniform electrostatic field in the Y
direction. Thus any electron entering the field, will experience a
force in the Y direction and will be accelerated in that direction.
There is no force either in X direction or Z direction and hence
there will be no acceleration of electrons in these directions.
Let

E0 = voltage of pre-accelerating anode ; V,

e = charge of an electron ; C,
m = mass of electron ; kg,
Vox = velocity of electron when entering the field of deflecting plates
; m/s,
Ed= potential between deflecting plates ; V,
d= distance between deflecting plates ; m,
ld= length of deflecting plates ; m,

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L=distance between screen and the centre of the deflecting plates ;

m,
D= deflection of electron beam on the screen in Y direction ; m.

The loss of potential energy (P.E.) when the electron moves from
cathode to accelerating anode ;
P.E. = eEa (1)
The gain in kinetic energy (K.E.) by an electron
K.E. = (1/2) mvox2

(2)

(The mass of an electron is m = 9.109 x 10 -31 kg) Equating the two

energies, we have : vox = (2 e Ea/m)1/2 ..(3)
This is the velocity of the electron in the X direction when it enters
the deflecting plates. The velocity in the X direction remains the
same throughout the passage of electrons through the deflecting
plates as there is no force acting in this direction.
The electric field intensity in the Y direction y = Ed /d

.(4)

Force acting on an electron in Y direction = Fy = ey = eEd/d .(5)

Suppose ay is the acceleration of the electron in Y direction
therefore, Fy = may
or

ay= ey /m(6)

As there is no initial velocity in the Y direction the displacement y

at any instant t in the Y direction is :
y=

1
2
ay t
2

1 y 2
e
t
2 m

(7)
As the velocity in X direction is constant, the displacement in X
direction is given by :
x = vox t

(8)

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t = x/vox

(9)

Substituting the above value of t in Eqn. 7 we have :

y=

1
y
2
e
x
2
2 m v ox

,(10)

This is the equation of a parabola.

The slope at any point (x, y) is :

dy
dx =

y
x (11)
m v ox 2

x = ld in Eqn. (11), we get the value of tan .

Putting
tan = e

y
m v ox 2

ld = (eEd ld )/(m d vox2 ).(12)

After leaving the deflection plktes, the electrons travel in a straight

line.
The straight line of travel of electrons is tangent to the parabola at
x = ld and this tangent intersects the X-axis at point O'. The
location of this point is given by :
y
x = tan

ld
2

The apparent origin is thus at the centre of deflection plates. The

deflection D on the screen is given by :
D= L

tan

L e E d ld
m d v ox 2

..(13)

Substituting the value vox =

L E d l d
D= 2 d E a

2 e Ea
m

in Eqn. (13) we get,

..(14)

From Eqn. (14) we conclude :

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For a given accelerating voltage Ea, and for particular dimensions

of CRT, the deflection of the electron beam is directly proportional
to the deflecting voltage. This means that the CRT may be used as
a linear indicating device.
The discussion above assumes that Ed is a fixed d.c. voltage. The
deflection voltage is usually a time varying quantity and the image
on the screen thus follows the variations of the deflection voltage
in a linear manner.
The deflection is independent of the e/m ratio. In a cathode ray
tube, in addition to the electrons many types of negative ions such
as oxygen, carbon, chlorine etc. are present. With electrostatic
deflection system, because deflection is independent of e/m, the
ions travel with the electrons and are not concentrated at one
point. Hence cathode ray tube with electrostatic deflection system
does not produce an ion burn.
Q. 3: -What is deflection sensitivity?
Ans:
The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is defined as the deflection of
the screen per unit deflection voltage.
D
Deflection sensitivity S = E d

L l d
2 d Ea

m/V .

(15)
The Deflection Factor of a CRT is defined as the reciprocal of
sensitivity.
Deflection factor G =

1
S

2 d Ea
= L ld

V/m .

(16)
It is clear from Eqn. (15), that the sensitivity can be increased by
decreasing the value of accelerating voltage Ea. But this has a
disadvantage as the luminosity of the spot is decreased with
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decrease in Ea, On the other hand a high value of Ea, produces a

highly accelerated beam and thus produces a bright spot.
However, a high accelerating voltage (Ea) requires a high deflection
potential (Ed) for a given deflection. Also highly accelerated beam is
more difficult to deflect and is sometimes called hard beam.
Typical values of sensitivities are 0.1 mm/V to 1.0 mm/V
corresponding to deflection factors of 10 V/mm and 1 V/mm.
Q. 4: -The deflecting plates in a CRT are 5 mm apart & 25
mm long. The centre of the plates is 20 cm from screen.
The accelerating voltage is 3 kV. Find the rms value of the
sinusoidal voltage applied to deflecting plates if the length
of the trace obtained on the screen is 10 cm. Find also the
electrostatic deflection sensitivity of the above CRT.

(CSVTU April-May 2011)

Ans:
Length of plates, l = 25 mm = 0.025 m
Distance between plates d = 5 mm = 0.005 m
The distance between the screen and centre of plates,
S = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Accelerating voltage,

Va

= 3000 V

Trace length = 2y = 10 cm = 0.1 m

We know that y =

lS V d
2d Va

So, Deflecting voltage,

V d =

2 d V a y 2 0.005 3000 0.05

=
lS
0.025 0.2

= 300

Volts

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RMS value of the sinusoidal voltage applied to the X-deflecting

plates

300
2

V rms =

Deflection sensitivity =

= 212 V

lS
0.025 0.2
=
2 d V a 2 0.005 3000

0.1667 10 m/V

0.167 mm/V

Q. 5: -An electrically deflected CRT has a final anode voltage

of 2000 V and parallel deflecting plates 1.5 cm long and 5
mm apart. If the screen is 50 cm from the centre of deflecting
plates, find:

(i) beam speed.

(ii) the deflection sensitivity of the tube.
(iii) the deflection factor of the tube.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2008)
Velocity of beam

v ox =

2 1.6 1019
2000=26.5 m/s
31
9.1 10

Deflection sensitivity
S=

L ld
0.5 1.5 102 m
=
=0.375 mm /v
2 d E a 2 5 103 2000 v

Deflection factor

1
1
G= =
=2.66 V /mm
S 0.375

Cutoff frequency
f c=

V ox
26.5 106
6
=
=132.5 10 Hz=132.5 MHz
3
4 l 4 50 10

Q. 6: -What is the function of focusing anode in the CRT of

CRO? (CSVTU April-May 2011)
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Ans:
Because of the mutual repulsion between the electrons, the
convergent beam coming out from the accelerating anode has a
tendency to spread from the axis. To avoid this and to bring the
beam to a sharp focus at the screen, some focusing device is
required. The focusing device may be either electrostatic or
magnetic. Electrostatic focusing is used in a CRO whereas
magnetic focusing is used in a TV picture tube.
Electrostatic Focusing:
An electrostatic focusing system is shown in Fig.4.a-1.
Electrostatic lens consists of three anodes, with the middle anode
at a lower potential than the other two electrodes. In Fig.4.a-2 two
anodes and its electrostatic lines and equipotential surfaces are
shown. A pd is kept between these two electrodes so that an
electric field is generated between them.

Electrostatic Focusing System of a CRT

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CRT FEATURE:
Electrostatic CRTs are available in a number of types and sizes to
suit individual requirements. The important features of these
tubes are as follows.
Size
Size refers to the screen diameter. CRTs for oscilloscopes are
available in sizes of 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 inches. 3 inches is most
common for portable instruments.
For example a CRT having a number 5GP1. The first number 5
indicates that it is a 5 inch tube.
Both round and rectangular CRTs are found in scopes today. The
vertical viewing size is 8 cm and horizontal is 10 cm.
Phosphor
The screen is coated with a fluorescent material called phosphor.
This material determines the color and persistence of the trace,
both of which are indicated by the phosphor.
The trace colors in electrostatic CRTs for oscilloscopes are blue,
green and blue green. White is used in TVs, and blue-white,
orange, and yellow are used for radar.
Persistence is expressed as short, medium and long. This refers to
the length of time the trace remains on the screen after the signal
has ended. The phosphor of the oscilloscope is designated as
follows.
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PI Green medium
P2 Blue green medium
P5 Blue very short
P11 Blue short These designations are combined in the tube
type number. Hence 5GPI is a 5 inch tube with a medium
persistence green trace.
Medium persistence traces are mostly used for general purpose
applications. Long persistence traces are used for transients, since
they keep the fast transient on the screen for observation after the
transient has disappeared.
Short persistence is needed for extremely high speed phenomena,
to prevent smearing and interference caused when one image
persists and overlaps with the next one.
P11 phosphor is considered the best for photographing from the
CRT screen.
Operating Voltages
The CRT requires a heater voltage of 6.3 volts ac or dc at 600 mA.
Several dc voltages are listed below. The voltages vary with the
type of tube used.
Negative grid (control) voltage - 14 V to - 200 V.
Positive anode no. 1 (focusing anode) - 100 V to - 1100 V
Positive anode no. 2 (accelerating anode) 600 V to 6000 V
Positive anode no. 3 (accelerating anode) 200 V to 20000 V in
some cases
Deflection Voltages
Either ac or dc voltage will deflect the beam. The distance through
which the spot moves on the screen is proportional to the dc, or
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peak ac amplitude. The deflection sensitivity of the tube is usually

stated as the dc voltage (or peak ac voltage) required for each cm
of deflection of the spot on the screen.
Viewing Screen
The viewing screen is the glass face plate, the inside wall of which,
is coated with Phosphor. The viewing screen is a rectangular
screen having graticules marked on it. The standard size used
nowadays is 8 cm x 10 cm (8 cm on the vertical and 10 cm on
horizontal). Each centimeter on the graticule corresponds to one
division (div). The standard phosphor color used nowadays is blue.
Q. 7: - Draw and explain the block diagram of oscilloscope?
Ans:
The major block circuit shown in Fig. below, of a general purpose
CRO, is as follows:

1.

CRT

2.

Vertical amplifier

3.

Delay line

4.

Time base

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5.

Horizontal amplifier

6.

Trigger circuit

7.

Power supply

CRT
This is the cathode ray tube which emits electrons that strikes the
phosphor screen internally to provide a visual display of signal.
Vertical Amplifier
This is a wide band amplifier used to amplify signals in the
vertical section.
Delay Line
It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections.
Time Base
It is used to generate the sawtooth voltage required to deflect the
beam in the horizontal section.
Horizontal Amplifier
This is used to amplify the sawtooth voltage before it is applied to
horizontal deflection plates.
Trigger Circuit
This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so
that

the

input

signal

and

the

sweep

frequency

can

be

synchronized

Power Supply
There are two power supplies, a -ve High Voltage (HV) supply and
a +ve Low Voltage (LV) supply. Two voltages are generated in the
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CRO. The +ve volt supply is from + 300 to 400 V. The -ve high
voltage supply is from 1000 to - 1500 V This voltage is passed
through a bleeder resistor at a few mA. The intermediate voltages
are obtained from the bleeder resistor for intensity, focus and
positioning controls.'
Advantages of using -ve HV Supply
The accelerating anodes and the deflection plates are close to
ground potential. The ground potential protects the operator from
HV shocks when making connections to the plates.
The deflection voltages are measured wrt ground, therefore HV
blocking or coupling capacitor are not needed, but low voltage
rating capacitors can be used for connecting the HV supply to the
vertical and horizontal amplifiers.
Less insulation is needed between positioning controls and
chassis.
Q. 8: - Draw and explain the block diagram of simple CRO?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2008, Nov-Dec
2007)
Ans:
The basic block diagram of a simple CRO is shown in Fig.

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The ac filament supplies power to the CRT heaters. This also

provides an accurate ac calibrating voltage. CRT dc voltage is
obtained from the HV dc supply through voltage dividers R1 - R5.
Included along with this voltage divider is a potentiometer which
varies the potential at the focusing electrode, known as focus
control, and one which varies the control grid voltage, called the
intensity control ).
Capacitor C, is used to ground the deflection plates and the
second anode for the signal voltage, but dc isolates these
electrodes from the ground.
Normally S2 is set to its linear position. This connects the sweep
generator output to the horizontal input. The sweep voltage is
amplified before being applied to the horizontal deflecting plates.
When an externally generated sweep is desired, S2 is connected to
its external position and the external generator is connected to the
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input. The sweep synchronizing voltage is applied to the internal

sweep generator through switch Sj, which selects the type of
synchronization.
The intensity control controls the number of electrons by varying
the

control

grid

voltage.

Focusing

can

be

done

either

electrostatically or electromagnetically. Electrostatic focusing is

obtained by using a cylindrical anode, which changes the
electrostatic lines of force which controls the beam.

Q.

9:

-What

are

vertical

amplifiers?

Ans:
The sensitivity (gain) and frequency bandwidth (BW)
response characteristics of the oscilloscope are mainly determined
by the vertical amplifier. Since the gain B.W. product is constant,
to obtain a greater sensitivity the B.W. is narrowed, or-vice-versa.
Some oscilloscopes give two alternatives, switching to a wide
bandwidth position, and switching to a high sensitivity position.
Block Diagram of a Vertical Amplifier
The block diagram of a vertical amplifier is shown in Fig.

The vertical amplifier consists of several stages, with

fixed overall sensitivity or gain expressed in V/divisions. The
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advantage of fixed gain is that the amplifier can be more easily

designed to meet the requirements of stability and B.W. The
vertical amplifier is kept within its signal handling capability by
proper selection of the input attenuator switch. The first element
of the pre-amplifier is the input stage, often consisting of a FET
source follower whose high input impedance isolates the amplifier
from the attenuator.
This FET input stage is followed by a BJT emitter
follower, to match the medium impedance of FET output with the
low impedance input of the phase inverter.
This phase inverter provides two antiphase output
signals which are required to operate the push-pull output
amplifier. The push-pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages
of opposite polarity to the vertical plates of the CRT.
The advantages of push-pull operation in CRO are
similar to those obtained from push-pull operation in other
applications; better hum voltage cancellation from the source or
power supply (i.e. dc), even harmonic suppression, especially the
large 2nd harmonic is cancelled out, and greater power output per
tube as a result of even harmonic cancellation. In addition, a
number of defocusing and non-linear effects are reduced, because
neither plate is at ground potential.
Q. 10: - Describe horizontal defecting system triggered
source?
(Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
The horizontal deflecting system consists of a Time Base
Generator and an output amplifier.
Sweep or Time Base Generator

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A continuous sweep CRO using a UJT as a time base

generator is shown in Fig

The UJT is used to produce the sweep. When the power is

first applied, the UJT is off and the CT changes exponentially
through RT. The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when
VE reaches the peak voltage VP, as shown in Fig.

The emitter to base '1' (B1) diode becomes forward

biased and the UJT triggers ON. This provides a low resistance
discharge path and the capacitor discharges rapidly. The emitter
voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly and the UJT goes
OFF. The capacitor recharges and the cycle repeats.
To improve sweep linearity, two separate voltage supplies
are used, a low voltage supply for UJT and a high voltage supply
for the RTCT circuit.
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RT is used for continuous control of frequency within a

range and CT is varied or changed in steps for range changing.
They are sometimes called as timing resistor and timing capacitor
respectively.
The sync pulse enables the sweep frequency to be exactly
equal to the input signal frequency, so that the signal locked on
the screen and does not drift.

Q. 11: -Discuss typical CRT connection.

Ans:
The controls are available on CRO panel are as follow:
Intensity
It controls the magnitude of emission of the electron beam, i.e. the
electron beam is adjusted by varying the cathode-to-grid bias voltage. This adjustment is done by the 500 k potentiometer.
Focus:
The focusing anode potential is adjusted with respect to the first
and final accelerating anodes. This is done by the 2 M
potentiometer. It adjusts the negative voltage on the focus ring
between -500 V and -900 V.
Astigmatism:
It adjusts the voltage on the acceleration anode with respect to the
VDP of the CRT. This arrangement forms a cylindrical lens that
corrects any defocusing that might be present. This adjustment is
made to obtain the roundest spot on the screen.
X-shift or Horizontal Position Control:

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The X-position of the spot is adjusted by varying the voltage

between the horizontal plates. When the spot is in the Centre
position, the two horizontal plates have the same potential.
Y-shift or Vertical Position Control:
The K-position of the spot is adjusted by varying the voltage
between the vertical plates. When the spot is in the center position,
the two vertical plates have the same potential.
Time Base Control:
This is obtained by varying the CT and RT of the time base
generator.
Sync Selector:
It can synchronize the sweep to signals coming internally from the
vertical amplifier or an external signal or the line supply Int- ExtLine switch.

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Q. 12: - Explain the method for measurement of frequency by

lissajous figures?
(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2010, NovDec 2009, Nov-Dec 2008, April-May 2008, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
The oscilloscope is a sensitive indicator for frequency and phase
measurements. The techniques used are simple and dependable,
and measurement may be made at any frequency in the response
range of the oscilloscope.

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One of the quickest methods of determining frequency is

by using Lissajous patterns produced on a screen. This particular
pattern results when sine waves are applied simultaneously to
both pairs of the deflection plates. If one frequency is an integral
multiple (harmonic) of the other, the pattern will be stationary,
and is called a Lissajous figure)
In this method of measurement a standard frequency is
applied to one set of deflection plates of the CRT tube while the
unknown frequency (of approximately the same amplitude) is
simultaneously applied to the other set of plates. However, the
unknown frequency is presented to the vertical plates and the
known frequency (standard) to the horizontal plates. The resulting
patterns depend on the integral and phase relationship between
the two frequencies. (The horizontal signal is designated as fh, and
the vertical signal as fv).
Measurement Procedure
Set up the oscilloscope and switch off the internal sweep
(change to Ext). Switch off sync control. Connect the signal source
as given in Figure. Set the horizontal and vertical gain control for
the desired width and height of the pattern. Keep frequency fv
constant and vary frequency fh, noting that the pattern spins in
alternate directions and changes shape. The pattern stands still
whenever fv and fh are in an integral ratio (either even or odd). The
fv = fh pattern stands still and is a single circle or ellipse. When fv =
2fh, a two loop horizontal pattern is obtained as shown in Figure.

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To determine the frequency from any Lissajous figure,

count the number of horizontal loops in the pattern, divide it by
the number of vertical loops and multiply this quantity by fh
(known or standard frequency).
In Figure there is one horizontal loop and 3 vertical loops,
giving a action of 1/3. The unknown frequency fv is therefore 1/3
fh. An accurately calibrated, variable frequency oscillator will
supply

the

horizontal

search

frequency

for

frequency

measurement. For the case where the two frequencies are equal
and in phase, the pattern appears as a straight line at an angle of
45 with the horizontal.
As the phase between the two alternating signals
changes, the pattern changes cyclically, i.e. an ellipse (at 45 with
the horizontal) when the pre difference is l4, a circle when the
phase difference is l2 and an ellipse at 135 with horizontal)
when the phase difference is 3l4, and a straight line pattern (at
135 with the horizontal) when the phase difference is radians.
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As the phase angle between the two signals changes from

to 2 radians, the pan changes correspondingly through the
ellipse-circle-ellipse cycle to a straight line. Hence the two
frequencies as well as phase displacement can be compared using
lissajous Figure.

Q. 13: - Explain the method for measurement of phase by

lissajous figures?
(CSVTU April-May 2012, April-May 2010, Nov-Dec 2009, AprilMay 2009, Nov-Dec 2008, April-May 2008)
Ans:
When two signals are applied simultaneously to an
oscilloscope without internal sweep, one to the horizontal channel
and the other to the vertical channel, the resulting pattern is a
Lissajous figure that shows a phase difference between the two
signals. Such patterns result from the sweeping of one signal by
the other.
Figure shows the test setup for phase measurement by
means of Lissajous figures.

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Figure shows patterns corresponding to certain phase

difference angles, when the two signal voltages are sinusoidal,
equal in amplitude and frequency.

A simple way to find the correct phase angle (whether

leading or lagging) is to introduce a small, known phase shift to
one of the inputs. The proper angle may be then deduced by
noting the direction in which the pattern changes.
Q. 14: -Find ratio of frequency of Y-axis to X-axis for given
Figure. (CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, Nov-Dec 2009)

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Ans:
Positive Y-peaks in pattern=

1
1
2+ =2
2
2

Positive X-peaks in pattern=

1 1
+ =1
2 2

So,

1
fy
2
1
=
=2
fx 1
2
2

So,
Frequency of vertical voltage signal=
1
2 frequency of horizontal voltage signal
2

1
2 3=7.5 kHz .
2

Q. 15: -(i) Find the value of phase difference between vertical

and horizontal deflection plate for graph shown in Figure
(c). (CSVTU Nov-Dec 2009)

(ii) Determine the ratio of Y-axis frequency to X-axis

frequency for the given Figure (d).

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Ans:
Part a
i)

First pattern ia a straight line so value of

Phase angle =

ii)

sin 1

d vo =0

, so

d vo
0
=sin 1 =0
Dv
6

Second pattern is an ellipse. And values of

d vo

Dv

and

are 3.0 and 6.0 respectively for this pattern.

Phase angle =
iii)

sin 1

3.0
=sin 1 0.5=30 150
6.0

Third pattern is a circle. So the values of

d vo

Dv

and

are

equal.
1
Phase angle sin 1.0=90

iv)

Last pattern is again an ellipse. Values of

d vo

and

Dv

are 3.0 and 5.0 respectively for this pattern.

Phase angle =

sin 1

3.0
=sin 1 0.6=36.9 143.1
5.0

Part b
i)

Positive Y-peaks in pattern= 2

Positive X-peaks in pattern=

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So,
So,

fy 2
= =2
fx 1

Frequency

of

vertical

voltage

signal=

2 frequency of horizontal voltage signal

=
ii)

2 3=6 kHz .

Positive Y-peaks in pattern=

1
1
1+ =2
2
2

Positive X-peaks in pattern=

1 1
+ =1
2 2

So,
So,

1
fy
2
1
=
=1
fx 1
2
1

Frequency

of

vertical

voltage

signal=

1
1 frequency of horizontal voltage signal
2

=
iii)

1
1 3=4.5 kHz .
2

Positive Y-peaks in pattern= 3

Positive X-peaks in pattern= 2
So,
So,

fy 3
= =1.5
fx 2

Frequency

of

vertical

voltage

signal=

1.5 frequency of horizontal voltage signal

1.5 3=4.5 kHz .

Q. 16: -Describe different type of probes?

(CSVTU April-May 2011, April-May 2010)
Ans:

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Probe is a means that connects the test circuit to the

oscilloscope without altering, loading, or disturbing the test
circuit. Oscilloscope probes of different types are described below:-

Direct Probe. This is simplest of all the probes and uses a

shielded co-axial cable. It avoids stray pick-ups which may cause
troubles in measurement of low level signals. It is usually
employed for low frequency and low impedance circuits. However,
in using the probe of this type shunt capacitance of probe and
cable is added to the input impedance and capacity of the scope
and tends to lower the oscilloscope response to high impedance
and high frequency circuits.
Isolation Probe. Such a probe is employed to avoid the
undesirable circuit loading effects of the shielded probe. Isolation
probe is made by placing a carbon resistor in series with the test
lead, as illustrated in Fig. Such a probe causes a slight change in
the amplitude of the waveform and a slight change in the wave
shape. To avoid this possibility, a high impedance compensated
probe, called a low capacitance or a 10 : 1 probe is employed.

Fig. Isolation Probe

High Impedance or 10 : 1 Probe. Such probes are used for

increasing the input resistance and reduce the effective input
capacitance of an oscilloscope. Such a probe is shown in Fig. and
its equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.4.b-3. The capacitor C1 is
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adjusted so as to balance the bridge. Under balanced conditions of

bridge we have: R1
R
=
(C 2+ C ) C1

R1 C1 = RIN (C2 + CIN)

Thus, X and Y are equipotential points and the effect of the probe
is equivalent to placement of a potential divider consisting of R l
and RIN across the input circuit The signal attenuation is 10: 1 i.e.
R 1+ R
=10 : 1lover a wide frequency range .
R1

Capacitor C1 is adjusted by connecting the probe tip to a squarewave of 1 kHz and observing the CRT display. For optimum
response of CRT display, the value of C1is deemed to be
appropriate.
SO
V OUT =0.1V =

V R
R
=
R 1+ R C 1

Probe

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Fig. Equivalent Circuit of 10: 1 Probe

Active Probes. The probe, described above, is also called the
passive probe. Active probes are designed to provide an efficient
method of coupling high frequency, fast rise time signals to the
CRO input. Usually active probes have very high input impedance,
with less attenuation than passive probes described above. Active
probes are bulky and more expensive as compared to passive
probes, but they are useful for measurement of small signals,
owing to their small attenuation. A schematic diagram of an active
probe using an FET and bipolar transistors is given in Fig.
although the voltage gain of the FET follower circuit shown in Fig.
is unity; the follower circuit provides a power gain so that the
input

impedance

can

be

increased.

For

eliminating

the

capacitance of the interconnecting cable and make the probe more

effective, the FET must be mounted directly in the voltage probe
tip. This requires that the power for the FET be supplied from the
oscilloscope to the FET in the probe tip. The FET voltage follower
drives a coaxial cable, but instead of the cable connecting directly
to the high input impedance of the oscilloscope, it is terminated in
its characteristic impedance. Since there is no signal attenuation
between the FET amplifier and the probe tip, the range of the
signals that can be handled by the FET probe is limited to the
dynamic range of the FET amplifier, and is typically less than a
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few volts. This is a significant drawback of the FET probe. So for

handling a large dynamic range, external attenuators are added at
the probe tip. Active probes have limited use because the FET
probe effectively becomes an attenuator probe. So, oscilloscopes
are typically used with 10: 1 attenuator probe.

Active Probe Using FET and Bipolar Transistors

Current Probe. This is very valuable probe and can be clamped
around a wire carrying current without any physical contact to
the probe, allowing the oscilloscope to be employed to measure the
magnitude of the current with a frequency from 0 (de) to 50 MHzs
The current sensor consists of two parts, a conventional
transformer for transforming alternating current to voltage, and a
Hall Effect device for converting direct current to a voltage, as
illustrated in Fig. A magnetic core with a removable piece is used
as the coupling element for the current probe. The wire carrying
the current to be measured is inserted in the centre of the
magnetic core and is similar to a primary of transformer.
Alternating current in the wire will induce voltage in the
secondary winding by transformer action. Any direct currents will
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not appear at the secondary of the current transformer. In

addition, the direct current passing through the wire will cause
the magnetic flux in the core to increase and will affect the
permeability of the core material. This is undesirable, especially if
the current in the wire should cause the core material to become
saturated. If this should happen, the transformer action of the
current transformer will become severely affected and give
inaccurate measurements. To provide a frequency response to zero
(or de), a Hall Effect sensor is also included in the current probe.
The amount of current required to counteract the magnetic field
induced by the wire being measured is directly proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the current passing through the wire
being measured. Because the current required to counteract the
static magnetic flux in the core also flows through the terminating
resistor for the secondary of the CT, this applied counteractingcurrent appears as a de voltage at the oscilloscope and gives the
magnitude of current flowing through the wire.

Current Probe Capable of Measuring From Zero(or DC) To Several

MHz
Q. 17: - Describe signal generators?
(CSVTU April-May 2012)
Ans:
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A signal generator is a vital component in a test setup, and in

electronic troubleshooting and development, whether on a service
bench or in a research laboratory. Signal generators have a variety
of applications, such as checking the stage gain, frequency
response, and alignment in receivers and in a wide range of other
electronic equipment.
They provide a variety of waveforms for testing electronic
circuits, usually at low powers.
There are various types of signal generator but several
requirements are common to all types.
The frequency of the signal should be known and stable.
The amplitude should be controllable from very small to relatively
large values. Finally, the signal should be distortion-free.

Q. 18: - Explain basic standard signal generator (sine wave)?

(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, Nov-Dec 2009, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
The simple sine wave generator consists of two basic
blocks, an oscillator and an attenuator. The performance of the
generator depends on the success of these two main parts. The
accuracy of the frequency, stability, and freedom from distortion
depend on the design of the oscillator, while the amplitude
depends on the design of the attenuator.

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STANDARD SIGNAL GENERATOR(Sine)

A standard signal generator produces known and
controllable voltages. It is used as power source for the
measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio (S/N), bandwidth,
standing wave ratio and other properties. It is extensively used in
the testing of radio receivers and transmitters.
The instrument is provided with a means of modulating the
carrier frequency, which is indicated by the dial setting on the
front panel. The modulation is indicated by a meter. The output
signal can be Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated
(FM). Modulation may be done by a sine wave, square wave,
triangular wave or a pulse. The elements of a conventional signal
generator are shown in Fig.

The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable RF

oscillator using an LC tank circuit, having a constant output over
any frequency range. The frequency of oscillations is indicated by
the frequency range control and the vernier dial setting. AM is
provided by an internal sine wave generator or from an external
source. (Modulation is done in the output amplifier circuit. This
amplifier delivers its output, that is, modulation carrier, to an
attenuator. The output voltage is read by an output meter and the
attenuator output setting.)
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Frequency stability is limited by the LC tank circuit design

of the master oscillator. Since range switching is usually
accomplished by selecting appropriate capacitors, any change in
frequency range upsets the circuit design to some extent and the
instrument must be given time to stabilize at the new resonant
frequency.
In high frequency oscillators, it is essential to isolate the
oscillator circuit from the output circuit. This isolation is
necessary, so that changes occurring in the output circuit do not
affect

the

oscillator

frequency,

amplitude

and

distortion

characteristics. Buffer amplifiers are used for this purpose.

Q. 19: - Illustrate the method and circuit for audio frequency

and radio frequency signal generation?
Ans:
The block diagram of an AF Sine-Square wave audio oscillator is
illustrated in Fig

The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien bridge

oscillator is used in this generator. The Wien bridge oscillator is
the best for the audio frequency range. The frequency of
oscillations can be changed by varying the capacitance in the
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oscillator. The frequency can also be changed in steps by switching

in resistors of different values.
The output of the Wien bridge oscillator goes to the function
switch. The function switch directs the oscillator output either to
the sine wave amplifier or to the square wave shaper. At the
output, we get either a square or sine wave. The output is varied
by means of an attenuator.
The instrument generates a frequency ranging from 10 Hz to 1
MHz, continuously variable in 5 decades with overlapping ranges.
The output sine wave amplitude can be varied from 5 mV to 5 V (r
ms).The output is taken through a push-pull amplifier. For low
output, the impedance is 600Q. The square wave amplitudes can
be varied from 0 - 20 V (peak). It is possible to adjust the
symmetry of the square wave from 30 - 70%. The instrument
requires only 7 W of power at 220 V - 50 Hz.
The front panel of a signal generator consists of the following.
Frequency selector It selects the frequency in different ranges and
varies it continuously in a ratio of 1: 11. The scale is non-linear.
Frequency multiplier It selects the frequency range over 5
decades, from 10 Hz to 1MHz.
Amplitude multiplier It attenuates the sine wave in 3 decades, x 1,
x 0.1 and x 0.01.
Variable amplitude

It

attenuates

the

sine

wave

amplitude

continuously.
Symmetry control It varies the symmetry of the square wave from
30% to 70%.
Amplitude It attenuates the square wave output continuously.
Function switch It selects either sine wave or square wave output.
Output available This provides sine wave or square wave output.
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Sync This terminal is used to provide synchronization of the

internal signal with an external signal.
On-Off Switch
Q. 20: -Explain function generators?
(CSVTU April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2010, April-May 2010, AprilMay 2009, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of
producing different types of waveforms as its output signal. The
most common output waveforms are sine-waves, triangular waves,
square-waves, and saw tooth-waves. The frequencies of such
waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several
hundred

kHz.

The

function

generators

are

very

versatile

instruments as they are capable of producing a wide variety of

waveforms and frequencies. They are also used in driving sweep
oscillators in oscilloscopes and the X-axis of X-Y recorders.
Many function generators are also capable of generating two
different

waveforms

simultaneously

(from

different

output

terminals, of course). Another important feature of some function

generators is their capability of ph as e-locking to an external
signal source. One function generator may be used to phase lock a
second function generator and the two output signals can be
displaced in phase by an adjustable amount. In addition, one
function generator may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sinewave of another function generator.

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Block Diagram of Function Generator

The block diagram of a function generator is given in Fig.4.

In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying the
magnitude of current that drives the integrator. This instrument
provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal,
triangular and square waves) as its output signal with a frequency
range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz. The frequency controlled voltage
regulates two current supply sources. Current supply source 1
supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage
rises linearly with time according to output signal voltage equation
t

1
v out = idt
C 0

An increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces

the slope of the output voltage and thus controls the frequency.
The

voltage

comparator

multivibrator

changes

state

at

predetermined maximum level, of the integrator output voltage.

This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and
switches to the supply source 2. The current supply source 2
supplies a reverse current to the integrator so that its output
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determined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and

switches on to the current supply source 1. The output of the
integrator is a triangular-wave whose frequency depends on the
current supplied by the constant current supply sources. The
comparator output provides a square-wave of the same frequency
as output. The resistance diode network changes the slope of the
triangular-wave as its amplitude changes and produces a
sinusoidal wave with less than 1%distortion.
Q. 21: - Describe sequence and phase generators?
Ans:
These generators are used as measuring devices in combination
with a CRO. They provide both quantitative and qualitative
information of the system under test. They are made use of in
transient

response

testing

of

amplifiers.

The

fundamental

difference between a pulse generator and a square wave generator

is in the duty cycle.
Duty cycle = pulse width/pulse period
A square wave generator has a 50% duty cycle.
Requirements of a Pulse
The pulse should have minimum distortion, so that any distortion,
in the display is solely due to the circuit under test.
The basic characteristics of the pulse are rise time, overshoot,
ringing, sag, and undershoot.
The

pulse

should

have

sufficient

maximum

amplitude,

if

appreciable output power is required by the test circuit, e.g. for

magnetic core memory. At the same time, the attenuation range
should be adequate to produce small amplitude pulses to prevent
over driving of some test circuit.
The range of frequency control of the pulse repetition rate (PRR)
should meet the needs of the experiment. For example, a
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repetition frequency of 100 MHz is required for testing fast

circuits. Other generators have a pulse-burst feature which allows
a train of pulses rather than a continuous output.
Some pulse generators can be triggered by an externally applied
trigger signal; conversely, pulse generators can be used to produce
trigger

signals,

when

this

output

is

passed

through

differentiator circuit.
The output impedance of the pulse generator is another important
consideration. In a fast pulse system, the generator should be
matched to the cable and the cable to the test circuit. A mismatch
would cause energy to be reflected back to the generator by the
test circuit, and this may be re-reflected by the generator, causing
distortion of the pulses.
DC coupling of the output circuit is needed, when dc bias level is
to be maintained.

The basic circuit for pulse generation is the asymmetrical multivibrator.

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Q. 22: -Explain the circuit of a RC phase Shift oscillator and

describe how Barkhausen Criteria is satisfied in this
oscillator to generate a sine wave.
(CSVTU April-May 2008)
Ans:
An oscillator is a circuit, which generates ac output signal without
giving any input ac signal. This circuit is usually applied for audio
frequencies only. The basic requirement for an oscillator is positive
feedback. The operation of the RC Phase Shift Oscillator can be
explained as follows. The starting voltage is provided by noise,
which is produced due to random motion of electrons in resistors
used in the circuit. The noise voltage contains almost all the
sinusoidal frequencies. This low amplitude noise voltage gets
amplified and appears at the output terminals. The amplified
noise drives the feedback network which is the phase shift
network. Because of this the feedback voltage is maximum at a
particular frequency, which in turn represents the frequency of
oscillation. Furthermore, the phase shift required for positive
feedback is correct at this frequency only.

The Barkhausen stability criterion is a mathematical condition to

determine when a linear electronic circuit will oscillate.
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The gain of RC Phases shift oscillator is given by:

Vout
A
=
Vin 1+ A

Oscillation results from an unstable state; i.e., the feedback

system cant find a stable state because its transfer function cant
be satisfied. Equation 1 becomes unstable when (1+A ) = 0
because A/0 is an undefined state. Thus, the key to designing an
oscillator is to insure that A = 1(called the Barkhausen
criterion), or using complex math the equivalent expression is A

= 1180. The 180 phase shift criterion applies to negative

feedback systems, and 0 phase shift applies to positive feedback
systems. The output voltage of a feedback system heads for infinite
voltage when A = 1.
When the output voltage approaches either power rail,
the active devices in the amplifiers change gain, causing the value
of A to change so the value of A 1; thus, the charge to
infinite voltage slows down and eventually halts. At this point one
of three things can occur. First, nonlinearity in saturation or
cutoff can cause the system to become stable and lock up.
Second, the initial charge can cause the system to saturate (or cut
off) and stay that way for a long time before it becomes linear and
heads for the opposite power rail. Third, the system stays linear
and reverses direction, heading for the opposite power rail.
Alternative two produces highly distorted oscillations (usually
quasi square waves), and the resulting oscillators are called
relaxation oscillators. Alternative three produces sine wave
oscillators.
In the beginning, as the oscillator is switched on, the loop gain A

is greater than unity. The oscillations build up. Once a

suitable level is reached the gain of the amplifier decreases, and

the value of the loop gain decreases to unity. So the constant level
oscillations are maintained. Satisfying the above conditions of
oscillation the value of R and C for the phase shift network is
selected such that each RC combination produces a phase shift of
60. Thus the total phase shift produced by the three RC networks
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is 180. Therefore at the specific frequency fo the total phase shift

from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the
base is 360 thereby satisfying Barkhausen criterion. We select
R1=R2=R3* =R and C1=C2=C3=C
The frequency of oscillation of RC Phase Shift Oscillator is given
by
1

fr= 2 RC 2 N
Q. 24: -What do you understand by transit time?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
The time required for an electron or other charge carrier to
travel between two electrodes in an electron tube or transistor.
Examination, April May, 2012
Q.4. (a) what is the source of emission of electrons in a CRT? 2
Ans: Refer answer 1.
(b) Describe how frequency & phase angle measurement can be
made with the use of CRO.
7
Ans: Refer answer 12 & 13.
(c) What is signal generator ? Discuss sine wave generator.

Ans: Refer answer 17.

(d) What are lissajous pattern? Voltage E1 is applied to horizontal
input & voltage E2 is applied to the vertical input of CRO. E 1 &
E2 have same frequency. The trace is an ellipse. The slope of
major axis is positive the maximum vertical value is 2.5
divisions & the point where ellipse crosses the vertical axis is
1.25 divisons. The ellipse is symmetrical about the horizontal
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& vertical axis. Determine the possible phase angles of E 2 w.r.t.

E1.
7
Ans: Refer answer 13 & 15.
Examination, Nov Dec, 2011
Q.4 (a) Enlist four applications of CRO.
Ans: Refer answer 8.
(b) A Lissajous pattern is shown below. Find the frequency of
vertical signal if the frequency of horizontal signal is 3 kHz.

Ans: Refer answer 14.

(c) Explain how sine-wave is generated in a signal generator.
Ans: Refer answer 18.
(d) Discuss the various components of CRT.
Ans: Refer answer 1.
Examination, April May, 2011
Q.4.(a)What is the function of focusing anode in the CRT of CRO?
2
Ans: Refer answer 6.
(b) What are the different types of probes? Explain them.
Ans: Refer answer 16.
(c) Describe function generator.
Ans: Refer answer 20.

7
7

(d) The deflecting plates in a CRT are 5 mm apart & 25 mm long.

The centre of the plates is 20 cm from screen. The accelerating
voltage is 3 kV. Find the rms value of the sinusoidal voltage
applied to deflecting plates if the length of the trace obtained on
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the screen is 10 cm. Find

sensitivity of the above CRT.
Ans: Refer answer 4.

also the electrostatic deflection

7

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2010

Q. I. Describe the different types of sweeps used in a CRO.

Ans: Refer answer 8.

Q. II. Explain the use of a CRO for frequency measurement.

Ans: Refer answer 12.

Q. III. An electrically deflected CRT has a final anode voltage of
2000 V and parallel deflecting plates 1.5 cm long and 5 mm
apart. If the screen is 50 cm from the centre of deflecting plates,
7

find
(i) beam speed.
(ii) the deflection sensitivity of the tube.
(iii) the deflection factor of the tube.
Ans: Refer answer 5.

Q. IV. Draw the block diagram of a function generator and explain

the method of producing sine waves.

Ans: Refer answer 20.

Examination, April May, 2010

Q. 4. (a) What are current probes?

Ans: Refer answer 16.

(b) An electrically deflected CRT has a final anode voltage of 2000
V and parallel deflecting plates 1.5 cm long & 5 mm apart. If the
screen is 50 cm from the centre of deflecting plates, find: 7
(i) beam speed
(ii) deflection sensitivity of the tube.
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(iii) deflection factor of tube.

Ans: Refer answer 5.
(c) Discuss the Lissajous figures measurement of frequency and
7

phase.
Ans: Refer answer 12 & 13.
(d) Explain function generators.

Ans: Refer answer 20.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2009
Q.4. (a) Find ratio of frequency of Y-axis to X-axis for given Figure
(b).

Ans: Refer answer 14.

(b) Explain the method of frequency and phase measurement of
Lissajous Method.
Ans: Refer answer 12 & 13.
(c) Explain the construction and working of sine wave generators.
Ans: Refer answer 18.
(d) (i) Find the value of phase difference between vertical and
horizontal deflection plate for graph shown in Figure (c).

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(ii) Determine the ratio of Y-axis frequency to X-axis frequency

for the given Figure (d).

Ans: Refer answer 15.

Examination, April May, 2009

Q.4. (a) Give one application of CRT.

Ans: Refer answer 1.

(b) Explain the working and construction of CRT.

Ans: Refer answer 1.

(c) Explain How the phase is measured by Lissajous method? 7
Ans: Refer answer 13.
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(d) Describe the working & block diagram of function generator. 7

Ans: Refer answer 20.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2008
Q.4. (a) What do you understand by transit time?

Ans: Refer answer 23.

(b) The electrically deflected CRT has a final anode voltage of 2000
V and parallel deflecting plates 1.5 cm long and 5 mm apart. If
the screen is 50 cm from the centre of deflecting plates. Find: 7
(i) Beam Speed
(ii) Deflecting Sensitivity of the tube.
(iii) Deflection factor of the tube.
(iv) Cut off frequency
Ans: Refer answer 5.
(c) Explain Time-Base Generator of Horizontal Deflecting Plate. 7
Ans: Refer answer 10.
(d) How can we measure frequency and phase by Lissajous
Method?
Ans: Refer answer 12 &13.
Examination, April May, 2008
Q. I. What is a CRO and name major parts of a CRO.

Ans: Refer answer 8.

Q. II. Explain how the electron beam is focused on to a fine spot
7

on the screen of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

Ans: Refer answer 1.

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Q. III. Explain the use of Lissajous figures for frequency and

7

phase measurement.
Ans: Refer answer 12 & 13.
Q. IV. Explain the circuit of a RC phase Shift oscillator and

describe how Barkhausen Criteria is satisfied in this oscillator

7

to generate a sine wave.

Ans: Refer answer 22.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2007

Q.4. (a) What is a function generator?
Ans: Refer answer 20.

(b) Describe the vertical amplifier and horizontal deflecting system

of oscilloscope.
7
Ans: Refer answer 8.
(c)ExplainHow the frequency is measured by Lissajous method?7
Ans: Refer answer 12.
(d) Describe the sine wave generator and its working principle. 7
Ans: Refer answer 18.

Unit-V

PLC & Distributed control

system (DCS)

Q. 1: - What do you mean by PLC?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec 2009, AprilMay 2009, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
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Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or commonly simply called a

Programmable Controller, is a solid state, digital, industrial
computer.
It is a device that was invented to replace the necessary
sequential relay circuits for machine control. The PLC basically
operates by looking at its inputs and depending upon their state,
turning on/off its output. The user enters a program, normally
through software, that gives the desired results.
PLCs are used in many real world applications such as machining,
packaging, material handling, automated assembly, etc. Almost
any applications that need some type or electrical control have a
need for a PLC.
Q. 2: - Draw the PLC structure and explain it?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011, April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec
2007)
Ans:
The PLC mainly consists of a CPU, memory areas, and appropriate
circuits to receive input output data as shown in Fig 1. A PLC can
be considered as a box full of hundreds of thousands of separate
relays, counters, timers and data storage locations. (These
counters, timers, etc. really dont exist physically but rather they
are simulated and can be considered software counters, timers,
etc). These internal relays are simulated through bit locations in
registers.

The PLC structure consists of the following:

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1) Input Relays (Contacts): These are connected to the outside

world. They physically exist and receive signals from
switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but are
transistors.
2) Internal Utility Relay (Contacts): These do not receive signals
from the outside world nor do they physically exist. They are
simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate
external relays. There are also some special relays that are
dedicated to performing only one task. Some are always ON
while some are always OFF. Some are ON only once during
Power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was
stored.
3) Counters: These again do not physically exist. They are
simulated counters and they can be programmed to count
pulses. Typically these counters can be up-count, down
count or both. Since they are simulated they are limited in
their counting speed. Some manufacturers also include high
speed counters that are hardware based.
4) Timers: These also do not physically exist. They come in
many varieties and increments. The most common type is an
ON-delay type. Others include OFF-delay and both retentive
and non-retentive types. Increments vary from 1ms 1second.
5) Output Relays (Coils): These are connected to the outside
world. They exist physically and send ON/OFF signals to
solenoid, lamps, etc. They can be transistors, relays or triacs
depending upon the type selected.
6) Data Storage: Typically there are registers assigned simply to
store data. They are usually used as temporary storage for
math or data manipulation. They can also be used to store
data in case of a power failure. These registers ensure that
there is no loss of contents owing to disconnection of power.

Q. 3: Describe the operation of PLC?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2010, NovDec 2008)
Ans:

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A PLC works by continually scanning a program. This

scan cycle can be considered as made up of three important states
as shown in Fig. 2

The three important states are:

Step 1: Check Input Status: First the PLC takes a look at each
input to determine if it is ON or OFF. In other words, it checks and
senses whether the sensor connected to the first input is ON, to
the second input is ON, to the third input is ON... It records this
data into its memory to be used during the next step.
Step 2: Execute Program: The PLC next executes the program, one
instruction at a time. For example, if the program says that if the
first input was ON then it should turn ON the first output. Since it
already knows which inputs are ON/ OFF from the previous step,
it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned
ON based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution
result for use later during the third step.
Step 3: Update Output Status: Finally the PLC updates the status
of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which inputs were
ON during the first step and the results of executing the program
during the second step. Based on example in step 2, it would now
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turn ON the first output because the first input was ON and the
program said to turn ON the first output when this condition is
true.
After the third step, the PLC goes back to step-one and
repeats the steps continuously. The time taken to execute the
above three steps or one instruction cycle is defined as the scan
time.
Response Time of PLC:
The PLC takes a certain amount of time to react to
changes. The total response time of the PLC is a fact that has to
be considered while selecting a PLC for some application where
speed is a concern.
The PLC can only see an input turn ON/OFF when its
looking. In other words, it only looks at its inputs during the
check input status part of the scan.
In the diagram shown in Fig. 3, input 1 is not seen
until scan 2. This is because when input 1 is turned ON, scan 1
had already finished looking at the inputs. Similarly input 2 is not
seen until scan 3. This is also because when the input 2 is turned
ON, scan 2 had already finished looking at the inputs.

Input 3 is never seen, this is because when scan 3 was

looking at the inputs, signal 3 was not ON yet. It turns OFF before
scan 4 looks at the inputs. Therefore, signal 3 is never seen by the
PLC.
If the input was not long enough, then the PLC does
not see the input turn ON, which is not desirable, hence, there are
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two ways to overcome this disadvantage. One is using Pulse

Stretch function shown in Fig. 4.

This function extends the length of the input signal until the PLC
looks at the input during the next scan, i.e. it stretches the
duration of the pulse. The other method is the Interrupt function
as shown in Fig. 5.

This function interrupts the scan to process a special routine that

has been written, that is, as soon as the input turns ON,
regardless of where the scan currently is; the PLC immediately
stops what it is doing and executes an interrupt routine. After it
has done executing the interrupt routine, it goes back to the point
it stopped or was interrupted or left OFF at and continues on with
the normal scan process.

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Q. 4: - Write advantages and disadvantages of PLC?

(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011, Nov-Dec 2009, AprilMay 2009)
Ans:
Following are major advantages of using a programmable
controller:
1) Flexibility. In the past, each different electronically controlled
production machine required its own controller; 15 machines
might require 15 different controllers. Now it is possible to use
just one model of a PLC to run any one of the 15 machines.
Furthermore,

you

would

probably

need

fewer

than

15

controllers, because one PLC can easily run many machines.

Each of the 15 machines under PLC control would have its own
distinct program.
2) Implementing Changes and Correcting Errors. With a wired
relay-type panel, any program alterations require time for
rewiring of panels and devices. When a PLC program circuit or
sequence design change is made, the PLC program can be
changed from a keyboard sequence in a matter of minutes. No
rewiring is required for a PLC-controlled system. Also, if a
programming error has to be corrected in a PLC control ladder
diagram, a change can be typed in quickly.
3) Large Quantities of Contacts. The PLC has a large number of
contacts for each coil available in its programming. Suppose
that a panel-wired relay has four contacts and all are in use
when a design change requiring three more contacts is made.
Time would have to be taken to procure and install a new relay
or relay contact block. Using a PLC, however, only three more
contacts would be typed in. The three contacts would be
automatically available in the PLC. Indeed, a hundred contacts
can be used from one relay if sufficient computer memory is
available.
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4) Lower Cost. Increased technology makes it possible to condense

more functions into smaller and less expensive packages. Now
you can purchase a PLC with numerous relays, timers, and
counters, a sequencer, and other functions for under a
hundred dollars.
5) Pilot Running. A PLC programmed circuit can be pre run and
evaluated in the office or lab. The program can be typed in,
tested, observed, and modified if needed, saving valuable
factory time. In contrast, conventional relay systems have been
best tested on the factory floor, which can be very time
consuming.
6) Visual Observation. A PLC circuit's operation can be seen
during operation directly on a CRT screen. The operation or
mis-operation of a circuit can be observed as it happens. Logic
paths

light

tip

on

the

screen

as

they

are

energized.

Troubleshooting can be done more quickly during visual

observation.
In advanced PLC systems, an operator message can
be programmed for each possible malfunction. The malfunction
description appears on the screen when the malfunction is
detected by the PLC logic (for example-, "MOTOR #7 IS
OVERLOADED").

Advanced

PLC

systems

also

may

have

descriptions of the function of each circuit component. For

example, input #1 on the diagram could have "CONVEYOR
LIMIT SWITCH" on the diagram as a description.
7) Speed of Operation. Relays can take an unacceptable amount of
time to actuate. The operational speed for the PLC program is
very fast. The speed for the PLC logic operation is determined
by scan time, which is a matter of milliseconds.
8) Ladder or Boolean Programming Method. The PLC programming
can be accomplished in the ladder mode by an electrician or
technician. Alternatively, a PLC programmer who works in
digital or Boolean control systems can also easily perform PLC
programming.
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9) Reliability and Maintainability. Solid-state devices are more

reliable, in general, than mechanical systems or relays and
timers. The PLC is made of solid-state components with very
high

reliability

rates.

Consequently,

the

control

system

maintenance costs are low and downtime is minimal.

10) Simplicity of Ordering Control System Components. A PLC is
one device with one delivery date. When the PLC arrives, all
the counters, relays, and other components also arrive. In
designing a relay panel, however, you may have 20 different
relays and timers from 12 different suppliers. Obtaining the
parts on time involves various delivery dates and availabilities.
With a PLC you have one product and one lead time for
delivery. In a relay system, forgetting to buy one component
would mean delaying the startup of the control system until
that component arrives. With the PLC, one more relay is always
available provided that you ordered a PLC with enough extra
computing power.
11) Documentation. An immediate printout of the true PLC
circuit is available in minutes, if required. There is no need to
look for the blueprint of the circuit in remote files. The PLC
prints out the actual circuit in operation at a given moment.
Often, the file prints for relay panels are not properly kept up to
date. A PLC printout is die circuit at the present time; no wire
tracing is needed for verification.
12) Security. A PLC program change cannot be made unless the
PLC is properly unlocked and programmed. Relay panels tend
to undergo undocumented changes. People on late shifts do not
always record panel alterations made when the office area is
locked up for the night.
13) Ease of Changes by Re-programming. Since the PLC can be
re-programmed quickly, mixed production processing can be
accomplished. For example, if part B comes down the assembly
line while part A is still being processed, a program for part B's
processing

can

be

re-programmed

into

the

production

machinery in a matter of seconds.

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Following are some of the disadvantages of, or perhaps

precautions involved in, using PLCs:
1) Newer Technology. It is difficult to change the thinking of some
personnel from ladders and relays to the PLC computer
concept. Although today, with the pervasive use of computers
not only at home and in the office but on the factory floor,
acceptance of the computer as a powerful and reliable
productivity-enhancing tool is, if not universal, almost so.
Electricians and technicians are lining up to take courses on
PLCs because they know that doing so contributes to job
security and advancement.
2) Fixed Program Applications. Some applications are singlefunction applications. It does not pay to use a PLC that
includes multiple programming capabilities if they are not
needed.

One

example

is

in

the

use

of

drum

controller/sequencers. Some equipment manufacturers still

use a mechanical drum with pegs at an overall cost advantage.
Their operational sequence is seldom or never changed, so the
re-programming

available

with

the

PLC

would

not

be

necessary.
3) Environmental Considerations. Certain process environments,
such as high heat at vibration, interfere with the electronic
devices in PLCs, which limit their use.
4) Fail-Safe Operation. In relay systems,

the

stop

button

electrically disconnects the circuit if the power fails, the system

stops. Furthermore, the relay system does not automatically
restart when power is restored. This, of course, can be
programmed into the PLC; however in some PLC programs, you
may have to apply an input voltage to cause a device to stop.
These systems are not fail-safe. This disadvantage can be
overcome by adding safety relative to a PLC system.
Fixed-Circuit Operation. If the circuit in operation is never altered,
a fixed control system (such as a mechanical drum) might be less
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costly than a PLC. The PLC is most effective when periodic

changes in operation are made.
Q. 5: - What are PLC Timers?
(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2009)
Ans:
Timer is an instruction that waits a set amount of time before
doing something. The different kinds of timers are available with
different manufacturers. Most of the timers are:
1. ON-delay Timer: This type of timer simply "delays turning on".
In other words after our sensor (input) turns on, the timer waits
for some seconds say x sees before activating a solenoid valve
(output). This is the most common timers. It is often called TON
(timer on-delay), TIM (Timer) or TMR (Timer).
2. OFF-delay Timer: This type of timer is the opposite of the ondelay timer. This timer simply "delays turning OFF". After our
sensor (input) sees a target, the solenoid (output) is turned on.
When the sensor no longer sees the target, the solenoid is held for
some seconds, say x sees before turning it OFF. It is called a TOF
(timer OFF-delay) and is less common than the on-delay type
listed above.
3. Retentive or Accumulating Timer: This type of timer needs 2
inputs. One input starts the timing event (i.e. the clock starts
ticking) and the other resets it. The ON/OFF delay timers above
would be reset if the input sensor was not ON/OFF for the
complete timer duration. This timer however holds or retains the
current elapsed time when the sensor turns off in mid-stream. For
example, if we wish to know how long a sensor is on during a 1 hr
period. If we use one of the above timers they will keep resetting
when the sensor turns OFF/ON. This timer however, will give us a
total or accumulated time. It is often called an RTO (Retentive
timer) or TMRA (accumulating timer).
To use a timer, we typically need to know two things.
1. What will enable the timer? There is typically one of the inputs
(sensor)
2. How long we want to delay before we react.
When creating a timer that lasts a few seconds, or more, the
precision or accuracy is of not much significance. But in the

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timers that have duration in ms range, precision and accuracy is

very significant.
Basically there are two types of errors in general when using a
timer. The first is called an input error and the other is called the
output error. The total error is the sum of both the input error and
output errors.
Input Errors: An input error occurs depending upon when the
timer input turns on during the scan cycle. When the input turns
on immediately after the PLC looks at the status of the inputs
during the scan cycles, the input error will be at its largest (i.e.
More than 1 full scan time). This is because as seen in the scan
time, the inputs are looked at once during a scan. If it was not on
when the PLC looked or scanned and turns on later in the scan,
obviously an error would occur. Further, we have to wait until the
timer instruction is executed during the program part of the scan.
If the timer instructions are the last on the rung then the error
could be quite large.
Output Error: An output error-occurs depending upon, when in
the ladder the timer actually 'times out' (ceases) and when the
PLC finishes executing the program to get to the part of the scan
when it updates the output. This is because the timer finishes
during the program execution but the PLC must first finish
executing the remainder of the program before it can turn on the
appropriate output.
Q. 6: -Discuss PLC Counters?
(CSVTU April-May 2012)
Ans:
A counter is a simple device used for counting. There are different
types of counters.
There are up-counters (that only count up 1,2,3 ) These are called
CTU (Count up), CNT, C or CTR.
There are down counters (that only count downwards, that is,
reversed 9, 8, 7). These are typically called CTD (Count down).
There are also'up-down counters (they count up and/or down).
These are typically called UDC (up-down counter).
Most manufacturers also include a limited number of high speed
counters. These are commonly called HSC (High Speed Counter),
CTH (Counter High Speed). Typically a high speed counter is a
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hardware device. The normal counters listed above are software

counters.
Hardware counters do exist in the PLC and are not dependant on
scan time.
As a rule, it is important to use the normal (software) counters
unless the pulses you are counting arrive faster than twice the
scan time.
To use the counter the following should be known.
The source of the pulse to be counted typically, this is from one of
the inputs, i.e. a sensor connected to input 0000.
How many pulses to be counted before activation. For example, let
us say 5 objects are to be counted.
When/how the counter will be reset so that it can count again. For
example, let us say after 5 objects let us reset the counter.
When the program is running on the PLC, the program typically
displays the current or accumulated value so that we can see the
current count value.
Typically counters can count from 0 - 9999, - 32,768 to +32,767
or 0 - 65535, since most PLCs have a 16 bit counters.
0 - 9999 is a 16 bit BCD and -32768 - + 32767 and 0 - 65535 are
16 bit Binary.
Q. 7: -Explain DC & AC Input modules for PLC?
(CSVTU April-May 2009)
Ans:
DC Inputs
The, dc input modules commonly available will work with 5, 12,
24 and 48 volts.
The dc input modules allow us to connect either PNP (sourcing) or
NPN (sinking) transistor type devices to them. If using a regular
switch (i.e. a toggle or Push Button, etc.) then it is not important
whether it is wired as NPN or as PNP. It is to be noted that most
PLCs do not mix NPN and PNP devices on the same module. But
when using a sensor e.g. (photo-sensor, proximity, etc.) then it is
important to know its output configuration. Hence it always
advisable to verify before connection whether its PNP or NPN. The
difference between the two types is whether the load (in our case
PLC is the load) is switched to ground or positive voltage. An NPN
has the load switched to ground whereas a PNP device has the
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load switched to positive voltage. Figure.1 shows an NPN sensor

(Sinking mode). In this NPN sensor one output is connected to the
PLCs input and the other to the power supply ground.

Fig.1 NPN Sensor

If the sensor is not powered from the same power supply as the
PLC, then both the grounds should be connected. For a PNP
sensor, the load is switched to ground. On the PNP sensor, one
output is connected to positive voltage and the other to the PLC's
input as shown in Fig.2

Fig.2 PNP Sensor

If the sensor is not powered from the same supply as
the PLC, then both positive voltages (V+) should be connected
together. Inside the sensor the transistor acts as a switch. The
sensors internal circuit tells the output transistor to turn on when
a target is present. The transistor then closes the circuit between
the two connections shown above, i.e. The V+ and the PLC input.
The only thing that is accessible to the user are the terminals
labeled common, input 0000, input 0001, input xxxx as shown in
Fig.3.

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Fig.3 Internal Circuit using Photo couplers

The common terminal either gets connected to V + or ground. The
type of sensor used decides where the common terminal is to be
connected. When using a NPN sensor this terminal is connected to
V +. When using a PNP sensor this terminal is connected to zero
voltage (ground). A common switch (i.e. limit switch, push button,
toggle, etc.) would be connected to inputs in a similar fashion. One
side of the switch would be connected directly to V + and the other
end goes to the PLC input terminal. This assumes that the
common terminal is connected to 0V (ground). If the common
terminal is connected to V+ then simply connect one end of the
switch to 0V (ground) and the other end to the PLC input
terminal. The photo couplers shown in Fig..4 are used to isolate
the PLC's internal circuit from the inputs. This eliminates the
chance of any electrical noise entering the internal circuitry. They
operate by connecting the electrical input signal to light and then
by converting the light back to an electrical signal to be processed
by the internal circuit.

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AC Inputs: The, ac input modules that are commonly available

work with 24, 48, 110 and 220 V. It is important to use the one
that fits the needs based upon the inputs devices (voltage) used.
These day, ac input modules are less common than dc input
modules. This is because most of the sensors used today have
transistor outputs. A transistor does not operate with ac voltages.
Most commonly, the ac voltage is being switched through a limit
switch or other switch type. If a sensor is used it probably is
operating on a de voltage. An ac device is connected to the input
module as shown in Fig.5, while the de hot wire is connected to
the switch while the neutral goes to the PLC. The ac ground (third
wire wherever applicable) should be connected to the frame
ground terminal of the PLC. The ac connections are color coded so
that the individual wiring the device knows which wire is which.

The PLC's ac input module is as shown in Fig.6. The only thing

accessible to the user is the terminals labeled common, input
0000, input xxxx. The common terminal gets connected to the
neutral wire. A common switch such as limit switch, push button,
toggle, etc. would be connected to the inputs directly. One side of
the switch would be connected directly to input xxxx. The other
end goes to the ac hot wire, assuming that the common terminal
is connected to neutral. Typically ac input takes longer than a de
input for a PLC to scan. It does not matter from the programmers
point of view because an ac input device is typically a mechanical
switch and mechanical devices are very slow. It is quite common
for a PLC to require that the input be on for 25 or more
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milliseconds before it is seen. This delay is required because of the

filtering which is needed by the PLC internal circuit.
Q. 8: - Discuss the basic process of PLC?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
A PLC is basically made up of the following sections, each of which
has a unique function to perform in its operation. The sections
are:
1. Sensing inputs or controlling hardware
2. PLC input hardware
3. Controller or CPU
4. Hand held programming device or personal computer
5. Output PLC hardware
6. Hardware output devices
Sensing Input The sensing section consists of limit switches,
pressure switches, photoelectric sensors, push buttons, etc. These
incoming hardware devices provide input signals. Devices such as
the push button, limit switch or photo-electric sensors are field
input devices. The term field input refers to hardware items which
provide the incoming signals that you physically connect to the
PLC.
Input Section The input section of the PLC contains two major
areas. First, the physical contact (screw) terminals where the
incoming signals (input) from field input devices such as a
pressure switches are attached to the PLC.
Figure-1 illustrates a product sitting on a conveyor.
When the conveyor moves the product into position the sensor will
send an input Signal into input screw terminal number 0 on the
PLC input section. The second part of the input section is the
PLC's internal conversion electronics. The function of the input
section electronic component is to convert and isolate the high
voltage input level from field devices. High voltage signals from the
field devices are converted to +5 V direct current (d.c.) for a valid
ON input signal and 0V DC for a valid OFF input signal. Incoming
signal conversion and isolation are necessary as the solid state
microprocessor components operate on +5V dc; where as input
signal may be 24 V dc, 110V ac or 220V dc.
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Fig. 1 Product on Conveyor Sensed by 24 V Input

Sensor. PLC will stop the Conveyor motor so that the Product can
be assembled.
Controller The controller, commonly called CPU (Central
Processing Unit) or simply the processor. The processor controls or
supervises the entire process. The CPU solves the user program
and updates the status of the outputs.
Programmer The programmer is the device whereby the
programmer or operator can enter or edit program instruction or
data. The programmer can be a handheld unit, a PC or an
industrial computer programming terminal.
Output Section The result of the process whereby the CPU will
look at, or read the status of inputs and then use this information
to solve user program instructions is a series of outgoing signals
from the CPU to an outside device such as a motor starter. These
outgoing ON or OFF signals are known as outputs. Output signals
are electronically transferred from the CPU to the output section
electronics controlling the physical screw terminals on the output
section of the PLC. The PLC program for the application of Fig.1
Will be written to instruct the PLC to turn OFF the conveyor motor
when a part is in position. The PLC will turn OFF the motor by
turning OFF the output signal for the output Numbed in the PLC
output section.
Field Hardware Devices The PLC will stop the conveyor motor
when the product is sensed. The conveyor motor starter's coil,
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which is controlled by the PLC, will be connected to the proper

screw terminals on the output modules as shown in Fig. 2.

Figure: Output Module Wiring to Motor Starter Coil

Q. 9: - Describe PLC hardware?
(CSVTU April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
PLC hardware falls into the following physical configuration:
1.Fixed Input/ Output (I/O)
2. Modular I/O.
Fixed I/O PLCs
A fixed PLC consists of a fixed, or built-in, input/output section.
There is one fixed or built-in, non removable screw terminal strip
containing all input signal screw terminal connections and
another terminal strip containing all output control signal screw
terminals. Figure 1 shows an fixed I/O PLC. The plastic door
labeled output terminals is hinged at the bottom. On opening the
door, all of built-in screw terminals can be seen. The area labeled
Input terminals is also a plastic door hinged at the top. On
opening the door all the built-in input screw Terminals can be
seen.
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Fig. 1 Fixed I/O PLC

2. Modular I/O PLC
A modular PLC does not have a terminal strip built into the
processor unit.
Modular PLC have their I/O points on plug-in type, removable
units called I/O Modules.
PLC with modular inputs and outputs consist of a chasis, rack or
base plate where the power supply, CPU and all input and output
modules arc present as separate hardware item.
The diagram shown in Fig. 2 is assembled to make a working PLC.

When I/O is modular, the user can mix input and output
types in the rack or base plate to meet the specific needs. There
are usually few limitations on the mix or positioning of I/O
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modules. Electrical connections between each modules and CPU

are made by two mating plugs. One plug is located on a printed
circuit board at the back of each module. A PCB that the modules
plug into runs along the back of the rack or is built into a base
plate, called the backplane. A DIN rail is a metal track or rail
attached to the back of an electrical panel, where devices can be
easily clipped to or removed from the rail. The power supply,
which is also modular, is hooked up to line voltage. The function
of the PLC power supply is to convert line voltage to low voltage dc
and then isolate it for use to operate the CPU and any associated
I/O module electronics in the rack or chasis.
Q. 10: -Illustrate PLC configuration?
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2010, Nov-Dec 2007)
Ans:
A PLC is a solid state device designed to perform logic functions
previously accomplished by electro-magnetic relays.
Basically, the PLC is an assembly of solid state digital Jogic
decisions which provides outputs. PLCs are used for the control
and operation of manufacturing, process equipment and
machinery.
These sections are the input/output (I/O) section, Central
Processing Unit (CPU) and the programming device.

The CPU is the important section of a PLC and is the brain of the
system. It contains internally a number of logic gates. The CPU is
a microprocessor based system that replaces control relays,
counters, timers and sequencers. It is designed so that the user
can enter the desired circuits in relay ladder logic.
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The CPU accepts (reads) input data from various sensing devices,
executes the stored user program from memory and sends the
appropriate output commands to control devices.
A dc Power source is required to produce dc low level voltage used
by the processor and the I/O modules.
The I/O section consists of input modules and output modular.
The I/O forms the interface by which field devices are connected
to the controller. The purpose of this interface is to condition the
various signals received from or sent to external field devices.
Input devices such as Push Button, limit switches, sensors,
selector switches and thumb wheel switches are hard wired to the
terminals on the input modules.
Output devices such as small motors, motor starters, solenoid
valves and indicator lamps are hard wired to the terminals on the
output modules. These devices are referred to as field or real world
inputs and outputs.
The programming device, or the terminals are used to enter the
desired program into the memory of the processor. This program
is entered using relay ladder logic. The programming device must
be connected to the controller only when entering or monitoring
the program.
Q. 11: - Describe PLC hard ware components?
(CSVTU April-May 2010)
Ans:
PLC Hardware Components basically comprises of 4 sections:
1. I/O Section
2. Discrete I/O Modules
3. Analog I/O modules
4. I/O Specifications
1. I/O Section:
The input and output interface modules consist of an I/O rack
and individual I/O modules. Input interface modules, accept
signals from the machine or process devices (120V ac) and convert
them into signals (5V dc) that can be used by the controllers.
Output interface modules convert controller signals (5V dc) into
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external signals of 120V ac used to control the machine or

process.
In large PLC systems, I/O sub system can be remotely located
from the CPU. A remote subsystem is usually a rack type
enclosure in which the I/O modules are installed. An
interconnecting cable allows communication between the
processor and the remote I/O rack.
The location of a module within a rack and the terminal number
of a module to which an input or output device is connected will
determine the devices address. Each input and output device
must have a specific address. This address is used by the process
to identify where the device is located in order to monitor or
control it. In addition, there is some means of connecting field
wiring on the I/O module housing. Connecting the field wiring to
the I/O housing allows easier disconnection and reconnection of
the wiring in order to change modules. Lights are also added to
each module to indicate the ON or OFF status of each I/O circuit.
Most output modules also have blown fuse indicators.
A standard I/O module consists of a printed circuit board (PCB)
and terminal assembly. The PCB contains the electronic circuitry
used to interface the circuit of the processor with that of the input
or output device. It is designed to plug into a slot or connector in
the I/O rack or directly into the processor. The terminal assembly,
which is attached to the front edge of the PCB, is used for making
field wiring connections.
2. I/O Specifications
Manufacturer's specifications provide much information about
how an interface device is correctly and safely used. The
specification places certain limitation, not only on the module, but
also on the field equipment that it can operate. The following is a
list of some typical manufacturer, I/O specifications.
Nominal input voltage: This ac or de value specifies the magnitude
and type of voltage signal that will be accepted.
On state input voltage range: This value specifies the voltage at
which input signal is recognized as being absolutely on.
Nominal current per input: This value specifies the minimum
input current that the input devices must be capable of driving to
operate the input circuit.
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Ambient temperature rating: This value specifies what the

maximum temperature, of the air surrounding the I/O module,
should be for best operating conditions.
Input delay: This value specifies the time duration for which input
signal must be ON before being recognized as a valid input. This
delay is a result of filtering circuitry provided to protect against
contact bounce and voltage transients. This input delay is
typically in the 9 ms to 25 ms range.
Nominal output voltage: This ac or dc value specifies the
magnitude and type of voltage source that can be controlled by the
output.
Output voltage range: This value specifies the minimum and
maximum output operating voltages. An output circuit rated at
120V ac, for example may have an absolute working range of 92 V
ac (min) to 138 V ac max.
Maximum output current rating per output and module: These
values specify the maximum current that a single output and the
module as a whole can safely carry under load (at rated voltage).
Maximum surge current per output: This value specifies the
maximum in rush current and duration (for example 20A for 0.1
second) for which an output circuit can exceed its maximum
continuous current rating.
Off-state leakage current per output: This value specifies the
maximum value of leakage current that flows through the output
in its OFF state.
Electrical isolation: This maximum value (volts) defines the
isolation between the VO circuit and controller's logic circuitry.
Although this isolation protects the logic side of the module from
excessive input or output voltage or current, the power circuitry of
the module may be damaged.
3. Discrete I/O Modules
The most common type of I/O interface module is the discrete
type. This type of interface connects field input devices of the
ON/OFF nature such as selector switches, push buttons and limit
switches. Similarly output control is limited to devices such as
lights, small motors, solenoids and motor starters that require
simple ON/OFF switching. Each discrete I/O module is powered
by some field supplied voltage source. Since these voltages can be
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of different magnitude or type, I/O modules are available at

various ac and de voltage rating as listed in Table

Table 1
Input Interfaces
24Vac/dc
48Vac/dc
120Vac/dc
240Vac/dc
5Vde (TTL level)

Output Interfaces
12-48Vac
120Vac
230Vac
120Vdc
230Vdc
5Vde (TTL
level)

Figure 1 shows a block diagram for one input of a typical ac

interface input module.

Block Diagram of ac Interface Input Module

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Simplified Schematic of an ac Input Module

Typical Input Module Wiring Connection

The input circuit is composed of two basic sections-the power
section and the logic section. The power and logic sections are
normally coupled together in a circuit, which electrically separates
the two.
A simplified schematic and wiring diagram for one input of a
typical ac input module is shown in Fig. 2 and Fig 3 When the
push button is closed, 120V ac is applied to the bridge rectifier
through ' R1 and R2' this produces a low level de voltage which is
applied across the LED of the optical isolator. The Zener diode
(ZD) voltage rating sets the minimum level of voltage that can be
detected, when the light from the LED strikes the photo transistor,
it switches into conduction and the status of the push button is
communicated in logic or low level de voltage to the processor. The
optical isolator not only separates the higher ac input voltage from
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the logic circuits, but also prevents damage to the processor due
to line voltage transients. Optical isolation also helps reduce the
effects of electrical noise, common in industrial environment
which can cause erratic operation of the processor. Coupling and
isolation can be accomplished by use of a pulse transformer.
Figure 4 shows a diagram for one output of a typical interface
output module. Similar to the input module, it is composed of two
basic sections, the power section and the logic section, coupled by
an isolation circuit. The output interface can be considered of as a
simple electronic switch to which power is applied to control
output device.

Block Diagram of ac Interface Output Module

A simplified schematic and wiring diagram for one output of a
typical ac output module is shown in Fig. 5. As part of its normal
operation, the processor sets the output states according to the
logic program. When the processor calls for an output, a voltage is
applied across the LED of the isolator. The LED then emits light
which switches on the phototransistor into conduction. This, in
turn, switches a semiconductor switch such as Triac into
conduction which turns on the lamp. Since the triac conducts in
either direction, the output to lamp is ac. The triac rather than
having ON and OFF status actually has low and high resistance
levels respectively. In its OFF state (high resistance) a small
leakage current of a few mA still flows through the triac. As with
input circuits, the output interface is usually provided with LED's
that indicate the status of each output. In addition, if the module
contains a fuse, a fuse status indicator may also be used as
shown in Fig. 6.

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Simplified Schematic of an ac Output Module

Individual ac outputs are usually limited by the size of the triac to
2 or 3A. The maximum current load for anyone module is also
specified. To protect the output module circuits, specified current
ratings should not be exceeded. For controlling large loads, such
as large motors, a standard control relay is connected to the
output module. The contacts of the relay can then be used to
control a large load or motor starter as shown in Fig. 7 When a
control relay is used in this manner it is called an interposing
relay.

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Typical Output Module Wiring Connection

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Interposing Relay Connections

4. Analog I/O modules
Earlier PLCs were limited to discrete I/O interfaces, which allowed
only ON I OFF type devices to be connected. This limitation meant
that the PLC could have only partial control of many process
applications. Today, however a complete range of both discrete and
analog interfaces are available that will allow the controller to be
applied to practically any type of the control process. Analog input
interface modules contain the circuitry necessary to accept analog
voltage or current signals from analog field devices. These inputs
are converted to digital by the use of an analog to digital converter
(ADC). The conversion value, which is proportional to the analog
signal, is expressed as a 12 bit binary or as a 3-digit BCD for the
use by the processor. Analog input sensing devices include
temperature, light, speed, pressure and position transducers.
Figure 8 shows a typical analog input interface module connection
to a thermocouple. A varying de voltage in mV range proportional
to the temperature being monitored is produced by the
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thermocouple. This voltage is then amplified and digitized by the

analog input module and then sent to the processor on command
from a program instruction. Because of the low voltage level of the
input signal, a shielded cable is used in wiring the circuit to
reduce unwanted electrical noise signals that can be induced in
the conductors from other wiring. This noise can cause temporary
operating errors that can lead to hazardous or unexpected
machine operation.

Typical Thermocouple Connection to an Analog Input Module

The analog output interface module receives from the processor
digital data which is converted into a proportional voltage or
current to control an analog field device. The digital data is passed
through a DAC circuit to produce the necessary analog form.
Analog output devices include small motors, valves, analog meters
and seven segment displays.
Q. 12: - What do you mean by DCS?
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(CSVTU April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2008)

Ans:
A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control
system usually of a manufacturing system, process or any kind of
dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central
in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the
system with each component sub-system controlled by one or
more controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by
networks for communication and monitoring.
DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of
industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment.
Distributed control systems open the gateway to better realization
of process design with host computers and process models
gainfully utilizing the data collected by the DCS. A distributed
control system can briefly be defined as a control system with
communication capabilities and it is a powerful and sophisticated
tool in the hands of process control engineers.
Q. 13: Write some advantages and disadvantages of DCS
technique?
(CSVTU April-May 2011, Nov-Dec 2008)
Ans:
Following are the advantages or the added facilities as
a result of the DCS:
1. Data presentation is in a systematic format enabling easy
comparison of various parameters and taking decision by a
printer.
2. Logging of data is done by a printer thereby eliminating human
error.
3. It is possible to control through dynamic graphic.
4. Operator's action can be logged, thereby eliminating confusion.
S. The alarm system can be regrouped.
6. Complex computations, analysis, etc. can be carried out easily.
7. Management information can be generated at regular intervals.
8. The super-imposed trends helps in the analysis of plant
parameters and behavior.
9. Hardcopy gives the actual dynamic printout at a particular
instant.

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10. The controlling software used is very simple and the

application is readily understood. The software changed in one
unit has no impact on other units and hence the system becomes
very flexible. User's risk in software is minimum.
Disadvantage of DCS Technique
1. All information and data though presented in a systematic
format is hidden behind the CRT. Hence, it requires a skilled
operator.
2. In an emergency, decisions have to be taken single handedly, as
few operators are there in the control room.
3. Failure of a controller effects more than one loop. Hence it calls
for very high MTBF (Mean Time between Failures) and high degree
of redundancy.

Q. 14: - Explain DCS system configuration and its process

control?
(CSVTU April-May 2010)
Ans:
The system configuration available in nearly all types of DCS
present today in the market is composed of the following
fundamental blocks.
1. Operator station
2. Field control station
3. Communication bus
4. Gateway unit
5. Programmable logic controller
Different brands specify their system differently having varied
combination of the above blocks with addition/deletion of
features.
DCS PROCESS CONTROL
A DCS is preferred over a central computer system for the
following reasons. Central Computer System (CCS) exposes the
plant to the risk that the system might fail. This can be minimized
by having one or more back up schemes.
(a) A back up computer
(b) Analog controller
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(c) Manual loading stations

(d) Various combinations of the above.
These back up methods are expensive. The DCS also needs a
backup but it distributes the risk of failure into smaller subsections. The failure of one node should not cause the failure of
another portion. It decreases cost, kinds of redundancy and
backup needed. In short, it has the capability to fail gracefully.
Another advantage is the substantial reduction of wiring costs.
The data highway is generally a twisted shielded pair of wires or
some type of coaxial cable which carries all the processor and
computer system information required for efficient plant operation
via a high speed digital data communication system. It replaces
many miles of copper cable for sensor inputs and final control
element outputs. Hence, a large saving in a plant with many
inputs and outputs can be achieved. Routine process control is
performed in the distributed micro-computers with their
associated Input/output (I/O) cards, multiplexer, ADC and DAC
converters. The failure of computer at this node will leave, for
example, the control valves at their last position due to hard
circuitry on the output card. If backup microcomputer is installed,
it will automatically take over control without a bump to the
process. If no backup microcomputer is installed, the manual
analog loading station may be switched in to maintain control
with an operator in attendance.
Q. 15: -What do you understand by transit time?
Ans:
The time required for an electron or other charge carrier to
travel between two electrodes in an electron tube or transistor.
Q. 16: -Discuss the ladder diagrams used for PLC.
(CSVTU April-May 2012, Nov-Dec 2011)
Ans:
A ladder diagram consists of vertical lines called the bus bars
and within these vertical lines are placed various horizontal lines
consisting of input contacts and output. These horizontal lines are
called as rungs. We have to create a ladder diagram, but a PLC
does not understand a schematic diagram. It only recognizes code.
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Fortunately most PLCs have software which convert ladder

diagrams into code.
First step: We have to translate all of the items we are using into
symbols the PLC understands. The PLC does not understand
terms like switch, relay, bell etc. It prefers input, output, coil,
contact, etc. It does not care what actual input or output device
actually is. It only cares that it is an input or an output. The
batteries or power supply is replaced by a symbol. This symbol is
common to all ladder diagrams. These are called the bus bars.
These look like two vertical lines on either side and the input and
output are placed within these coil. The left side can be
considered as the voltage and the right side as the ground and the
current flow from left to right. The inputs and outputs each are
also given a symbol. The input, that is, the switch will be
connected by a symbol, shown in Fig. This symbol can also be
used as the contact of the relay. Only one output is normally
used, e.g. a bell. The output that the bell will be physically
connected in the circuit by the symbol is shown in Fig. This
symbol is used as the coil of a relay.

The ac supply is an external supply hence it is not put in the

ladder diagram. The PLC only knows and cares about which
output it has to turn on. The PLC must know where everything is
located. In other words we have to give all the devices an address,
the location where the switch is going to be physically connected
to the PLC. Each inputs and outputs used have an address. The
PLC has a lot of inputs and outputs but the PLC has to figure out
which device is connected where. The final step is to convert the
schematic into a logical sequence of events.
The program written tells the PLC what to do when certain
events take place. The PLC should be told what to do when the
operator turns ON the switch. The diagram shown in Fig. 21.31 is
the final converted diagram. In Fig., the input is called as '0000'
and output is called as '0500'.

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Q. 17: - The schematic diagram shows automatic control

circuit of a water tank process. Draw the ladder diagram
including the manual control & explain it.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2011)

Ans:

Q. 18: - Draw ladder diagram for process shown in Figure (e).

(i) Motor M rotates a conveyor belt moves.

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(ii) As soon as the first bottle crosses the limit switch (LS),
the motor stops and bottle is under the pipe.
(iii) As bottle is under the pipe, valve V opens.
(iv) The bottle is filled up and when full optical switch (OS)
is closed and valve V is closed.
(v) The motor again rotates and step 1 to 4 are repeated.
(CSVTU Nov-Dec 2009)

Ans:

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Q. 19: -Give the ladder diagram for 3-input AND Gate and 2input EXOR Gate. (CSVTU April-May 2009)
Ans:
THREE INPUT AND GATE

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LADDER DIAGRAM OF 3 INPUT AND GATE

2 INPUT XOR GATE

LADDER DIAGRAM OF 2 INPUT XOR GATE

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Examination, April May, 2012

Q.5. (a) Give few application of PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 4.

(b) Write a technical note on PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 1 & 3.

(c) Discuss the ladder diagrams used for PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 16.

(d) Explain the operation of timers & counters in brief.

Ans: Refer answer 5 & 6.

Examination, Nov Dec, 2011
Q.5 (a) Enlist the steps to develop a ladder diagram for any control
scheme.
Ans: Refer answer 16.
(b) Discuss the architecture of a Programmable Logic Controller.
Ans: Refer answer 2.
(c) The schematic diagram shows automatic control circuit of a
water tank process. Draw the ladder diagram including the
manual control & explain it.
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Ans: Refer answer 17.

(d) Explain the benefits of using PLCs for industrial applications.7
Ans: Refer answer 4.
Examination, April May, 2011
Q. 5. (a) What is the objective of DCS?
Ans: Refer answer 12.

(b) Explain the advantages & disadvantages of DCS technique. 7

Ans: Refer answer 13.
(c) Describe the PLC structure & operation response time.
Ans: Refer answer 2 & 3.

(d) Explain at least two PLC hardware components.

Ans: Refer answer 9.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2010

Q. I. Describe the PLC structure and its components.

Ans: Refer answer 1 & 2.

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Q.II. Describe the fixed input/output PLC and modular

7

input/output PLC hardware configuration.

Ans: Refer answer 10.

Q. III. Explain basic operation of a PLC and define scan time and
7

response time of PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 3.

Q. IV. Explain PLC hardware configuration with its components.7

Ans: Refer answer 9.
Examination, April May, 2010
Q. 5. (a) Draw the simplest PLC operation diagram?
Ans: Refer answer 3.
(b) Explain basic process of PLC.
Ans: Refer answer 3.
(c) Explain any two PLC hardware components.
Ans: Refer answer 11.
(d) Design and explain distributed compute system over-view.
Ans: Refer answer 14.
Examination, Nov. Dec., 2009
Q.5. (a) What is PLC?
Ans: Refer answer 1.
(b) Draw ladder diagram for process shown in Figure (e).
(i) Motor M rotates a conveyor belt moves.
(ii) As soon as the first bottle crosses the limit switch (LS), the
motor stops and bottle is under the pipe.
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(iii) As bottle is under the pipe, valve V opens.

(iv) The bottle is filled up and when full optical switch (OS) is
closed and valve V is closed.
(v) The motor again rotates and step 1 to 4 are repeated.

Ans: Refer answer 18.

(c) What are the different types of timer switches used in PLC?
Explain where it is used.
Ans: Refer answer 5.
(d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of PLC?
Ans: Refer answer 4.
Examination, April May, 2009
Q.5. (a) Give any two difference between PLC & PC.
Ans: Refer answer 1.

(b) Give the ladder diagram for 3-input AND Gate and 2-input
EXOR Gate.
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Ans: Refer answer 19.
(c) Difference between A. C and D.C. ladder diagram.
Also write the advantages of PLC in industrial application.
Ans: Refer answer 4.

(d) Explain various input and output module of PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 9.

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Examination, Nov. Dec., 2008

Q.5. (a) How can we get Dynamic Balancing Control in DCS?

Ans: Refer answer 12.

(b) Explain basic process of PLC?

Ans: Refer answer 8.

(c) Explain Operation and Time Response of PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 3.

d)What are the advantages and disadvantages of DCS technique?7
Ans: Refer answer 13.

Examination, April May, 2008

Q. I. What is meant by PLC and list the three basic operations of a
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PLC.
Ans: Refer answer 1.
Q. II. Explain with diagram the PLC structure.

Ans: Refer answer 2.

Q. III. Explain the basic operation of a PLC and define scan time
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and Response time of a PLC.

Ans: Refer answer 3.
Q. IV. Explain Fixed I/O PLCs and Modular I/O PLCs.

Ans: Refer answer 9.

Examination, Nov. Dec., 2007

Q.5. (a) Define programmable logic controller (PLC).
Ans: Refer answer 1.

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(b) Describe the PLC structure and its components in detail.

Ans: Refer answer 2.

(c) Describe the fixed Input/Output PLC and Modular

Input/Output PLC hardware configuration.
Ans: Refer answer 10.

(d) Explain the D.C. input module and AC input module

used/available in PLC.
Ans: Refer answer 9.

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