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ryLDI]G
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RESISTANCEWELDING

1'

t(eslstancewetorng
c ResistanceWelding (RW covers a number of process
in which the heat required for welding is produce by
meansof electrical resistanceacrossthe two
componentsto be joined.
o Advantages:not requiring consumableselectrodes,
shielding gasesor flux.
o The heat generatedin resistariceis given by the
ttrns- 15 [g1"'tea4

general expression:
H:

I'Rt

c' {rqst c,1\ "-l

1'9rre

H:heat generated(oules (watt-sec));I: current (amp);

R: resistance(ohms); t - time of current flow (seconds)

welding
Resistance
:

contd.,
r-------------- ,

o Thetotal resistance
in theseprocessis the sumof the
following properties:
.
.
.
.

The resistanceof electrodes

contactresistance
The electrode-workpiece
The resistanceof the individual partsto be welded
contactresistance(betweenthe
The workpiece-workpiece
faymg zurfaces)
r The temperature rise at the joint depends on the
specific heat and on the therrral conductivity of the
metals to be joined.

Resistt
r Developedin 1900s,requiresof specialized
machinery.
o Now is operatedby programmablecomputercontrol.
r The processis suitableprimarily for usein
manufacturingplantsandmachineshops.
. Operatorskills requiredareminimal.
o Safe8 precautionsaresimilar to thosefor other
weldingoperations.
r Costof the total systemranges:$20,000
- $50,000

.,

T\

Kesrstancespot welding
o In Resr'stanceSpot Welding (RSW),the tips of two
opposingsolid cylindrical electrodestouih a lap joint
of two sheetmetals,and resistanceheating p.oid,r.., u
spot weld.
r To obtain a strong bond in the weld nugget, pressure
is
applied until the current is turned off.
o The strength of the bond dependson surface
roughnessand on the cleannessof the mating surfaces.
o The weldnugget is generally 6 to l0 mm (0.25 to
0375 in.) in diameter.The surfaceof the weld spot has
a slightly discolouredindentation. Range from 3OOO
a
- 40,000A (dependsof material).

Resistance
spotwelding contd.,
Sequencein resistancespot welding

Etecrrodes

nr-lrll

3ilG+
--1-l
+i_J +U #iff:l
LJ
Pressure
aPPlied

ion of a spot weld,

Current
on

curreht ofi
pressurcon

pressurereleased

Electrode

Elecbode
tip

ing the weld nuggetandthe

ion ofthe electrodeon the weldnugget
surfaces.This is oneofthe
commonlyusedprocessesin
assembly.

,"jroffl

-- Heat-affectedmne

Processcapabilities
-

r-------------l

o Simplesand most commonly usedresistance-welding

process.
o May be perfonned by means of single (most
common)
or multiple pairs of electrodes,and required pressure
trough mechanical or pneumatic means.
I Rocker-arm type spot-welding machinesused
for
smaller parts and presstype machinesused for larger
workpieces.
o Important factors: shapeand surface conditions
of
electrodetip and accessibilityof the site.

Processcapabilities
r---------------1

e Widelyusedfor fabricatingsheetmetalpats.
. E.g.Attachingof handlesto stainless-steel
cookware,spotwelding of mufflers.

o Modernequipmentis computercontrolledfor
optimumtiming of currentandpressure.
I Automobilebodiescanhaveasmanyas 10,000
spotwelds;they areweldedat high ratesby the
useof multiple electrodes.

I
l-

Dporweromgmachrne
Ct.-

11'.--

Electrode designsfor easyaccessinto componentsto be welded

a)

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MA1001EneineerinePracticeI
JOINING
Permanentj oints,(soldering).
l.

Soft soldering;

Theprocessof soft solderinginvolvesthe useof a suitablelow meltingtemperature

rangealloy oftin andleadwhich is 'bonded'to anun-meltedparentmetalby the
applicationof heatanda suitableflux. The parentmetal is the metal from which the
components
The soldermusthavea lower melting
beingjoined aremanufactured.
parent
and
it
temperatwethanthe
metal
must alsobe capableof reactingtogetherwith
the parentmetalto form a bond.
Typesof soft solder
BS
solder

Composition(0/o)
Tin Lead Antimony

65

3 4 .4

0 .6

1 8 3 - 185

Freerunningsolderidealfor solderingelectronicand
instrumentassemblies.
Commonlvreferredto as
electrician'ssolder

60

39.5

0.5

183-188

50

49.5

0.5

183-212

40

59.6

0.4

183-234

30

69.7

0.3

183-255

Usedfor high-class
tinsmith's
work,and is knownas
tinman'ssolder
Usedfor generalsolderingwork in coppersmithing
and
sheetmetalwork
Blow-pipeso/der.This is suppliedin strip form with a D
cross-section
0.3 mm wide
Plumber'sso/der.Becauseof its wide meltingrangethis
solderbecomes'pasty'and can be mouldedand wiped.

Melting range
('C)

(r) Fluxing th. ioint sltftcct

(b) iinning

thc joint suiaces

(c) S*ettihg

the joint

The stagesin makinga solderedjoint areshownon page1 andinvolve;

(a)
(b)

(c)

the surfacesto bejoined arecleanedandgivena thin film of flux,

the piecesof metalbeingjoined areplacedon a surfacewhichwill not
conductheataway,(woodis a goodinsulator).A hot,tinnedandloaded
solderingiron is drawnslowly alongthe endsof the work asshown.As
heatenergyis conductedfrom the copper'bit' to thework, the temperatwe
of the work is raised.Whenit reachesthe meltingpoint ofthe solderbeing
used,the solderis transferredfrom the bit to the work andthe surfaces
become'tirured'with solder.This layerof solderreactswith the metalof
the work to form an amalgamwhich is permanent,
the work is thenplacedtogetherwith the tinned surfacesin contactandis
held in positionwith a stick or anysuitableobject.A heatedsolderingiron
is thenplacedon oneendof thejoint ensrningmaximumsurfacecontactis
madebetweenthe bit andthe work. As soonasthe solderfrom the pretinnedwork meltsandstartsto run out from the edges,the solderingiron is
drawnalongthejoint. The soldermeltsprogressivelyalongthejoint. This
is calleda sweatingoperationandthe copperbit of the solderingiron must
be largeenoughto supplyan adequateamountof heatenergyto ensure
uniformmeltinguntil thejoint is complete.

Thetinning actionof the soldercannottakeplaceunlessthe two surfacesto bejoined

arechemicallyaswell asphysicallyclean.The surfacesof thejoint shouldbe
degreased
andthenscouredwith 'steelwool' to makethemphysicallyclean.Theyare
thenchemicallycleanedandpreparedfor tinningby the actionofthe flux. The
pu{poseof the flux is to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

removethe oxidefilm from the surfacesto be soldered,

preventthe oxidefilm from reformingduringthe solderingprocess,
owet'the surfacesto bejoined sothat the solderwill run out into an even
film,
allow itselfto be easilydisplacedby the moltensoldersothat a metal-tometalcontactis achieved.

Activeflwes
FluxessuchasBaker'sfluid, (acidifiedzinc chloridesolution);theyquickly dissolve
the oxide film andpreventit reforming.They alsoetchthe surfacesto be soldered,
ensuringgood wetting andbonding.Unfortunatelyall active fluxes leavea corrosive
residuethat hasto bewashedoffimmediatelyafter solderingandthejoint hasto be
treatedwith a rust inhibitor.
Passiveflwes
Fluxessuchasresin;theyareusedfor thoseapplications
whereit is not possibleto
removeanycorrosiveresidueby washing,for example,electricalconnections.
Unfortunatelypassivefluxesdo not removeoxidefilms to anyappreciable
extent,
theyonly preventthemfrom reformingduringthe solderingprocess.Thereforethe
initiat mechanicalscouringofthe jqint faceshasto bevery thorough.

,r? t/;2) +50,- ,'"i,! dun'A'iu

3'ub

'-j))Je

),"ryu''n

Hard solderingis the generalterm usedfor silversolderingandbrazing,andit cartbe

definedas;
A processofjoining metalsin whicha moltenfiller metalis drawnby capillary
attractioninto the spacebetweentwo closelyadjacentsurfacesto bejoined.
As in soft solderingonly the filler metal(solder)becomesmoltenandtheparentmetal
remainssolid.Hard soldershavea meltingtemperature
belowthat of the parentmetal.
However,this meltingtemperature
rangeis well abovethat of soft solder(generally
above5000C)anda solderingiron cannotbeused.Theheatrequiredfor the processis
providedby someform of gasblow-pipe.Naturalgasfrom the mainssupplyor
bottledgas(propane)may beused.
A hardsolderedjoint is muchstrongerthana soft solderedjoint. Specialfluxesare
requiredfor the hardsolderingprocess,andthe flux mustmatchthe filler alloy being
used.Suitablefluxesaresuppliedby the manufacturers
of hardsoldersandbrazing
spelter,andtheir instructionsshouldbe carefullyfollowed.Hard solderfluxesare
usuallysuppliedaspowdersandhaveto be mixed into a pastewith water before
applyingto thejoint.
The successof all hardsolderingprocesses
dependsuponthe following conditions;
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

(0

selectionof a suitablefiller alloy which hasa meltingrangeappreciably

lowerthanthe parentmetalsbeingjoined,
thoroughcleanliness
of the surfaceto bejoined by hardsoldering,
completeremovalof the oxidefilm from thejoint surfacesbeforeand
during the hard solderingby meansof a suitableflux,
'
complete'wetting' of thejoint surfacesby the moltenfiller alloy. Whena
surfaceis 'wetted' by a liquid, a continuousfilm of the liquid remainson
that surfaceafterdraining.This conditionis essentialfor hardsoldering
andthe flux, having removedthe oxide film, must completelywet thejoint
surfaces.This 'wetting' actionby the flux assiststhe spreadingandfeeding
of the moltenfiller alloy into thejoint by capillaryaction.This ensuresa
completelyfi lled jo int.
sincethe moltenfiller alloy is drawninto thejoint by capillaryattraction,
the spacebetweenthejoint surfacesmustbe kept to a minimum and it
mustalsobekept constant.Any local increasein the gapcanpresenta
barrierto the feedingof the filler alloy. This will preventthejoint from
beinguniformly filled, resultingin seriouslossof strength.
meltingthe filler alloy aloneis not suffrcientto producea soundjoint. The
parentmetalmustitself be raisedto brazingtemperaturesothatthe filler
alloy meltson cominginto contactwith thejoint surfacesevenafterthe
flame hasbeenwithdrawn.

Unlike welding,dissimilarmetalsandalloysmay bejoined by hardsoldering.For

example:copperto brass,steelto brass,mild steelto malleablecastiron, etc.
I
Silver solders
Theseareexpensivematerialssiricethey containpreciousmetalsilver.However,they
producestrongandductilejoints andareusedfor the finestwork asthe melting

temperaturerange is suffrciently low not to aflect the parent metal, and a very neat
joint can be made.

ffifn
ffi

:-:

,....J?
-t J4"-

NV lN
a-)_-E
I

-,--;-[J

---E-l

--_----

ls'--

-=Ytk
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---t,rr'i](

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r1.4

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--U;Z ^ :--:r.1.::rj:=-"r

Types of hard solderedand brazedjoints

Fire bticks ot othet suitable

irsulating
mateials
arc
packed arcund the component
to be bQzed, fhis helps to
contain and rcflect the heat
supplied by the tolch.

Hand torch in use with brazing hearth

Brazing spelters
Thesea.rebrassalloys and are the oldest alloys used. It is from the use of thesebrass
alloys that'braztng' gets its name.These ospelters'make the strongestjoints but they
also have the highest melting temperatures.They are mainly used for brazng copper,
steel and malleable cast iron components.

3.

Permanentjoints (fusion-wetding)

In the soldering and brazing processesdescribedabove,the joints axemade by a thin

film of metal that has a lower melting point and inferior strengththan the metals being
joined. In fusion welding any additional material addedto the joint has a similar
composition and strengthto the metals being joined. The diagram below shows the
principle of fusion welding where not only the filler metal but also the edgesof the
componentsbeing joined are melted. The molten metals fuse together and, when
solid, form a homogeneousjoint whose strengthis equal to the metalsbeing joined.

wetdins
Beror
fill-''"'"''"*'

N%
SINGLE VEE SUT|

rcquires extrc metal

After

welding

fhe edges of vee drc melted and fused

togethet with the molten fillet metal

Ory-acetylenewelding
In this processthe heatsourceis a mixure of oxygeqandacetyleneburningto
producea flamewhosetemperature
canreach3 250uCandthis is abovethe melting
point of mostmetals.Sincethe gasesarestoredunderhigh pressureandform highly
flammableandevenexplosivemixtures,the equipmentmustbe handledwith great
care.Oxy-acetylene
weldingequipmentmustonly beusedby personswho havebeen
fully instructedin the operatingandsafetyprocedures
recommended
by the Home
Office andby the equipmentsuppliers,or by traineesunderclosesupervisionby such
a qualifiedperson.
)ylidder contents gaug6
--n)utlel

Outlet pressurg gauge

Cylinder contents gauge

prgssu.9

P16ssurs

.egulating scrw
Pressurg rgguleting screw

of bl ow pi pe

Thi s i s the easi esttechni que

for a ri ght handed operator.
It is usd for sheet metal
The l eftw ard method of w el di ng

Acatylne
(cylinder
painted
maroon)

black)

bl ow pi pe

cn7sen+lye-r'*e-: erPL"ion
L)-6e-

Newr

(r> rt\'

oxf3vn

'$rtr'!t'r-

Movement of w i re

Used for thicker Dlate

Gives rather better
penetration
The ri ghtw ard method of w el di ng

fal The neutral flame

/
t

/'tu'h'tsu'dineion''@6

fbl

Theoxidisingflame

-=:;-:--'-'
----

lcJ The carburising flame

oxy'
acetylenewelding
flame conditions

No flux is requiredwhenweldingferrousmetalsastheproductsof combustionfrom

the gasesprotectthe moltenweld pool from atmospheric
oxygen.Thethreetypesof
flame producedby the welding t6rch are shownabove,andthe neutralflame is the
onenonnallyusedwhenweldingferrousmetals.

Metallic drc welding

This is a fusion welding processwhere the heat energyrequired to melt the edgesof
the componentsbeing joined and also the filler rod is supplied by an electric arc. The
arc is the name given to the prolonged spark struck betweenthe two electrodes.In this
processthe filler rod forms one electrodeand the work forms the other electrode.The
filler rod/electrodeis coatedwith a flux that melts and shieldsthe joint from
atmospheric oxygen at the very high temperatures involved. (Average arc temperature
is about 6 000uC).The flux also stabilisesthe arc and preventsthe rod from shortcircuiting againstthe sidesof the joint when welding thick metal.
A transformer is used to reducethe mains voltage to a low voltage, heavy current
supply that is not only safe,but suitable for welding. As with gas welding, arcwelding equipment must not be usedby untrained personsexcept under close
supervision.The dangerswith arc welding arise from the very high temperaturesand
very heavy electric currents involved.
malnsi supply
Llve

J,,
.(-

Fusec

H;

L
1

O r y- !c.tyl cn .

rimary cablos

,&

/D,iillotrllic

w .l d i n g

.rc w.lding

Comparison of oxy-acetyleneand metallic arc welding

l

Currenl conttol

Wolding set
rods holdsl

/,

El'ctto

Manual
metal-arc welding
cir cu it di agram

Ret rrn currgnt cabF

Esnh

Metal i".4_g (MIG) welding

3f .;Of";l
In MIG weldfuigthe weld areais shieldedby an effectivelyinert atmosphere
of argon,
heliunl carbondioxide,or variousothergasmixtures.The consumable
barewire is
fed automaticallythroughanozzleinto the weld arc.

Shieldinggas
Currentconductor

Travel

Wire guide and

contacttube
Solidified
weldrnetal

.
"t"[:'lJ"to
The MIG processis suitablefor welding a variety of ferrousandnonferrousmetals
andis usedextensivelyin the metal-fabricationindustry.Becauseof the relatively
simplenatrueofthe prooess,the training of the operatorsis easy.The processis
versatile,rapid, andeconomical,andwelding productivity is very high.
Feed control
Control system

Gasout
Workpiece

Wire

Shielding.
gas.
source

Gun control

Gun

Voltage
control