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\title{DC motor}
\author{2011--1!"#2011--1!$#2011--1!%#2011--1!&#2011--
1!!}
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\section{)*+ ,-))-.*+/ 0-1-2}
\section{340D.40 D5)-67+2}
\section{*+682 9:927}
)*+ ,-))-.*+/ 0-1-2
De;inition<
)ine ;ollo=er is a machine that can ;ollo= a path> 2he path can (e ?isi(le
like a (lack line on a =hite sur;ace @or ?ice-?ersaA or it can (e in?isi(le like
a magnetic ;ield>
9cope o; the 6roBect<
2his proBect ;ocuses at designing and (uilding the line ;ollo=er ro(ot and
implement 6*D controller> 2here;ore# this ro(ot =ill co?er the scopes as
;ollo=<
1> Design line ;ollo=er ro(ot using 927"2)100 7icrocontroller>
2> 6*D controller implementation through programming in 927"2)100 ('
using (asic language>
"> *n the end o; proBect# ro(ots mo?ement =ith 6*D and =ithout 6*D
controller (' inspecting the pattern o; mo?ement o; the ro(ot =hile
;ollo=ing the track>
340D.40 D5)-67+2
2he line ;ollo=er is a sel;-operating ro(ot that detects and ;ollo=s a line that is dra=n on
the ;loor >2he line ;ollo=er ro(ot using 6*D controller is a sel;-operating s'stem that
detects and ;ollo=s track dra=n on the ;loor> 2he track consists o; a (lack tape on =hite
sur;ace or ?ice ?ersa> 2he control s'stem senses the line and maneu?ers the ro(ot to sta'
on course =hile constantl' correcting the =rong mo?es using 6*D control# thus might
;orming e;;ecti?e controlled s'stem>
1asic -peration<
2he (asic operations o; line ;ollo=er are as ;ollo=s<
1> Capture line position =ith optical sensors mounted at ;ront end o; the ro(ot> ,or this a
com(ination o; *0 )DC9 and phototransistor called an optical coupler has (een used>
0eDuirement ;or line sensing process are high resolution and high ro(ustness>
2> 0o(ot reDuires steering mechanism ;or tracking> 2=o motors go?erning =heel motion
are used ;or achie?ing this task>
2his line ;ollo=ing ro(ot =ill easil' lea?e its track ;rom the (lack line dra=n on the ;loor
(ecause it is an open loop s'stem> 2his pro(lem =ill make the motion o; the ro(ot to (e
rough>)ine ;ollo=ing ro(ot e?en though ;ollo=s the (lack line its motion still reDuires to
(e impro?ed>4pplication o; Digital 6*D algorithm can smooth the tracking motion> 6*D
control is a closed loop s'stem# =hich =ill pro?ide ;eed(ack and correct the error that
occurs =ith ;ast response>
*+682 9:927
9ensors<
2he ro(ot uses *0 sensors to sense the lineE an arra' o; ;i?e *0 )Ds @2FA and sensors
@0xA#;acing the ground used in this setup> 4n analog signal is o(tained in output#
depends on the amount o; light re;lected (ack>
2he sensors on the le;t named as )1# )2# )"# )$ and 01# 02# 0"# 0$#0% on the
right side>
4ssumption should (e considered that =hen a sensor is on the line it reads 0 and =hen it
is o;; the line it reads 1>2he microcontroller correspondence to the algorithm gi?en (elo=
decides the next mo?ement#tr'ing to position the ro(ot such that )1 and 01 (oth read
Gero and the rest read one>.ith sensors# ro(ots can react and respond to changes in their
en?ironment in =a's that appear intelligent or li;e-like>
*n;rared 9ensor<
2he *0 9ensor-9ingle is a general purpose proximit' sensor> 2he module consist o; a *0
emitter and *0 recei?er pair> 2he high precision *0 recei?er al=a's detects an *0 signal>
2he output o; sensor remains high i; it is *0 ;reDuenc' and lo= other=ise> 2he on-(oard
)D indicator helps the user ;or checking status o; the sensor =ithout using an'
additional hard=are> 2he po=er consumption in this module is lo=> *tCs output is digital
in nature> *; the orientation o; (oth 2F and 0x )DCs is parallel to each other# such that
(oth are ;acing out=ards# then their sensiti?it' is at maximum> *; the' get mo?ed a=a'
;rom each other# such that the' are inclined to each other soldered at the end# then their
sensiti?it' reduces> 2he output o; *0 recei?er goes lo= =hen it recei?es *0 signal> 2his
causes the output pin lo= since# though the *0 )D is continuousl' transmitting# due to
a(sence o; o(stacle# nothing is re;lected (ack to the *0 recei?er> 2he indication )D is
o;;> .hen an o(stacle encountered# the output o; *0 recei?er goes lo=E o(stacle sur;ace
re;lects *0 signal>

9trategies o; *0 sensors<
2here are di;;erent common strategies ;or *0 9ensor#=e ha?e used the re;lecting strateg'>
0e;lectance Con;iguration<
2he re;lecti?e in;rared sensor includes a source o; light ;rom the in;rared emitter )D
and a light detector ;rom the photodiode or phototransistor arranged in package> *n;rared
emitter @)DA emits light thus acting as a source> .hen the light reaching on o(Bect# it is
re;lected (ack to the source> 4 detector at the source =ill recei?e the re;lected light and
indicate that an o(Bect is present>
4rrangement o; sensors<
4n arra' o; sensors arranged in a straight ro= pattern is (olted under the ;ront o; the
ro(ot> *t locates the position o; line (elo= the ro(ot>.e can use an' num(er o; sensors> *;
=e ha?e lo= num(er then our ro(ot mo?ement is not smooth and it ma' ;ace pro(lems
during sharp turns> *; higher num(er o; sensors =ere# used ro(ot mo?ement =ill (ecome
smooth and relia(le ;or sharp turnsE it reDuires complex programming ;or micro-
controller and reDuires more hard=are# =hich is its disad?antage> 2hus# optimum num(er
o; sensors reDuired>
2he distance (et=een sensors depend on
1> +o o; sensors used
2> .idth o; straight line @distance (et=een sensors should (e less than =idth o; lineA>
"> Distance (et=een sensors ma' not (e constant @it depends on the logicA>
5oltage 0egulator H!0%<
5oltage regulators con?ert ;ixed DC output ?oltage ;rom ?aria(le 4C> H!0% and H!12 are
commonl' used> H!0% gi?es output ;ixed %5 DC ?oltage i; input ?oltage is in range o;
H>%5 to "%5> 2he' help to maintain a stead' ?oltage le?el despite ?ar'ing current
demands and input ?oltage ?ariations> *; input ?oltage is IH>% 5 then regulation =ill (e
improper i>e> i; input is &5 then output is %5 or $>!5# (ut there are parameters ;or the
?oltage regulators like maximum output current capa(ilit'# and line regulation etc> that
=onJt (e proper> .e ha?e used H!0%>
2he heat sink can (e seen a(o?e the ?oltage regulator (1-input, 2-gnd, 3-output).
Coupling capacitors are good ;or regulation>2here is no reDuirement ;or it in normal case>
*; H!0% used in analog circuit capacitor one should use# else the noise in the output
?oltage =ill (e high> 2hese are the mainl' a?aila(le H!xx *CCs =hich are H!0%#
H!0K#H!12#H!1%#H!2$# high sensiti?e>2he internal diagram o; ?oltage regulator is sho=n
(elo=>
-ptocouplers<
*t is a de?ice containing light-emitting and light-sensiti?e components# used
to couple isolated circuits>
7echanism o; -ptocouplers<
2he main ;unction o; an opto-isolator is to (lock high ?oltages and ?oltage
transients# so that a surge in one part o; the s'stem =ill not disrupt or destro'
another part o; the circuit> -pto-couplers allo= a signal to (e sent in digital
@some analogA (et=een circuits> 2his isolation used to take place using
isolation trans;ormers ?ia inducti?e coupling (et=een input and out sides
separated (' a dielectric>.e used 6C!1H in our design>there is a diode and a
transistor in this optocoupler>Di;;erent con;igurations @common
collector#common (ase#common emitterAo; this transistor can (e made>.e
con;igured the transistor as common emitter i>e># input has (een applied at
the (ase and output is taken ;rom collector>Collector is connected to 5cc
@%5A through 10kohms resistance>.e applied a 6.7 at (ase o; transistor
through diode in such a =a' =hen pulse amplitude is high#transistor is in
saturation mode so output at the collector terminal is 5C@satAL0>25>.hen
pulse amplitude is lo=#transistor is in cuto;; mode so the output at collector
terminal is %5>
60-C99*+/ 9:927
6.7 @6ulse .idth 7odulationA <
*n this experiment# =e ha?e applied 6.7 @6ulse .idth 7odulationA mechanism to
control the speed o; a motor> 8sing 6.7 control# the po=er consumption can (e reduced
and most importantl' a 6.7 control signal can (e generated (' a microcontroller ?er'
easil'>
7echanism o; 6.7<
.e ha?e con;igured p=m modes on pin 6C! and 6CK o; microcontroller> these pins =ere
con;igured (ecause in the microcontroller )Ds are also integrated =ith these pins so it
=as eas' to o(ser?e p=m on the controller>.e ha?e selected mode1 ;or (oth the pins ('
using -Cx7 (its in the CC702 register> 4lso 6.7 is con;igured acti?e lo= i>e> motor
runs =hen )D is o;; and ?ice ?ersa>-utput is made capture comparea(le using ccer
register> 4t the start o; con;iguration =e ha?e disa(led the timer# a;ter con;iguring the
timer =e =ill ena(le it using C0 register>Clock ;or the timer is ena(led using
0CCM4611+0 register> =e used internal clock ;or p=m timer =hich is "273G# (ut
internal clock is di?ided (' prescalar ?alue to get the output ;reDuenc' eDual to 13G>Dut'
c'cle can (e set using 400 and CC0 registers>
-82682 9:927
7otor Dri?er @)2K"DA<
7otor dri?er is a current enhancing de?iceE it can also (e act as 9=itching De?ice> 2hus#
a;ter inserting motor dri?er among the motor and microcontroller> 7otor dri?er taking the
input signals ;rom microcontroller and generate corresponding output ;or motor>
.e ha?e used )2K"D>2his is a motor dri?er *C that can dri?e t=o motor simultaneousl'>
9uppl' ?oltage @5ssA is the 5oltage at =hich =e =ish to dri?e the motor> /enerall'# &5
;or dc motor and & to 125 ;or gear motor are used# depending upon the rating o; the
motor> )ogical 9uppl' 5oltage deciding =hat ?alue o; input ?oltage should (e considered
as high or lo= >9o i; =e set )ogical 9uppl' 5oltage eDuals to N%5# then -0>"5 to 1>%5
=ill (e considered as *nput )o= 5oltage and 2>"5 to %5 is taken into consider as *nput
3igh 5oltage>
7echanism o; 7otor Dri?ers @)2K"DA<
2o control the DC motor# 'ou need to suppl' su;;icient po=er @currentA to the motor>
*n most cases# the microprocessor can act as a ?oltage source# @output highL%5 pro?ided
that high impedance o; loadA> 3o=e?er to dri?e a motor# the current deli?ered (' the
microprocessor is not su;;icient to dri?e the motor# thus external source =ith suita(le
current ampli;ication is needed> *n this experiment# =e use an *C )2K"D to act as the
current ampli;ier and to dri?e the motor> 2he )2K"D supports t=o outputs and can dri?e
t=o motors at the same time>*n this experiment#=e ha?e used t=o DC
dri?ers to rotate t=o DC motors indi?iduall' in order to pre?ent the *C ;rom (urning out
(ecause o; high current ratings o; motor>1ut the motors that =e ha?e used ha?e current
dra=ing capa(ilit' =ithin the sa;et' limits o; the *C#so#using t=o *Cs ;or motor dri?ing
purpose is Bust a precaution>2he dri?ers =e ha?e used can dri?e current upto &00m4 and
=e can appl' $>%-"&5 at pin ! o; )2K"D>*n this =a' =e can dri?e the motor at the
reDuired ?oltage>
lectric 7otor<
7otor is a de?ice that con?erts an' ;orm o; energ' into mechanical energ' or imparts
motion> *n constructing a ro(ot# motor usuall' pla's an important role (' gi?ing
mo?ement to the ro(ot> *n general# motor operating =ith the e;;ect o; conductor =ith
current and the permanent magnetic ;ield> 2he conductor =ith current usuall' producing
magnetic ;ield that =ill react =ith the magnetic ;ield produces (' the permanent magnet
to make the motor rotate> 2here are generall' three (asic t'pes o; motor# DC motor# e?en
ser?omotor and stepper motor# =hich are al=a's (eing used in (uilding a ro(ot>
DC 7otor<
2he DC motor is a de?ice that con?erts electrical energ' into mechanical energ'> 2he DC
motor consist a rotating armature in the ;orm o; an electromagnet> 4 rotar' s=itch kno=n
as commutator re?ersing the direction o; the electric current t=ice e?er' c'cle to ;lo=
through the armature so that the poles o; the electromagnet push and pull against the
permanent magnets on the outside o; the motor> 2he armature electromagnet passes the
poles o; the permanent magnets# since using the poles# the commutator re?ersing the
polarit' o; the armature electromagnet>During that instant s=itch o; polarit'# inertia
actuates the classical motor going in the proper direction>
7athematical *nterpretation<
0otational po=er @6rA is gi?en ('<
6rL 2orDue @2A O 0otational 9peed @A
i>e>#
6r is constant ;or DC motor ;or a constant input electrical po=er> 2hus torDue @2A is
in?ersel' proportional speed @A>,or increase in the ?alue o; torDue# =e ha?e to loose
speed#as
Controllers<
*n a process control s'stem controllerCs ;unction is to in;luence the control s'stem
through control signals so that the ?alue o; the controlled ?aria(les eDual to that o; the
?alue o; the re;erence> Controller can (e kno=n as the P1rainQ o; process control s'stem>
Controller generates a control signal sending to ;inal control element depending upon the
de?iation (et=een the set point and the measured ?alue o; the controlled
?aria(le>Controller mode is the =a' in =hich the controller responds to de?iation>
6*D Controller<
6roportional-*ntegral-Deri?ati?e @6*DA control is the most common control algorithm
used in industr' and has (een uni?ersall' accepted> 2he 6*D controller attri(utes are
partl' to their ro(ust per;ormance in a =ide range o; operating conditions>
6*D 4lgorithm<
4 6*D algorithm consists o; three (asic coe;;icients< proportional# integral and deri?ati?e>
2hese gains are ?aried to achie?e an optimal s'stem response>
2he (asic structure o; a s'stem =ith 6*D control implemented is illustrated (elo=> 2he
s'stem output @also called the process ?aria(leA =ith a sensor and compared to the
reading to the re;erence ?alue @also called the set pointA> 0e;erence and the measured
output are compared and the result is an error ?alue =hich is used in calculating
proportional# integral# and deri?ati?e responses> 9umming the three responses to o(tain
the output o; the controller> 2he output o; the controller is used as an input to the s'stem
'ou =ish to control# changing some aspect o; the s'stem> ,or example# i; motor is
controlled# the controller =ould pro?ide more or less current> 2he output o; the s'stem
gets measured and the process continues>
*teration o; the control loop can (e kno=n as completion o; the process in single time>
4;ter )aplace trans;er =e get#
.here
Rp = 6roportional gain
R*L *ntegral gain
RDL Deri?ati?e gain
e< rrorL9et point S6rocess 5alue>
t < *nstantaneous time
tI< *ntegral time
tD< Deri?ati?e time
6roportional controller<
2he proportional term is produced# in =hich an output ?alue that is proportional to the
present error ?alue> 2he proportional response is adBusted (' multipl'ing the error =ith a
constant Kp# called proportional gain constant>
2he proportional term is gi?en as<
-r
4 high proportional gain resulting in a large change in output ;or a gi?en change o; the
error> *; the proportional gain is ?er' high# the s'stem (ecomes unsta(le> .hereas# a
small gain results in a small output response to a large input error and a lo= responsi?e or
less sensiti?e controller> *; the proportional gain is much less# the control action ma' (e
too small =hen responding to the s'stem distur(ances> 2uning theor' and industrial
practice implies that# the proportional term must contri(ute to the (ulk o; the output>
*ntegral controller<
2he contri(ution o; the integral term is proportional to (oth the magnitude o; the error
and the duration o; error> *n a 6*D controller the integral is the sum o; the instantaneous
error o?er time and gi?es the accumulated o;;set that should ha?e (een pre?iousl'
corrected> 4ccumulated error gets multiplied (' the integral gain @RiA and added to the
controller output>
2he integral term is gi?en ('<
-r
2he integral term accelerates the mo?ement o; the process to=ards the set point and
eliminates the residual stead'-state error =hich occurs =ith a pure 6roportional
controller> *ntegral term responds to accumulated errors o; the past# it can result the
present ?alue to o?ershoot the set point ?alue>
Deri?ati?e Controller<
Deri?ati?e controller is used in the process =here o;;set ?alue is accepta(le# =here some
anticipation can (e considered and should ha?e lo= noise> 2he eDuation o; 6D Controller
is<
2he ideal trans;er ;unction o; 6D controller is gi?en ('<
6roportional *ntegral Deri?ati?e Controller @6*DA<
6*D control is deri?ati?e action in nature# also kno=n as the rate action# or pre-act> *ts
purpose is ;or anticipating =here the process is headed through looking at the time rate
change o; the error#and its deri?ati?e>2he eDuation is gi?en as<
.here tD>L deri?ati?e @or rateA time> >2he 6*D controller contains three terms# Rc or 61#
t* and tD# need to (e adBusted# @tunedA to o(tain satis;actor' control> 2he deri?ati?e action
pro?ides controller the a(ilit' to anticipate the direction o; the process that is# to through
calculation o; the deri?ati?e o; the error>
60-/0477*+/ 4+D 9*78)42*+/
2he program code acts as the decision-maker em(edded in the micro-controller deciding
a(out the outputs ;or particular set o; inputs> 2he ;ollo=ing program =as =ritten using
927"2)100>
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