Chemical substances: Formulas and names

The chemical formula of a substance is a notation that uses atom symbols with numerical subscripts to express the relative proportions of atoms of the different elements in the substance. e.g. Sodium chloride = NaCl; no subscript is written for the symbol, it is assumed to be 1. e.g. Calcium chloride = CaCl2 e.g. Aluminum oxide = Al2O3

(1) Molecular substances

A molecule is a definite group of atoms that are chemically bonded together, i.e. tightly bonded by attractive forces. A molecular formula gives the exact number of different atoms of an element in a molecule (e.g. H2O2, H2O, NH3, CO2 and C2H6O). A structural formula is a chemical formula that shows how the atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule (e.g. HOH). e.g. Molecular formula of ethanol is C2H6O, while its structural formula is CH3CH2OH An empirical formula is the formula of a substance written with the smallest integer (whole number) subscripts. The molecular formula tells you the precise number of atoms of different elements in the molecule. The empirical formula tells you the ratio of numbers of atoms in the compound. e.g. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is HO. Molecular models are aids in visualizing the shapes and sizes of molecules. 1- Ball-and-stick type shows bonds and bond angles clearly. 2- Space-filling type gives a more realistic feeling of the space occupied by the atoms. Polymers represent an important class of molecular substances. They are very large molecules that are made of a number of smaller molecules repeatedly linked together covalently. A monomer is a compound that is used to make a polymer and from which the polymer's unit arises. 1) Synthetic polymers Dacron (polyester) Nylon (polyamide) Plastic (PVC) Teflon (monomer is CF2CF2). 2) Natural polymers wool and silk (amino acids).

(2) Ionic substances

An ion is an electrically charged particle obtained from an atom or chemically bonded group of atoms by adding or removing
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electrons. The ion may be a cation or an anion, e.g. Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-, Therefore, an ionic compound is a compound composed of cations and anions, present in the form of a crystal, and whose formula is written by giving the smallest possible integer number of different ions in the substance, i.e. formula unit, e.g. NaCl & Fe2 (SO4)3.

(3) Organic compounds

It is a class of molecular substances that contain C combined with other elements, such as H, O and N, e.g. proteins, amino acids, DNA, enzymes, table sugar and antibiotics. The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons which are compounds that contain only H and C, e.g., C2H2 and benzene. A functional group is a reactive portion of an organic molecule that undergoes predictable reactions, e.g. OH, -CO-, -COOH, -NH2, -CONH-, -CHO-, -C-O-C, etc.

(4) Chemical nomenclature A) Ionic compounds

i- Monoatomic ions a monoatomic ion is an ion formed from a single atom. Cations : Monoatomic cations are named after the element, but for transition elements which have more than one cation, we use the Stock system of nomenclature, e.g. Fe2+ = iron (II), Fe3+ = iron (III), Cu+ = copper (I) or the suffix system, e.g. ferrous, ferric and cuprous. Anions: stem name of the element + ide, e.g. bromide. ii- Polyatomic ions a polyatomic ion is an ion consisting of 2 or more atoms chemically bonded together and carrying a net electric charge, e.g. Hg22+, NH4+ and CN-. Oxoanions / oxyanions: are anions consisting of oxygen, with another element called characteristic or central element. Those with the greater number of O atoms have the suffix -ate, while those with the lesser number of O atoms have the suffix ite, e.g. SO42- & SO32-. For more than 2 oxoanions of a given characteristic element, e.g. Cl ClOhypochlorite ion ClO3chlorate ClO2 chlorite ClO4 perchlorate Acid anions : are oxoanions attached to one (mono-) or more (di-) hydrogen atom(s), e.g. HPO42- monohydrogen phosphate, HCO3- hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate), HSO4- (hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate).
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 Thiosulfate (S2O32-): one O atom in the root ion name (SO42-) has been replaced by a S atom. - Name the following: Mg3N2 and Cr2 (SO4)3
- Write formulas for the following compounds: iron (II) phosphate and titanium (IV) oxide.

B) Binary molecular compounds

A binary compound is a compound composed of only 2 elements. Those which are composed of 2 nonmetals or metalloids are usually molecular and are named using a prefix system. The order of elements in the formula of a binary molecular compound is established by convention, i.e. the nonmetal or metalloid occurring first in the following sequence is written first in the formula of the compound. Element : B Si C Sb As P N H Te Se S I Br Cl O F Group : IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

This order lists the elements from the bottom of the group upward, then you place H between groups VA and VIA and move so that O is just before F. This order places the nonmetals and metalloids approximately in order of increasing nonmetallic character, e.g. NF3 and not F3N. Subscripts are denoted by Greek prefixes: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca. Examples: N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide SF4 sulfur tetrafluoride ClO2 chlorine dioxide Cl2O7 dichlorine heptoxide H2S dihydrogen sulfide (hydrogen sulfide is old & common) NO nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide) 1- Name the following compounds: N2O4, P4O6, PCl3, SiC and Cl2O6. 2- Give the formulas of the following compounds: boron trifluoride, carbon disulfide and sulfur trioxide.

C) Acids and corresponding anions

An acid is a molecular compound that yields H ions, H+, and an anion for each acid molecule when the acid dissolves in H2O.

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 An oxyacid or oxoacid is an acid comtaining H, O and another element called the central atom. The names of the oxoacids are related to the names of the corresponding oxoanions. Examples: Acid HNO3 HNO2 HClO HClO2 HClO3 HClO4 H2SO4 H3PO4 Anion suffix nitrate nitrite hypochlorite chlorite chlorate perchlorate sulfate phosphate
Name

nitric acid nitrous acid hypochlorous acid chlorous acid chloric acid perchloric acid Sulfuric acid Phosphoric acid

Some binary compounds of H and nonmetals yield acid solutions when dissolved in H2O. e.g. H2O HCl (g) HCl (aq) Hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid Q A Selenium has an oxoacid, H2SeO4, called selenic acid. What is the formula and name of the corresponding anion ? Selenate ion & SeO42-

D) Hydrates
A hydrate is a compound that contains water molecules weakly bound in its crystals. These substances are often obtained by evaporating an aqueous solution of the compound. evaporation aq sol. of copper (II) CuSO4 . 5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O sulfate (CuSO4) copper (II) sulfate anhydrous copper (II) pentahydrate (blue) sulfate (white crystals) Therefore, we can say that hydrates are named from the anhydrous compound, followed by the word hydrate with a prefix to indicate the no. of H2O molecules per formula unit if the compound. e.g. Epsom salt = MgSO4 . 7 H2O: magnesium sulfate heptahydrate Washing soda has the formula Na2CO3. 10H2O. what is the chemical name?

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E) Writing and balancing chemical equations

A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in terms of chemical formulas. Ex. 1 : State/phase (4 types) coefficient 2 Na(s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s) yield reactant product A reactant is a starting substance in a chemical reaction. A product is a substance that results from the reaction. Labels to indicate the phase are: (g) = gas, (l) = liquid, (s) = solid, (aq) = aqueous (water) solution. Ex. 2 : decomposition of NaNO3(s) 2 NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g) Pt 2 H2O2 (aq) 2 H2O (l) + O2 (g) In order to balance an equation, you select coefficients that will make the number of atoms of each element equal on both sides of the equation. It is preferable to write the coefficients so that they are the smallest whole numbers possible. The following method is called balancing by inspection which is essentially a trial-and-error method. Ex. Combustion of propane third first second

C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O Rule: Balance first the atoms for elements that occur in only one substance on each side of the equation 1) 4 H3PO3 3 H3 PO4 + PH3 The key lies in O which occurs in only a substance on each side of the equation. Use the no. of atoms on the left side of the arrow (3) as the coefficient of the substance containing that element on the right side, and vice versa. 2) Ca + 2H2O Ca (OH)2 + H2 3) Fe2 (SO4)3 + 6NH3 + 6H2O 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3(NH4)2 SO4 Balance the following equations: 1) Ca3(PO4)2 + H3PO4 Ca(H2PO4)2 2) As2S3 + O2 As2O3 + SO2
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Chapter III Chemical Calculation and Stoichiometry

(1) Mass and moles of substance
Molecular weight (MW) is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. It is, therefore, the average mass of a molecule of that substance expressed in amu. e.g. MW of H2O = 18.0 amu (2 x 1.0 amu H + 16.0 amu O) Formula weight (FW) is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a formula unit of the compound, whether molecular or not. e.g. Formula weight of NaCl, FW = 58.44 amu (22.99 amu Na + 35.45 amu Cl). It is ionic and so strictly speaking the expression molecular weight has no meaning. On the other hand, the molecular weight and the formula weight calculated from the molecular formula of a substance are identical. Q , Calculate the FW of chloroform, CHCl3, and iron (III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3 to 3 significant figures using a table of atomic weights. A, CHCl3 Fe2(SO4)3 1 x AW C = 12.0 amu 2 x AW Fe = 2 x 55.8 = 111.6 amu 1 x AW H = 1.0 amu 3 x AW S = 3 x 32.1 = 96.3 amu 3 x AW Cl = 106.4 amu 12 x AWO = 12 x 16.00 = 192.0 amu
______________ _____________

Rounding to 3 sf

119.4 amu 119

399.9 amu 4.00 x 10 amu

2

Mole (mol) is the quantity of a given substance that contains as many molecules or formula units as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. For example, 1 mole of C2H5OH contains the same number of C2H5OH molecules as there are C atoms in 12 g of C-12. The number of atoms in a 12 g sample of C-12 is called Avogadro's number (NA) being equal to 6.02 x 1023. Therefore, a mole of a substance contains Avogadro's number (6.02 x 1023) of molecules or formula units. e.g. 1 : Na2CO3 2 Na+ + CO321 mol 2 mol 1 mol 23 23 1 x 6.02 x 10 2 x 6.02 x 10 ions 1 x 6.02 x 1023 ions

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e.g. 2 : 1 mol of oxygen atoms contains 6.02 x 1023 oxygen atoms 1 mol of oxygen molecules contains 6.02 x 1023 oxygen molecules, i.e. 2 x 6.02 x 1023 oxygen atoms Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of the substance. C-12 has a molar mass of exactly 12 g/mol. For all substances, the molar mass in g/mol is numerically equal to the FW in amu. For example, C 2H5OH has a MW = 46.1 amu and a molar mass = 46.1 g/mol Q , What is the mass in g of a Cl atom and of a HCl molecule ? A, 1 mol of Cl atom 35.5 g/mol 6.02 x 1023 atoms ? 1 atom 35.5 g ________________ rn = = 5.90 x 10-23 g 6.02 x 1023 36.5 g ___________________ For 1 molecule of HCl = = 6.06 x 10-23 g 6.02 x 1023 mass ____________________ No. of moles = molar mass Q , How many grams of ZnI2 are there in 0.0654 mol ? A, mass ____________________ No. of mol = molar mass mass 0.0654 =
___________

mass = 20.9 g ZnI2

319 Q , How many molecules are there in a 3.46 g sample of HCl ? A , 1 mole of HCl molecules = 6.02 x 1023 molecules = 36.5 g n = 3.46 g 3.46 23 _________ n = 6.02 x 10 x = 5.71 x 1022 HCl molecules 36.5

(2) Determining chemical formulas

Percentage composition is the mass percentage of each element in the compound. Therefore, the mass percentage of A is the parts of A per 100 parts of the total, by mass.
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mass of A in the whole Mass % A = e.g. Calculate the mass percentages of the elements in HCHO to 3 significant figures. Then calculate how many grams of C are there in 83.5 g of HCHO. 1 mol CH2O 1 mol C, 2 mol H, 1 mol O = 30.0 g Therefore, 12.0 g ______________ %C = x 100 = 40.0% 30.0 g 2 x 1.01 g %H =
_________________ ___________________________________

x 100

mass of the whole

x 100 = 6.73%

30.0 g 16.0 g %O =
______________

x 100 = 53.3%

30.0 g The mass of C in 83.5 g HCHO is = 83.5 x 0.400 = 33.4 g

Elemental analysis % of C, H and O

You burn a sample of the compound of known mass and get CO 2 and H2O. Every mole of C in the compound ends up as a mole of CO 2 and every mole of H ends up as 1/2 mole of H2O. You calculate the mass % of C and H, and find the mass % of O by subtracting the mass % of C and H from 100. e.g. Acetic acid contains only C, H and O. A 4.24-mg of the acid is completely burned. It gives 6.21 mg of CO2 and 2.54 mg of H2O. What is the mass percentage of each element in acetic acid ? A, 1 mol CO2 1 mol C 1 mol H2O 2 mol H 44.0 g 12 g 18.0 g 2 x 1.01 g 6.21 mg X 2.54 mg X 6.21 x 12 x=
_____________

2.54 x (2 x 1.01) = 1.69 mg C x =

______________________

= 0.285 mg H

44.0

18.0

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1.69 % mass C =
________

0.285 x 100 = 39.9 % % mass H =

_______

x 100 = 6.72 %

4.24

4.24

% mass O = 100- (39.9 + 6.72) = 53.4% Therefore, the % composition of acetic acid is 39.9% C, 6.7% H and 53.4% O. The % composition of a compound leads directly to its empirical formula (or simplest formula) which is the formula of a substance written with the smallest integer (whole number) subscripts. It merely tells you the ratio of numbers of atoms in the compound. You can find the empirical formula from the composition of the compound by converting masses of the elements to moles. Compounds with different molecular formulas can have the same empirical formula, and such substances will have the same % composition. For example, acetylene C2H2, and benzene C6H6 have the same empirical formulas and, therefore, they have the same % composition : 92.3% C and 7.7% H, by mass. To obtain the molecular formulas from the latter data, molecular weights should be known. Q , In the previous example of acetic acid, determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula (MW 60.0 amu). A, C H O % composition AW Mol 39.9 12 3.33 3.33 1 : 6.7 1 6.6 3.33 2 53.4 16 3.34 3.33 1

Then, The empirical formula of acetic acid is CH2O. But the molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical formula. Therefore, the MW is some multiple of the empirical formula weight. Molecular weight = n x empirical formula weight molecular weight n =
_________________________________

empirical formula weight where "n" is the number of empirical formula units in the molecule. n = 60/30 = 2 , the molecular formula is (CH2O)2, or C2H4O2
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e.g. 1 : A compound of N and O is analyzed, and a sample weighing 1.587 g is found to contain 0.483 g N and 1.104 g O. What is the empirical formula of the compound ? A, N O Mass % AW Mol 0.483 g 14 0.0345 0.0345 1 1.104 16 0.06900 0.0345 2

NO2

e.g. : An analysis of sodium dichromate gives the following mass% : 17.5% Na, 39.7% Cr and 42.3% O. What is the empirical formula of the compound (note that it is ionic and hence has no molecular formula). A, Na Cr O Mass % AW Mol 17.5 23.0 0.761 0.761 1 2 39.7 52.0 0.763 0.761 1 2 42.8 16.0 2.68 0.761 : 3.52 you have to multiply all by 2 7 Na2Cr2O7

: :

(3) Stoichiometry : Quantitative relations in chemical reactions

Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. You may interpret a chemical equation either in terms of number of molecules (or ions or formula units) or in terms of number of moles, depending on your needs. For example, in the Haber process for producing NH3 we summarize these interpretations as follows : N2 + 3H2 2NH3 1 molecule 3 molecules 2 molecules (molecular interpr.) 1 mol 3 mol 2 mol (molar interpr.) 28.0 g 3 x 2.02 g 2 x 17.0 g (mass intepr.)

Rule: The number of moles involved in a reaction is proportional to the

coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.

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e.g. 1: Suppose that 4.8 mol H2 reacts with N2 to produce NH3. How many mol of NH3 can you produce ? A, H2 : NH3 3 : 2 4.8 3.2 mol e.g. 2: How much H2 (in kg) is needed to yield 907 kg of NH3 by the Haber process ? A, 9.07 x 105 g mol of NH3 = __________________ = 5.34 x 104 mol NH3 17.0 then, H2 : NH3 3 : 2 4 8.01 x 10 mol 5.34 x 104 and, mass (g) 4 ______________ 8.01 x 10 = 2.02 5 mass = 1.62 x 10 g H2, or 162 kg H2 e.g. 3 : Hematite, Fe2O3, is an important ore of Fe. The free metal is obtained by reacting hematite with CO in a blast furnace. How many grams of Fe can be produced from 1 kg Fe 2O3 ? A, Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3 CO2 (g) given 3 1.00 x 10 g 160 g mass __________ mol 12.5 = 55.8 mass = 698 g Fe e.g. 4 : Cl2 may be prepared in the laboratory by heating HCl with MnO 2. How many grams of HCl react with 5.00 g of MnO2 ? A, 4 HCl (aq.) + MnO2(s) 2 H2O (l) + MnCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g) given 5.00 g = 0.0575374 mol 86.9 mass (g) = 0.23 mol 36.5 mass = 8.40g HCl
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Limiting reactant; theoretical and % yields

The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant that is entirely consumed when a reaction goes to completion. A reactant that is not completely consumed is referred to as an excess reactant. Once one of the reactants is used up, the reaction stops, i.e. the moles of product are always determined by the starting moles of limiting reactant. e.g. 1 : In the burning of H2 in O2, suppose you put 1 mol H2 and 1 mol O2 into a reaction vessel. How many moles of H2O will be produced? A, 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O (g) given 1 mol 1 mol This would give : 1 mol 2 mol H2O H2O excess reagent least it is the limiting reagent Therefore, by the time 1 mol H2O is produced, all of the H2 is used up and the reaction stops e.g. 2: Zn metal reacts with HCl to give H2. If 0.30 mol Zn is added to HCl containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many mol of H2 are produced ? A, Zn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) given 0.30 mol 0.52 mol 0.30 mol H2 0.26 mol H2 excess reactant limiting reactant 0.26 mol H2 e.g. 3: In the production of acetic acid, O2 gas is bubbled into CH3CHO containing Mn (Ac)2 catalyst under P at 60oC. If 20.0 g CH3CHO and 10.0 g O2 were put into a reaction vessel, how many grams of HAc can be produced, and of the excess reactant remain after the reaction is complete? A, 2 CH3CHO (l) + O2 (g) 2 CH3COOH (l) given mass 20.0 g 10.0 g MW 44.1 32 mol 0.454 mol 0.3125 mol 0.454 mol HAc 0.625 mol HAc limiting reactant excess reactant 0.454 mol HAc
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mass (g) 0.454 mol HAc =

______________

60.1 mass = 27.3 g CH3COOH The amount of the excess reactant O2 left over based on the conversion of the moles of HAc to grams of O 2 (the quantity of O2 needed to produce this amount of HAc). O2 : HAc 1 2 0.227 mol 0.454 mol mass (g) _______________ 0.227 = 32 The mass of O2 consumed is = 7.26 g The mass of O2 remaining is = 10.0 7.26 = 2.7 g O2 The theoretical yield of product is the maximum amount of product that can be obtained by a reaction from given amounts of reactants. It is the amount that you calculate from the stoichiometry based on the limiting reactant. In practice, the actual yield of a product may be much less for several reasons : 1- Some product may be lost during the process of separating it from the final reaction mixture. 2- There may be other competing reactions that occur simultaneously with the reactant on which the theoretical yield is based. 3- Many reactions appear to stop before they reach completion, i.e. they give mixtures of reactants and products. It is important to know the actual yield from a reaction in order to make economic decision about a preparation method. The reactants for a given method may be too costly per kg, but if the actual yield is very low, the final cost can be very high. The percentage yield of product is the actual yield (experimentally determined) expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield (calculated) actual yield % yield =
________________________

x 100

theoretical yield For the e.g. of HAc 23.8 _________ % yield = x 100 = 87.2% 27.3

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Chapter IV Chemical reactions

(I) Ions in aqueous solution
Ionic theory of solutions by Arrhenius states that certain substances produce freely moving ions when they dissolve in H2O, and these ions conduct an electric current in an aqueous solution. 1- Pure water consists of molecules each of which is electrically neutral. Since each molecule carries no net electric charge, it carries no overall electric charge when it moves. Thus, pure water is a nonconductor of electricity. 2- If you dissolve NaCl in water, the Na+ and Cl- held strongly in the crystal lattice go into solution as freely moving ions. Suppose you dip electric wires that are connected to the poles of a battery into a solution of NaCl, the ions in solution begin to move, and these moving charges form the electric current in solution (note that in a wire, it is moving electrons that constitute the electric current). Therefore, an aqueous solution of ions is electrically conducting.

Electrolytes and nonelectrolytes

An electrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to give an electrically conducting solution. A nonelectrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to give a nonconducting or very poorly conducting solution. Electrolytes may be ionic, e.g. NaCl, and/or molecular as some molecular substances dissolve in water to form ions, e.g. HCl gas that dissolves to give HCl (aq), which in turn produces H+ & Cl- in aqueous solution (the solution of H+ & Cl- ions called hydrochloric acid). Nonelectrolytes are molecular substances, e.g. sucrose and methanol, the solution process occurs because molecules of the substance mix with molecules of H2O. Molecules are electrically neutral and cannot carry out electric current so the solution is electrically non-conducting.

When electrolytes dissolve in water they produce ions, but to varying extent
A strong electrolyte is an electrolyte that exists in solution almost entirely as ions. Most ionic solids that dissolve in H2O do so by going into the solution almost completely as ions, so they are strong electrolytes, e.g. NaCl whose dissolution in water is as follows : H2O NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

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A weak electrolyte is an electrolyte that dissolves in H2O to give a relatively small percentage of ions. They are generally molecular substances, e.g. NH3. Pure ammonia is a gas that readily dissolves in water and goes into solution as ammonia molecules NH3 (aq). The latter react with water to form NH4+ & OH- ions. NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Both NH4+ & OH- ions react with each other to give back NH3 & H2O molecules. NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq) NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) Both reactions, the original (forward) and its reverse, occur constantly and simultaneously. NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

From these reactions, just a small % of NH3 molecules ( 3%) have reacted at any given moment to form ions. Thus, NH3 is a weak electrolyte. Most soluble molecular substances are either nonelectrolytes or weak electrolytes except HCl (g) that dissolves in H2O to produce H+ & Cl- ions. HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) Since HCl dissolves to give almost entirely ions, HCl (or hydrochloric acid) is a strong electrolyte.

Solubility rules
a- All Li+, Na+, K+ & NH4+ salts are soluble. b- All acetates and nitrates are soluble. c- All chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble Except Ag+, Hg22+ and Pb2+ salts together with HgBr2 & HgI2. d- All sulfates are soluble Except Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+& Pb2+ together with Ag2SO4 & Hg2SO4. e- All carbonates, phosphates and sulfides are insoluble Except group IA & NH4+ f- All hydroxides are insoluble Except group IA & Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 & Ba(OH)2 Summary: Compounds that dissolve in water are soluble; those that dissolve little or not at all are insoluble. Soluble substances are either electrolytes or nonelectrolytes. Electrolytes can be strong or weak.
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Almost all soluble ionic substances are strong electrolytes. Soluble molecular substances usually are nonelectrolytes or weak electrolytes. NH3 is a molecular substance that is a weak electrolyte. Few molecular substances such as HCl dissolve almost completely as ions and are therefore strong electrolytes.

Molecular and ionic equations

(i) Molecular equation is a chemical equation in which the reactants and products are written as if they were molecular substances, even though they may actually exist in solutions as ions. It closely describes what you actually do in the laboratory or in an industrial process. Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) (ii) Complete ionic equation is a chemical equation in which strong electrolytes (such as soluble ionic compounds) are written as separate ions in the solution. The purpose of such an equation is to represent each substance by its predominant form in the reaction mixture. If the substance is a soluble ionic compound, it dissolves as individual ions (so it is a strong electrolyte) and you represent the compound as separate ions. If the substance is a weak electrolyte, it is present in solution primarily as molecules, so you represent it by its molecular formula. If the substance is an insoluble ionic compound, you represent it by the formula of the compound, not by the formulas of the separate ions in solution. Then,
Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3(s) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

(iii) Net ionic equation is an ionic equation from which spectator ions have been cancelled. A spectator ion is an ion in an ionic equation that does not take part in the reaction. In the above example, Na + and CO32ions appear on both sides of the equation. This means that nothing happens to these ions as the reaction occurs, so they are cancelled and the resulting equation is : Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3 (s) If you react Ca (NO3)2 and K2CO3 the net ionic equation will be the same as in the case of reacting Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3. Thus, the value of the net ionic equation is its generality. For example seawater contains Ca2+ & CO32- ions from various sources. Whatever the sources of these
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ions, you expect them to react to form a CaCO 3 ppt. In seawater, this ppt results in sediments of CaCO3, which eventually form limestone. e.g. Write a net ionic equation for each of the following molecular equations (1) 2 HClO4 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) Ca (ClO4)2 (aq) + 2 H2O (l) strong electrolyte soluble ionic compound (2) CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(l) molecular substance and weak electrolyte. A, You will need to convert the molecular equation to the complete ionic equation, and then cancel spectator ions to obtain the net ionic equation. For each ionic compound in the reaction use the solubility rules to determine if the compound will be soluble (in the solution as ions) or insoluble (present as an undissolved solid). An ionic compound should have (aq) after its formula if it is soluble or (s) if it is insoluble. (1) 2H+(aq) + 2ClO4-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2ClO4-(aq) + 2H2O (l)
soluble ionic compound non-or very strong electrolyte weak electrolyte H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l) (2) CH3COOH (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Na+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l) weak electrolyte soluble ionic compound strong electrolytes CH3COOH (aq) + OH (aq) CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l) strong electrolyte

(II) Types of chemical reactions

1- Precipitation reactions you mix solutions of 2 ionic substances to form a solid ionic substance (a precipitate). 2- Acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton (H+) between reactants. 3- Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants.

A- Precipitation reactions

A precipitation reaction occurs in aqueous solution because one product is insoluble. A precipitate is an insoluble solid compound formed during a chemical reaction in solution. You can predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur by writing it as a molecular equation and then it will have the form of an exchange reaction. Reference is then made to solubility rules followed by writing both complete and net ionic equations for the reaction.

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 An exchange (or metathesis) reaction is a reaction between compounds that, when written as a molecular equation, appears to involve the exchange of parts between the 2 reactants. In a precipitation reaction, the anions exchange between the 2 cations. e.g. Reaction between MgCl2 and AgNO3 a) Write a balanced molecular equation MgCl2 + 2AgNO3 2 AgCl + Mg (NO3)2 b) Refer to solubility rules and append the appropriate phase labels MgCl2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) 2 AgCl (s) + Mg (NO3)2 (aq) c) Write complete ionic equation
Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) 2 AgCl(s) + Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

d) Write net ionic equation Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (s) N.B. : If the reactants MgCl2 & AgNO3 are added in correct amounts and the white AgCl solid is filtered, the solution that passes through (the filtrate) will contain Mg(NO3)2, which you could obtain by evaporation of the H2O. Q, For each of the following, decide whether a precipitation occurs. If it does, write the balanced molecular equation, and then the net ionic equation. If no reaction occurs, write the compounds followed by an arrow and then NR (no reaction). a) aq. solutions of sodium chloride and iron (II) nitrate are mixed. b) aq. solutions of aluminum sulfate and sodium hydroxide are mixed. A, a) NaCl (aq) + Fe (NO3)2 (aq) NR b) Al3+ (aq) + 3 OH- (aq) Al (OH)3 (s)

B- Acid-base reactions

Acids have a sour taste while bases have a bitter taste and a soapy feel. They cause color changes in certain dyes called acid-base indicators which are dyes used to distinguish between acidic and basic solutions by means of the color changes they undergo in these solutions. Such dyes are common in natural materials, e.g. indicator acid base litmus red blue phenolphthalein colorless pink bromothymol blue yellow blue Acids and bases are defined according to different theories.

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1) Arrhenius theory An acid is a substance that produces H+ when it dissolves in H2O while a base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH-. e.g. H2O HNO3 (aq) H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) H2O NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

The limitation of this theory is that it tends to single out the OHion as the source of base character, when other ions or molecules can play a similar role (e.g. Na2CO3). 2) Bronsted-Lowry theory They consider acid-base reactions as proton-transfer reactions. An acid is the species (molecule or ion) that donates a H+ to another species in a proton-transfer reaction. A base is the species (molecule or ion) that accepts a proton in a proton-transfer reaction. e.g. 1 : In the reaction of NH3 with H2O, the latter is the acid and the former is the base because of H+ donation and acceptance, respectively. NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) base acid NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

e.g. 2 : In the dissolution of nitric acid in water HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) NO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) acid base hydronium ion Bear in mind that the H+ (aq) (hydrogen ion) and the H3O+ (aq) (hydronium ion) represent precisely the same physical ion.

Acids and bases strength

Acids and bases are classified as strong or weak, depending on whether they are strong or weak electrolytes. A strong acid is an acid that ionizes completely in water, it is a strong electrolyte, e.g. HCl (aq) and HNO3 (aq). A weak acid is an acid that only partly ionizes in water; it is a weak electrolyte, e.g HCN (aq)

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and HF (aq). These molecules react with H2O to produce a small % of ions in solution leaving the majority of the acid molecules unreacted. * HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) * HCN (aq) H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + CN- (aq) HF (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq) A strong base is a base that is present in aqueous solution entirely as ions, one of which is OH-, it is a strong electrolyte, e.g. NaOH or generally the hydroxides of groups IA & IIA elements except Be (OH)2. A weak base is a base that is only partly ionized in H2O; it is a weak electrolyte, e.g. ammonia. H2O NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq) When you write an ionic equation, you represent strong acids and bases by the ions they form and weak acids and bases by the formulas of the compounds. Q Identify each of the following compounds as a strong or weak acid or base LiOH - CH3COOH HBr HNO2 A, s.b. w.a. s.a. w.a.

Neutralization reactions

A neutralization reaction is a reaction of an acid and a base that results in an ionic compound (salt) and possibly water. Note that most ionic compounds other than hydroxides and oxides are salts. The salt formed consists of cations obtained from the base and anions obtained from the acid. We write molecular, complete ionic and net ionic equations * 2 HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) s.a. s.b. and H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l) * HCN (aq) + KOH (aq) KCN (aq) + H2O (l) their HCN (aq) + OH- (aq) CN- (aq) + H2O (l) w.a.

2 H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O (l)

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 Although H2O is one of the products in most neutralization reactions, the reaction of an acid with the base NH3 provides a prominent exception. * H2SO4 (aq) + 2 NH3 (aq) (NH4)2 SO4 (aq) acid base salt then H+ (aq) + NH3 (aq) NH4+ (aq) Q, Write the molecular equation and then the net ionic equation for the neutralization of nitrous acid, HNO2, by sodium hydroxide, both in aqueous solution. A, * molecular equation : HNO2 (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) w.a. s.b. * complete ionic equation :
HNO2(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + NO2-(aq) + H2O(l)

* net ionic equation : HNO2 (aq) + OH- (aq) NO2- (aq) + H2O (l) Acids may be monoprotic (only one acidic H atom per acid molecule) e.g. HCl & HNO3, or polyprotic (yielding 2 or more acidic hydrogens per molecule) e.g. H3PO4 is a triprotic acid. H3PO4 + NaOH H3PO4 + 2NaOH H3PO4 + 3NaOH Salts such as NaH2PO4 atoms and can undergo salts. NaH2PO4 + H2O Na2HPO4 + 2H2O Na3PO4 + 3H2O and Na2HPO4 that have acidic hydrogen neutralization with bases are called acid

Acid base reactions with gas formation

Certain salts, notably CO32-, SO32- and S2- react with acids to form a gaseous product. The resulting reaction is considered an exchange, or metathesis, reaction. Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2 Na2SO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + SO2 Na2S + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2S Q, A, Write the molecular and the net ionic equations for the reaction of ZnS & HCl ZnS (s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + H2S (g)
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C- Oxidation-reduction reactions

These are reactions involving a transfer of electrons from 1 species to another. If you dip an iron nail into a blue solution of CuSO4 it will become coated with a reddish-brown tinge of metallic copper. Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) Fe (s) + Cu2+ (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu(s) Iron was oxidized (lost electrons) and copper ions were reduced (gained electrons).

The oxidation number (or oxidation state) of an atom in a substance is the actual charge of the atom if it exists as a monoatomic ion, or a hypothetical charge assigned to the atom in the substance by simple rules. An oxidation-reduction reaction (or redox reaction) is one in which one or more atoms change oxidation number, implying that there has been a transfer of electrons, i.e. it is a reaction in which electrons are transferred between species or in which atoms change oxidation number. e.g. The combustion of Ca metal in O2 gas 2 Ca (s) + O2 (g) 2 CaO (s)

Oxidation-number rules
In molecular substances, we use these rules to give the approximate charges on the atoms. For example, in SO2 oxygen atoms tend to attract electrons, pulling them from other atoms (S in the case of SO2). As a result, an oxygen atom in O2 takes a ve charge relative to the S atom. The magnitude of the charge on an oxygen atom in a molecule is not a full -2 charge as in the O2- ion, but it is given an oxidation number of -2. For compounds and ions, the sum of oxidation numbers of the atoms is zero. This rule follows from the interpretation of oxidation numbers as "hypothetical" charges on the atoms. 1- Because any compound is electrically neutral, the sum of the charges on its atoms must be zero. 2- The sum of the oxidation number (hypothetical charges) of the atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion. 3- Oxygen is -2 in most of its compounds except H2O2 where the oxidation number of O = -1 4- Hydrogen is +1 in most of its compounds except in compounds with metals where the oxidation number of H = -1, e.g. NaH, CaH2 e.g. SO2 S + (-2 x 2) = 0 S = +4 HClO4 +1 + Cl (-2 x 4) = 0 Cl = +7 ClO3 Cl + (3 x -2) = -1 Cl = +5

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Describing oxidation-reduction reactions

In the reaction of Fe metal with CuSO4 solution Fe (s) + Cu2+ (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu (s) 0 +2 +2 0 reducing oxidizing agent agent This equation/reaction is the resultant of 2 half-reactions. A halfreaction is one of 2 parts of an oxidation-reduction reaction, one part of which involves a loss of electrons (or increase in oxidation number) and the other a gain of electrons (or decrease in oxidation number). Fe (s) Fe2+ (aq) + 2 electron (electrons lost by Fe) 2+ Cu (aq) + 2 electron Cu (s) (electrons gained by Cu2+) hence, Oxidation is the half-reaction in which there's a loss of electrons by a species (or an increase of oxidation number of an atom). Reduction is the half-reaction in which there's a gain of electrons by a species (or a decrease in the oxidation number of an atom). An oxidizing agent is a species that oxidizes another species; it is itself reduced, while a reducing agent is a species that reduces another species; it is itself oxidized.

Examples of oxidation-reduction reactions

a) Combination reaction it is a reaction in which 2 substances combine to form a third substance. Note that not all combination reactions are oxidation-reduction reactions. e.g. 2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s) redox 2 Sb (s) + 3Cl2 2 SbCl3 redox CaO (s) + SO2 (g) CaSO3 (s) not redox b) Decomposition reaction it is a reaction in which a single compound reacts to give 2 or more substances. Also, not all decomposition reactions are oxidation-reduction reactions. Often these reactions occur when the temperature is raised. e.g. 2HgO (s) 2 Hg (l) + O2 (g) redox 2KClO3 (s) 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g) MnO2 redox

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 CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

not redox

c) Displacement reaction (or single-replacement reaction) it is a reaction in which an element reacts with a compound displacing an element from it. Cu (s) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) Cu (NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag (s) Strip greenish-blue i.e. Cu displaces Ag in AgNO3 Cu (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag (s) Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) + Zn (s) + 2 H (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g) These reactions obey to the activity series of the elements, being a list of the elements in decreasing order of their ease of losing electrons during reactions in aqueous solution. The metals listed at the top are the strongest reducing agents (they lose electrons easily); those at the bottom, the weakest. Moreover, a free element reacts with the monoatomic ion of another element if the free element is above the other element in the activity series. Li K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Co Ni Pb H2 Cu Hg Ag Au

React vigorously with water and acids to give H2

React with acids to give H2

Do not react with acids to give H2

d) Combustion reaction it is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, usually with the rapid release of heat to produce a flame. The products include one or more oxides, i.e. oxygen changes oxidation number from 0 to -2.

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e.g. 1- Organic compounds burn in O2 or air to yield CO2 & H2O 2 C4H10 (g) + 13 O2 (g) 8 CO2 (g) + 10H2O (l) 2- Many metals burn in air, too, such as Fe wool 4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) 2 Fe2O3 (s) The rusting of iron wool is a similar reaction, although slower.

Balancing oxidation-reduction equations

a) Half-reaction method (ion-electron method) It consists of first separating the equation into 2 half-reactions, one for oxidation and the other for reduction. You balance each half-reaction, then combine them to obtain a balanced oxidation-reduction reaction. e.g. Zn (s) + Ag+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Ag (s ) not balanced 0 +1 +2 0 Balance the charge in each equation by adding electrons to the more +ve side to create balanced half-reactions. This is followed by multiplying each half-reaction by a factor (integer) so that when we add them together, the electrons cancel. Thus, 1 x (Zn Zn2+ + 2 electron) oxidation half-reaction 2 x (Ag+ + electron Ag)
_____________________________________________

reduction half-reaction

Zn + 2Ag+ Zn2+ + 2 Ag b) Electron-change method Zn + 2 Ag+ Zn2+ + 2 Ag 0 +1 +2 0 Q , Apply the half-reaction method to balance this equation Mg (s) + N2 (g) Mg3 N2 (s) A, Here, a molecular compound, N2, is undergoing reduction. When a species undergoing reduction or oxidation is a molecule, write the formula of the molecule in the half-reaction (do not split it up). Thus, 3 x (Mg Mg2+ + 2 electron) oxidation half-reaction 31 x (N2 + 6 electron 2N ) reduction half-reaction
________________________________________________

or

3 Mg + N2 (g) 3Mg2+ + 2N33 Mg (s) + N2 (g) Mg3N2 (s)

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(III) Working with solutions

When we dissolve a substance in a liquid, we call the substance the solute and the liquid the solvent. Consider NH3 solution. NH3 gas dissolves readily in H2O, and aqueous NH3 solutions are often used in the lab. In such solutions, NH3 gas is the solute and H2O is the solvent. The general term concentration refers to the quantity of solute in a standard quantity of solution. Qualitatively, we say that a solution is dilute when the solute concentration is low and concentrated when the solute concentration is high. a) Molarity (M) is the moles of solute dissolved in 1 L (1 dm3) of solution. moles of solute ____________________________ M = liters of solution The advantage of molarity as a concentration unit is that the amount of solute is related to the volume of solution. Rather than having to weigh out a specified mass of substance, you can instead measure out a definite volume of solution of the substance, which is usually easier. e.g. 1 : A sample of NaNO3 weighing 0.38 g is placed in a 50.0-mL volumetric flask. The flask is then filled with H2O to the mark on the neck, dissolving the solid. What is the molarity of the resulting solution ? A, mol of solute 0.38/85 _______________________ ______________ Molarity = = = 0.089 M vol. of solution 0.05 N.B.: Although very dilute solutions are possible, there is a limit as to how concentrated solutions can be. Therefore, any answer that leads to solution concentrations that are in excess of 20 M should be suspect. e.g. 2 : An experiment calls for the addition of 0.184 g of NaOH in aqueous solution. How many mL of 0.150 M NaOH should be added ? A, mol of solute _______________________ Molarity = vol of solution 0.150 = (0.184/40) / V V = 3.07 x 10-2 L = 30.7 mL

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Diluting solutions
Commercially available aqueous NH3 (28.0% NH3) is 14.8 M NH3. In order to prepare a solution that is 1.00 M NH3, you need to dilute the concentrated solution with a definite quantity of H2O. Note that the number of moles of solute in the container does not change when performing the dilution, only the concentration changes. Moles of solute = molarity x volume in liters = M V The relationship is: Initial Mi Vi = Mf Vf Final Note: You can use any volume units but both Vi and Vf must be in the same unit. e.g. You are given a solution of 14.8 M NH3. How many milliliters of this solution do you require to give 100.0 mL of 1.00 M NH3 when diluted? A, 14.8 x VmL = 1.00 x 100.0 V = 6.75 mL b) Normality (N) is the number of equivalents of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution. equivalents of solute ____________________________ N = liters of solution weight equivalent =
__________________________

equivalent weight The equivalent weight for M. wt 1- acids and bases =

______________________________________

no. of replaceable H or OH M. wt 2- redox =

_____________________________________

no. of transferred electrons e.g. 1 : Calculate the N of a solution containing 2.45 g of H2SO4 in 2.00 L of solution.

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A, wt. N =
______________

2.45 =
_________________

= 0.025

Eq wt V

98/2 x 2

e.g. 2 : How many grams of H2SO4 are contained in 3.00 L of 0.500 N solution ? A, wt. ________________ 0.5 = wt = 73.5 g 98/2 x 3 c) Molality (m) it is the number of moles of solute in 1 kg of solvent. moles of solute ________________________ m = kg of solvent Volume changes with changes in T oC whereas weight is independent of temperature; hence the molarity of a solution changes with T oC while the molality does not. In dilute solutions, molar and molal solutions are very nearly identical, but in more concentrated solutions, wide differences may be expected. e.g. What is the molality of a solution in which 49 g of H2SO4 (M wt = 98) is dissolved in 250 g of H2O ? A, 49/98 ______________ m = = 2.0 0.25 d) Mole fraction moles of solute mole fraction of solute = and moles of solvent mole fraction of solvent =
______________________________________________ ______________________________________________

moles of solute + moles of solvent

moles of solute + moles of solvent The sum of both should be 1 e.g. 1 : What are the mole fractions of solute and solvent in a solution prepared by dissolving 98 g H2SO4 in 162 g H2O ? A,
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mole fraction of H2SO4 = 1/10 = 0.1 and H2O = 0.9 e.g. 2 : What is the mole fraction of H2SO4 in a 7.0-molar solution of H2SO4 which has a density of 1.39 g/mL ? A, 1 L of this solution weighs 1390 g 7 moles of H2SO4 weigh 7 x 98 g 686 g weight of H2O in 1 L of solution 704 g moles of H2O = 704/18 = 39 moles mole fraction of H2SO4 = 7/39 + 7 = 0.15

4) Quantitative analysis
Analytical chemistry deals with the determination of composition of materials, i.e. the analysis of materials such as air, H2O, food, hair, body fluids, pharmaceutical preparations, and so forth. The analysis of materials is divided into : 1- Qualitative analysis involves the identification of substances or species present in a material, e.g. you might determine that a sample of H2O contains Pb2+ ion. 2- Quantitative analysis involves the determination of the amount of a substance or species present in a material, e.g. you might determine that the amount of Pb2+ ion in the sample of H2O is 0.067 mg/L. 1) Gravimetric analysis It is a type of quantitative analysis in which the amount of a species in a material is determined by converting the species to a product that can be isolated completely and weighed. Precipitation reactions are frequently used in gravimetric analysis. You determine the amount of an ionic species by precipitating it from solution. The formed precipitate is filtered from the solution, dried and weighed. The advantages of a gravimetric analysis are its simplicity (at least in theory) and its accuracy. The chief disadvantage is that it requires time-consuming work. e.g. Pb2+ in a sample of drinking H2O is determined gravimetrically in the form of white crystalline PbSO4 by the addition of Na2SO4 solution. The ppt is then dried and weighed. SO42- + Pb2+ PbSO4 e.g.: A 1.000-L sample of polluted H2O was analyzed for Pb2+ ion, by adding an excess of Na2SO4 to it. The mass of PbSO4 that precipitated

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was 229.8 mg. What is the mass of Pb in a liter of the H2O ? Give the answer as mg of Pb per liter of solution. A, 1st method Obtain the mass % of Pb in PbSO4 by dividing the molar mass of Pb by that of PbSO4, then multiply by the weight of PbSO4 207.2 g/mol % Pb =
_______________________

x 100 = 68.32 %

303.3 g/mol amount of Pb in sample = 229.8 mg x 0.6832 = 157.0 mg Pb The H2O sample contains 157.0 mg Pb/L 2nd method Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4 weight ? 229.8 mg MW 207.2 303.3 mol 0.758 0.758 wt (mg) ___________ 0.758 = 207.2 2) Volumetric analysis It is a method of analysis based on titration. Titration is a procedure for determining the amount of substance A by adding a carefully measured volume of a solution with known concentration of B until the reaction of A and B is just complete. An indicator should be present to detect the end point (point at which the reaction is complete). The indicator is a substance that undergoes a color change when a reaction approaches completion. e.g. Consider the reaction of H2SO4 with NaOH. How many mL of 0.250 M NaOH titrant must be added to react completely with 35.0 mL of 0.175 M H2SO4 ? A, H2SO4 (aq) + 2 NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) 35.0 mL 49.0 mL 0.175 M 0.250 M m mol = 6.125 m mol = 12.25 Whenever you perform a titration calculation using molar concentration you should take into account the stoichiometry of the

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reaction. Do not be tempted to apply the dilution equation to solve the problem because it fails to take into account the stoichiometry of the reaction. e.g. A flask contains a solution with an unknown amount of HCl. This solution is titrated with 0.207 M NaOH. It takes 4.47 mL NaOH to complete the reaction. What is the mass of HCl ? A, HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O 33.77 mg 4.47 mL mw 36.5 0.207 M 0.925 mmol 0.925 mmol

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