17.

1 Introduction The idea is that by combining two or more distinct materials one can engineer a new material with the desired combination of properties (e.g., light, strong, corrosion resistant). The idea that a better combination of properties can be achieved is called the principle of combined action. New - High-tech materials, engineered to specific applications Old - brick-straw composites, paper, known for > 5000 years. A type of composite that has been discussed is perlitic steel, which combines hard, brittle cementite with soft, ductile ferrite to get a superior material. Natural composites: wood (polymer-polymer), bones (polymer-ceramics). Usual composites have just two phases:

matrix (continuous) dispersed phase (particulates, fibers)

Properties of composites depend on

properties of phases geometry of dispersed phase (particle size, distribution, orientation) amount of phase

Classification of composites: three main categories:

particle-reinforced (large-particle and dispersion-strengthened) fiber-reinforced (continuous (aligned) and short fibers (aligned or random) structural (laminates and sandwich panels) Particle-reinforced composites

These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two categories depending on the size of the particles:

large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the matrix, if well bonded. dispersion-strengthened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar to what was discussed under precipitation hardening. The matrix bears the major portion of the applied load and the small particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic deformation.

17.2 Large-Particle Composites

Properties are a combination of those of the components. The rule of mixtures predicts that an upper limit of the elastic modulus of the composite is given in terms of the elastic moduli of the matrix (Em) and the particulate (Ep) phases by: Ec = EmVm + EpVp where Vm and Vp are the volume fraction of the two phases. A lower bound is given by: Ec = EmEp / (EpVm + EmVp) Fig. 17.3 - modulus of composite of WC particles in Cu matrix vs. WC concentration. Concrete The most common large-particle composite is concrete, made of a cement matrix that bonds particles of different size (gravel and sand.) Cement was already known to the Egyptians and the Greek. Romans made cement by mixing lime (CaO) with volcanic ice. In its general from, cement is a fine mixture of lime, alumina, silica, and water. Portland cement is a fine powder of chalk, clay and lime-bearing minerals fired to 1500o C (calcinated). It forms a paste when dissolved in water. It sets into a solid in minutes and hardens slowly (takes 4 months for full strength). Properties depend on how well it is mixed, and the amount of water: too little - incomplete bonding, too much - excessive porosity. The advantage of cement is that it can be poured in place, it hardens at room temperature and even under water, and it is very cheap. The disadvantages are that it is weak and brittle, and that water in the pores can produce crack when it freezes in cold weather. Concrete is cement strengthened by adding particulates. The use of different size (stone and sand) allows better packing factor than when using particles of similar size. Concrete is improved by making the pores smaller (using finer powder, adding polymeric lubricants, and applying pressure during hardening. Reinforced concrete is obtained by adding steel rods, wires, mesh. Steel has the advantage of a similar thermal expansion coefficient, so there is reduced danger of cracking due to thermal stresses. Pre-stressed concreteis obtained by applying tensile stress to the steel rods while the cement is setting and hardening. When the tensile stress is removed, the concrete is left under compressive stress, enabling it

to sustain tensile loads without fracturing. Pre-stressed concrete shapes are usually prefabricated. A common use is in railroad or highway bridges. Cermets are composites of ceramic particles (strong, brittle) in a metal matrix (soft, ductile) that enhances toughness. For instance, tungsten carbide or titanium carbide ceramics in Co or Ni. They are used for cutting tools for hardened steels. Reinforced rubber is obtained by strengthening with 20-50 nm carbon-black particles. Used in auto tires. 17.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites Use of very hard, small particles to strengthen metals and metal alloys. The effect is like precipitation hardening but not so strong. Particles like oxides do not react so the strengthening action is retained at high temperatures. Fiber-reinforced composites In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength per unit weight (specific strength). This can be achieved by composites consisting of a lowdensity (and soft) matrix reinforced with stiff fibers. The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with respect to the stress direction. The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the interfacial bond. 17.4 Influence of Fiber Length Normally the matrix has a much lower modulus than the fiber so it strains more. This occurs at a distance from the fiber. Right next to the fiber, the strain is limited by the fiber. Thus, for a composite under tension, a shear stress appears in the matrix that pulls from the fiber. The pull is uniform over the area of the fiber. This makes the force on the fiber be minimum at the ends and maximum in the middle, like in the tug-of-war game. To achieve effective strengthening and stiffening, the fibers must be larger than a critical length lc, defined as the minimum length at which the center of the fiber reaches the ultimate (tensile) strength f, when the matrix achieves the maximum shear strength m:

lc = sf d /2 tm Since it is proportional to the diameter of the fiber d, a more unified condition for effective strengthening is that the aspect ratio of the fiber is l/d > f /2 m. 17.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation The composite is stronger along the direction of orientation of the fibers and weakest in a direction perpendicular to the fiber. For discontinuous, random fibers, the properties are isotropic. 17.6 The Fiber Phase (not covered) 17.7 The Matrix Phase (not covered) 17.8 Polymer Matrix Composites Largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of fabrication, low cost and good properties. Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and lightweight, but not very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications include auto and boat bodies, aircraft components. Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the highest specific module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use. Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft components. Kevlar, and aremid-fiber composite (Fig. 17.9) can be used as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and clutch linings. Wood This is one of the oldest and the most widely used structural material. It is a composite of strong and flexible cellulose fibers (linear polymer) surrounded and held together by a matrix of lignin and other polymers. The properties are anisotropic and vary widely among types of wood. Wood is ten times stronger in the axial direction than in the radial or tangential directions. 17.9 Metal-Matrix Composites (not covered) 17.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites (not covered) 17.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites (not covered)

17.12 Hybrid Composites (not covered) 17.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites (not covered) 17.14 Laminar Composites Sheets (panels) with different orientation of high strength directions are stacked and glued together, producing a material with more isotropic strength in the plane. Examples are plywood and modern skis. 17.15 Sandwich Panels Strong, stiff end sheets are bonded to lightweight core structure, for instance honeycomb (Fig. 17.16) which provides strength to shear. It is used in roofs, walls, and aircraft structures. Terms: Ceramic-matrix composite Cermet Concrete Dispersed phase Dispersion-strengthened composite Fiber Fiber-reinforced composite Hybrid composite Laminar composite Large-particle composite Longitudinal direction Matrix phase Metal-matrix composite Polymer-matrix composite Pre-stressed concrete Principle of combined action Reinforced concrete Rule of mixtures Sandwich panel Specific modulus Specific strength Structural composite Transverse direction Whisker

Composite material
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the specific carbon and glass fiber based composite materials often referred to loosely as 'composites', see Fiber-reinforced polymer.

Composites are formed by combining materials together to form an overall structure that is better than the individual components

Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. Typical engineered composite materials include:

Composite building materials such as cements, concrete Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymer Metal Composites Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges and structures such as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, race car bodies, shower stalls,bathtubs, and storage tanks, imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and counter tops. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft in demanding environments.
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Examples

o o

2.1 Materials 2.2 Products

3 Overview

4 Constituents

4.1 Matrices

4.1.1 Resins 4.1.2 Other matrices

4.2 Reinforcement

4.2.1 Fiber 4.2.2 Other Reinforcement

4.3 Cores

5 Fabrication methods

o o o o o o

5.1 Mold overview 5.2 Vacuum bag moulding 5.3 Pressure bag moulding 5.4 Autoclave moulding 5.5 Resin transfer moulding (RTM) 5.6 Other fabrication methods

5.6.1 Finishing methods

5.7 Tooling

6 Physical properties

o o

6.1 Failure 6.2 Testing

7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

History[edit source | editbeta]

This section requires expansion.(February 2012)

The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. This ancient brick-making process was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings. Wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old..[1] Concrete is also a composite material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each yearmore than one cubic metre for every person on Earth.[2]

Woody plants, both true wood from trees and such plants as palms and bamboo, yield natural composites that were used prehistorically by mankind and are still used widely in construction and scaffolding.

Plywood 3400 B.C. by the Ancient Mesopotamians; gluing wood at different angles gives better properties than natural wood

Cartonnage layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster dates to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 2181-2055 BC and was used for death masks

Concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands from the sandlike beds of Puteoli brownishyellow-gray in colour near Naples and reddish-brown at Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for cements used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio of lime to pulvis Puteolanus for underwater work, essentially the same ratio mixed today for concrete used at sea.[3] Natural cementstones, after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, with some properties superior to manufacturedPortland cement.

Papier-mch, a composite of paper and glue, has been used for hundreds of years The first artificial fibre reinforced plastic was bakelite which dates to 1907, although natural polymers such as shellac predate it

Examples[edit source | editbeta]

Materials[edit source | editbeta]

Concrete is a mixture of cement and aggregate, giving a robust, strong material that is very widely used

Plywood is used widely in construction

Composite sandwich structure panel used for testing at NASA

Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones (aggregate) held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is a very robust material, much more robust than cement, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading (i.e. if stretched it will quickly break apart). Therefore to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete. Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fibre reinforced plastic or CFRP, and glass-reinforced plastic or GRP. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fibre thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerousthermoset composites, but advanced systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix. Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix. Since a shape memory polymer resin is used as the matrix, these composites have the ability to be easily manipulated into various configurations when they are heated above their activation temperatures and will exhibit high strength and stiffness at lower temperatures. They can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for applications such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures; rapid manufacturing; and dynamic reinforcement. Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites (MMC) or ceramic matrix composites (CMC), which includes bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibres), cermet (ceramic and metal) and concrete. Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for fracture toughness, not for strength. Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt, mastic roller hybrid,dental composite, syntactic foam and mother of pearl. Chobham armour is a special type of composite armour used in military applications. Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powders resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cm to 11 g/cm (same density as lead). The most common name for this type of material is "high gravity compound" (HGC), although "lead replacement" is also used. These

materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as aluminium, stainless steel, brass, bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing (for example, modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis racquet), vibration damping, and radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically viable option when certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or when secondary operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating) are a factor. A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite material that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density. Wood is a naturally occurring composite comprising cellulose fibres in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix. Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different products such as wood fibre board, plywood, oriented strand board, wood plastic composite (recycled wood fibre in polyethylene matrix),Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix), Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles, Arborite, Formica (plastic) and Micarta. Other engineered laminate composites, such as Mallite, use a central core of end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy or GRP. These generate low-weight, high rigidity materials.

Products[edit source | editbeta]

Fiber-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in highperformance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and scull hulls, bicycleframes, swimming pool panels and racing car bodies. Other uses include fishing rods, storage tanks, and baseball bats. The new Boeing 787 structure including the wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery. Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and heat shields for the re-entry phase of spacecraft. It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles. Furthermore disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are using carbon/carbonmaterial, and the composite material with carbon fibers and silicon carbide matrix has been introduced in luxury vehicles and sports cars. In 2006, a fiber-reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in-ground swimming pools, residential as well as commercial, as a non-corrosive alternative to galvanized steel. In 2007, an all-composite military Humvee was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military vehicle. By using composites the vehicle is lighter, allowing higher payloads. In 2008, carbon fiber and DuPont Kevlar (five times stronger than steel) were combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high strength.

Pipes and fittings for various purpose like transportation of potable water, fire-fighting, irrigation, seawater, desalinated water, chemical and industrial waste, and sewage are now manufactured in glass reinforced plastics.

Overview[edit source | editbeta]

graphite composite part.

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are two main categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum combination. Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.

A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate. Many commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most common are known as polyester, vinyl ester,epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals. The various methods described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60% fiber content. The strength of the product is greatly dependent on this ratio. Martin Hubbe and Lucian A Lucia consider Wood to be a natural composite of cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin.[4][5]

Constituents[edit source | editbeta]

Matrices[edit source | editbeta]
Resins[edit source | editbeta]
Typically, most common polymer-based composite materials, including fiberglass, carbon fiber, and Kevlar, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin. Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications. Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide). When the peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the curing reaction. Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst. Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower viscosity than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel resistant, but will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over time to degradation than polyester resin, and is more flexible. It uses the same hardeners as polyester resin (at a similar mix ratio) and the cost is approximately the same.

Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured. In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material or as a structural glue. Shape memory polymer (SMP) resins have varying visual characteristics depending on their formulation. These resins may be epoxy-based, which can be used for auto body and outdoor equipment repairs; cyanate-ester-based, which are used in space applications; and acrylate-based, which can be used in very cold temperature applications, such as for sensors that indicate whether perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature. These resins are unique in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their glass transitiontemperature (Tg). When heated, they become flexible and elastic, allowing for easy configuration. Once they are cooled, they will maintain their new shape. The resins will return to their original shapes when they are reheated above their Tg. The advantage of shape memory polymer resins is that they can be shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties. These resins can be used in fabricating shape memory composites.

Other matrices[edit source | editbeta]

Common matrices include mud (wattle and daub), cement (concrete), polymers (fiber reinforced plastics), metals and ceramics. Road surfaces are often made from asphalt concrete which usesbitumen as a matrix. Unusual matrices such as ice are sometime proposed as in pykecrete.

Reinforcement[edit source | editbeta]

Fiber[edit source | editbeta]

Differences in the way the fibers are laid out give different strengths and ease of manufacture

Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation. Thin fibers can have very high strength, and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they can greatly improve the composite's overall properties.

Fiber-reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred to as short fiber-reinforced materials and continuous fiber-reinforced materials. Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure. The woven and continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms, being pre-impregnated with the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various widths, plain weave, harness satins, braided, and stitched. The short and long fibers are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is achieved). Common fibers used for reinforcement include glass fibers, carbon fibers, cellulose (wood/paper fiber and straw) and high strength polymers for example aramid.

Other Reinforcement[edit source | editbeta]

Concrete uses aggregate, and reinforced concrete additionally uses steel bars (rebar) to tension the concrete. Steel mesh or wires are also used in some glass and plastic products.

Cores[edit source | editbeta]

Many composite layup designs also include a co-curing or post-curing of the prepreg with various other mediums, such as honeycomb or foam. This is commonly called a sandwich structure. This is a more common layup process for the manufacture of radomes, doors, cowlings, or non-structural parts. Open- and closed-cellstructured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.

Fabrication methods[edit source | editbeta]

Fabrication usually involves wetting or mixing or saturating the reinforcement with the matrix, and then causing the matrix to bind together (with heat or a chemical reaction) into a rigid structure. The operation is usually done in an open or closed forming mold, but the order and ways of introducing the ingredients varies considerably.

Mold overview[edit source | editbeta]

Within a mold, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted, and cured (processed) to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set, although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a thermoset polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the melting point.

For many moulding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a "lower" mould and another mould piece as an "upper" mould. Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the moulded panel, not the mould's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a lower mould, and sometimes an upper mould. Part construction begins by applying materials to the lower mould. Lower mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more common and specific terms such as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat, mandrel, etc. Continuous manufacturing processes use a different nomenclature. The moulded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous processes, it can be referred to as a profile.

Vacuum bag moulding[edit source | editbeta]

Vacuum bag moulding uses a flexible film to enclose the part and seal it from outside air. A vacuum is then drawn on the vacuum bag and atmospheric pressure compresses the part during the cure process. Vacuum bag material is available in a tube shape or a sheet of material. When a tube shaped bag is used, the entire part can be enclosed within the bag. When using sheet bagging materials, the edges of the vacuum bag are sealed against the edges of the mould surface to enclose the part against an air-tight mould. When bagged in this way, the lower mold is a rigid structure and the upper surface of the part is formed by the flexible membrane vacuum bag. The flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. After sealing the part inside the vacuum bag, a vacuum is drawn on the part (and held) during cure. This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure acting upon the vacuum bag. A vacuum pump is typically used to draw a vacuum. An economical method of drawing a vacuum is with a venturi vacuum and air compressor. A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong rubber-coated fabric or a polymer film used to compress the part during a cure or hardening process. In some applications the bag encloses the entire material, or in other applications a mold is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being a single layer to seal to the outer edge of the mold face. When using a tube shaped bag, the ends of the bag are sealed and the air is drawn out of the bag through a nipple using a vacuum pump. As a result, uniform pressure approaching one atmosphere is applied to the surfaces of the object inside the bag, holding parts together while the adhesive cures. The entire bag may be placed in a temperature-controlled oven, oil bath or water bath and gently heated to accelerate curing. Vacuum bagging is widely used in the composites industry as well. Carbon fiber fabric and fiberglass, along with resins and epoxies are common materials laminated together with a vacuum bag operation. Woodworking applications In commercial woodworking facilities, vacuum bags are used to laminate curved and irregular shaped workpieces. Typically, polyurethane or vinyl materials are used to make the bag. A tube shaped bag is open at both ends. The piece, or pieces to be glued are placed into the bag and the ends sealed. One method of sealing

the open ends of the bag is by placing a clamp on each end of the bag. A plastic rod is laid across the end of the bag, the bag is then folded over the rod. A plastic sleeve with an opening in it, is then snapped over the rod. This procedure forms a seal at both ends of the bag, when the vacuum is ready to be drawn. A "platen" is sometimes used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lay on. The platen has a series of small slots cut into it, to allow the air under it to be evacuated. The platen must have rounded edges and corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag. When a curved part is to be glued in a vacuum bag, it is important that the pieces being glued be placed over a solidly built form, or have an air bladder placed under the form. This air bladder has access to "free air" outside the bag. It is used to create an equal pressure under the form, preventing it from being crushed.[6]

Pressure bag moulding[edit source | editbeta]

This process is related to vacuum bag moulding in exactly the same way as it sounds. A solid female mould is used along with a flexible male mould. The reinforcement is placed inside the female mould with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place (wet lay up). A measured amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the mould and the mould is then clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible mould. The flexible male membrane is then inflated with heated compressed air or possibly steam. The female mould can also be heated. Excess resin is forced out along with trapped air. This process is extensively used in the production of composite helmets due to the lower cost of unskilled labor. Cycle times for a helmet bag moulding machine vary from 20 to 45 minutes, but the finished shells require no further curing if the moulds are heated.

Autoclave moulding[edit source | editbeta]

A process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically. They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile constructions. Most often, they are pre-impregnated with the resin in the form of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In some instances, a resin film is placed upon the lower mould and dry reinforcement is placed above. The upper mould is installed and vacuum is applied to the mould cavity. The assembly is placed into an autoclave. This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fibre volume fraction and low void content for maximum structural efficiency.

Resin transfer moulding (RTM)[edit source | editbeta]

RTM is a process using a rigid two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The mould is typically constructed from aluminum or steel, but composite molds are sometimes used. The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is closed prior to the introduction of matrix material. Resin transfer moulding includes numerous varieties which differ in the mechanics of how

the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the mould cavity. These variations include everything from the RTM methods used in out of autoclave composite manufacturing for high-tech aerospace components to vacuum infusion (for resin infusion see alsoboat building) to vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM). This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature.

Other fabrication methods[edit source | editbeta]

Other types of fabrication include press moulding, transfer moulding, pultrusion moulding, filament winding, casting, centrifugal casting, continuous casting and slip forming. There are also forming capabilities including CNC filament winding, vacuum infusion, wet lay-up, compression moulding, and thermoplastic moulding, to name a few. The use of curing ovens and paint booths is also needed for some projects.

Finishing methods[edit source | editbeta]

The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design. Many of these finishes will include rain-erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings.

Tooling[edit source | editbeta]

The mold and mold inserts are referred to as "tooling." The mold/tooling can be constructed from a variety of materials. Tooling materials include invar, steel, aluminium, reinforced silicone rubber,nickel, and carbon fiber. Selection of the tooling material is typically based on, but not limited to, the coefficient of thermal expansion, expected number of cycles, end item tolerance, desired or required surface condition, method of cure, glass transition temperature of the material being moulded, moulding method, matrix, cost and a variety of other considerations.

Physical properties[edit source | editbeta]

The physical properties of composite materials are generally not isotropic (independent of direction of applied force) in nature, but rather are typically anisotropic (different depending on the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. Panel stiffness is also dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fibre reinforcement and matrix used, the method of panel build, thermoset versus thermoplastic, type of weave, and orientation of fibre axis to the primary force. In contrast, isotropic materials (for example, aluminium or steel), in standard wrought forms, typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. The relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures for an isotropic material can be described with the following material properties: Young's Modulus, the shear Modulus and thePoisson's ratio, in relatively simple mathematical relationships. For the anisotropic material, it requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants. For the special case of orthogonal isotropy, there are three different material property constants for each of Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus and

Poisson's ratioa total of 9 constants to describe the relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures. Techniques that take advantage of the anisotropic properties of the materials include mortise and tenon joints (in natural composites such as wood) and Pi Joints in synthetic composites.

Failure[edit source | editbeta]

Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the matrix e.g. fibre pull-out. Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fibre in compression buckling. Tension failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure of the bond between the matrix and fibres. Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the onset of damage. The variations in fibres and matrices that are available and the mixtures that can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a composite structure. The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when the carbon-carbon composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the Space Shuttle Columbia fractured when impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-up of the vehicle when it re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 1 February 2003. Compared to metals, composites have relatively poor bearing strength.

Testing[edit source | editbeta]

To aid in predicting and preventing failures, composites are tested before and after construction. Preconstruction testing may use finite element analysis (FEA) for ply-by-ply analysis of curved surfaces and predicting wrinkling, crimping and dimpling of composites.[7] Materials may be tested after construction through several nondestructive methods including ultrasonics, thermography, shearography and X-ray radiography[8]

See also[edit source | editbeta]

Aluminium composite panel American Composites Manufacturers Association Chemical vapour infiltration Epoxy granite Nanocomposites Hybrid material Composite laminates Rule of mixtures