Q.1.

Critically discuss Gandhi and Nehrus idea of India Indias diversity was incarnated in the gallery of characters who constituted the nationalist pantheon. It contains people from markedly different backgrounds, yet whose trajectories were often parallel. Most passed through some form of western education, and some led cosmopolitan lives. Gandhi : In place of an Indian unit based on a common historical past, Gandhi settled on religion as a source of interconnection among Indians, but manufactured his own eclectic and pluralist morality from different religious traditions namely folk, hakti traditions as well as !hristian morality. "is appeal to pree#isting local beliefs and identities in order to create a larger, India one was tied to an idea of swadeshi, a patriotism based on respect for the everyday material world. "is adoption of cloth as a symbol of interconnection e#emplified this esteem. y spinning and weaving their own cloth, that is self$production, Indians would regain the economic control and cultural self$respect that colonialism had usurped and battered. %hey would be linked by common forms of production, and the wearing of khadi would Indians by removing the distinguishing marks of caste proclaimed in the signature of traditional dress. %his ambition of a self$producing community was strongly morali&ing and dispensed entirely with the idea of a territorial nation state. In Gandhi's view, spiritual values should not be separated from politics, economics, agriculture, education, and all the other activities of daily life. Gandhis ideals of gram swaraj (village republic), and sarvodaya were rooted in native traditions. (ith uni)ue sensitivity he provoked a patriotic symbolism that allowed him to be visuali&ed not merley as an all$Indian leader among the nationalists elite but as a saint in the different regions and communities of India. (hen asked about his message to the world, Gandhi said * My life is my message+ Nehru : (here %agore worked the poetic language and Gandhi turned to religious traditions to make their Indian selves, ,ehru discovered India and himself through the medium of history. ,ehrus idea of India sought to coordinate within the form of a modern state of variety of values- democracy, religious tolerance, economic development and cultural pluralism. (hile ,ehru was attracted by the political and economic e#amples of the modern west, he was far less taken by its cultural models. It was fundamental to him that Indian ,ationalism could not fashion itself after .uropean e#amples. In contrast to the academic analysts who see nationalism as the diffusion of a standard form devised in

the industriali&ed west whether in the Gallic version of a community of common citi&enship of the volkisch idea of a shared ethnic or cultural origin ,ehru self$ consciously rejected the Idea that Indian nationalism was compelled to make itself in one or other of these images. The overarching theme was the invention of India!.The ma"or #illars were : $emocracy and democratic institution %uilding : /nlike %agore and Gandhi , for whom state was a dispensable nuisance, ,ehru believed that an Indian Identity could emerge only within the territorial and institutional frame of a state. 0 specifically Indian compromise was needed, it was outlined in the practical adaption after 1234 of the state into a distinctive model shaped by ,ehrus understanding of the Indian 5ast - a model committed to protecting cultural and religious difference rather than imposing a uniform *Indianness+. &ocialism ' creating a statist socialist system A socialist state to be attained through democratic processes Western in its conception, but with an elasticity to address diversities (an opportunistic approach to economic planning ) (oreign #olicy of nonalignment' The assertion of independent nationhood became much more the be$all and end$all of Indian foreign policy 6 The policy may have preserved self-respect and enhanced international standing but brought very few, if any, concrete benefits to the ndian polity! And again, the issue of the limitations of ndia"s foreign policy was brought into sharp relief in the disastrous failure over #hina which led to the humiliating defeat in a war for which ndia was completely unprepared in $%&'7 )estern indoctrination in his secular conce#t of the state 0n all inclusive view of Indian nationalism $ (rogress towards creating a secular state was made in the constitutional provision abolishing caste untouchability, in the abolition of the communal electorates, and in )ehru"s opposition to the use of police power of the state in enforcing veneration of the cow )estern conce#ts of individual rights and li%erties vis--vis the Indian environment individual freedoms also carry responsibilities there must be discipline, either voluntary or imposed Q*. e+#lain the essence of Indian constitution in social te+t : ,nswer

India emerged as a nation free from ritish rule on 0ugust 18, 1234. "owever the hard won independence posed many challenges which the country had to tackle. 9ike mass illiteracy, regional, gender, caste and class disparities, etc.%here was an immediate need in India to enlarge her resources by developing new productive capacities to meet the challenges of ine)uality, illiteracy, poverty and ignorance and to assure all its citi&ens the benefits of freedom and social :ustice. %herefore a constitution was considered essential for the country. %he !onstitution of a country is the highest legal$political document for its government. It also embodies the statement of rights of the people as lawfully established. In a general sense it lays down the structure of power and obligations of the rulers towards the ruled. ;uch obligations imply not only the limit of the governmental power but also the e#pectation of the people from the government. %he proclamation of the Indian !onstitution after the transfer of power from ritain heralded a new era too. <irst and foremost, it established a =epublican >emocracy in place of the monarchical empire of the ritish Government. %he Indian !onstitution retained the liberal democratic framework but broadened the scope of governmental intervention with a view to promoting social reform and welfare. %here was prohibition on the state to violate the rights and e)uality of the citi&ens the rights that were essentially of negative character. %here was a prohibition on the society to practice untouchability. 5ermission was granted to the state to take special measures for the improvement of weaker sections of the people. %he !onstitution also adopted the Irish model of issuing positive directives to the Government for the promotion of welfare measures. The -ream%le %he 5reamble to our constitution reads as follows??)e. The -eo#le of India. having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a &overeign $emocratic /e#u%lic and to secure to all its citi&ens@ 0ustice. social economic and political@ 1i%erty of thought, e#pression, belief, faith and worship@ 23uality of status and of opportunity and to promote them among all@ (raternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation@ In our constituent ,ssem%ly this ABth day of ,ovember, 1232 $o here%y ado#t. enact and give to ourselves the constitution. %he first point that needs mention is that, In short, the authority of the !onstitution, as

the ;upreme 9aw of the land, is derived from the people and not from the grace of any e#ternal sovereign. %herefore, India is a >emocratic, ;overeign country. India is also a =epublic. It does not recognise any hereditary rule. %he !onstitution also promises to all its citi&ens :ustice, social, economic and political@ 9iberty of thought e#pression, belief, faith and worship@ .)uality of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all <raternity assuring the dignity of the individual. y an amendment in 124B the aims of establishing secularism and socialism and promoting the unity and integrity of the nation were proclaimed. %here are following provision in the Indian constitution itself which help in creating the condition for the e)uality and social justice thus referring to the social te#t-$ 1. ,dult franchise %he significance of the universal adult franchise can never be overstressed. it is made universal and became a key factor in the making and unmaking of the government. .very resident, adult citi&en of sound mind, and not legally barred on grounds of crime, corruption or illegal practice, is entitled to be registered as a voter 60rticle CAB of the !onstitution7. A. /ight %he right is very important as it help in creating the condition for the e)uality and the social justice. %he following important right are given bwlow-$ a. e)uality before the law and e)ual protection of the law 60rticle 137, b. protection against unlawful conviction 60rticle AD7, c. life and personal liberty 60rticle A17, d. protection against unlawful detention 60rticle AA7, e. right against e#ploitation in the form of traffic in human beings and forced labour e#cept for public purposes 60rticle AC7, f. right of children against ha&ardous employment 60rticle A37, g. freedom of religion 60rticle A87, h. freedom of religious denominations to manage their religious affairs 60rticle AB7, i. freedom from enforced religious instruction in schools run by religious denominations 60rticle AE7, j. protection of minorities 60rticle A27, k. right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice 60rticle CD7, l. right to !onstitutional =emedies 60rticles CA and AAB7 m. the right not to be deprived of property save by authority of law 60rticle CDD07. n. right against discrimination by the state 60rticle 187, o. e)uality of opportunity in matters of public employment 60rticle 1B7, p. right against practice of untouchability 60rticle 147, ). right against creation of state titles other than military or academic 60rticle 1E7,

r. right to freedom of speech and e#pression, to assemble peacefully and without arms, to form associations or unions, to move freely throughout the territory of India and to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India and to practice any profession or carry on any occupation, trade or business 60rticle 127. If we see nature of right we can distinguish into following categories0. Individual - %here are individual based right given by the Indian constitution. %hese rights can be enjoyed by the individual. . Group - %here are some right which meant to protect the group and minority. <or e#ample protection of minorities 60rticle A27, freedom from payment of ta#es the proceeds of which specifically go to the benefit of any particular religion or religious denomination 60rticle A47,right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice 60rticle CD7, etc. !. 0gainst ;tate and society - (hile most of these rights are against the state, some of them, like the right against untouchability 60rticle 147 and the right to protection of minorities 60rticle A27 are against the society. >. ,egative - %hese rights are negative in form in as much as they restrict the authorities from violating these rights. %hese points are significant in the understanding of the nature of rights in India. (e have said that in the traditional liberal democracies like the /nited ;tates, the rights are negatively framed so that the state does not take them away. %he )uestion of protection of those rights from the assault of other members of the society is tackled by the law and order functions of the state.. In India, on the other hand, practice of untouchability by members of the upper castes is directly an offence against the !onstitution. ;imilarly, violation of the rights of minorities by members of the majority community is an offence against the !onstitution. It is the direct constitutional responsibility of the state to protect the social rights of the dalits 6the people of the ;cheduled !astes7, the adivasis 6the people belonging to the ;cheduled %ribes7 and the religious and linguistic minorities. <inally, constitutional acknowledgement of groups as well as individuals is the result of the rather unhappy communal history of the country. %his concern of the !onstitution of India with the plight of the religious and linguistic minorities and the weaker castes. %hus the structure of rights in the Indian !onstitution envisaged an active role of the state in bringing forth social transformation. T42 $I/2CTI52 -/INCI-12& 6( &T,T2 -61IC7 %he anther important chapter in the Indian constitution is the directive principle of the state policy dealt in part IF.. 0 more direct activist role of the state in bringing forth socio'economic transformation was assigned by the !onstitution of India through

>irective 5rinciples of ;tate 5olicy. %hese principles are not directly enforceable by the law courts. *ut the courts, while interpreting the #onstitution, including the +undamental ,ights, are to be guided by them. %he !onstitution enjoins the state to regard them as fundamental in governance and to apply them when making laws. 1. The most fundamental directive to the state is to strive to secure a social order in which "ustice. social. economic and #olitical shall inform all the institutions of their national life. %he state shall, in particular, strive to minimi&e ine)ualities in income and eliminate ine)ualities of status, facilities and opportunities not only among the individuals but also among groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations 60rticle CE7. In particular the state shall direct its policies toward securing ade)uate means of livelihood for all citi&ens, men and women e)ually, distribution of ownership and control to best serve the common good, preventing concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment, ensuring e)ual pay for e)ual work for both men and women, protection of the health and strength of the workers, men and women, prevention of the abuse of the children, and facilitation of the children to grow in a healthy manner and with freedom and dignity 60rticle C27. A. %he state shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice, on a basis of e)ual opportunity, and shall, in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citi&en by reason of economic and other disabilities 60rticle C20, added in 1244 by the 3And amendment to the !onstitution7. C. %he state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the e#ecutive in the public services of the state 60rticle 8D7. %he state shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self$government 60rticle 3D7. 3. %here is a more guarded promise in the economic sphere. %he state shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want 60rticle 317. The right to work as such cannot be granted by any liberal democratic state(government) simply because it does not control all the means of production- %he system of social insurance is also provided by only developed industrial countries though its operation is unstable. <or a developing country like India the promise of universal right to work andGor social insurance is obviously too ambitious. %he ;tate shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of the people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption e#cept for medicinal purposes of into#icating and harmful drugs 60rticle 347. 8. %he ;tate shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. %he state shall endeavour to secure, by suitable legislation

or economic organisation or in any other way, to all workers, industrial, agricultural or otherwise, a living wage, conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural opportunities and, in particular, the state shall endeavor to promote cottage industries on an individual or co$operative basis in rural areas 60rticle 3C7. y the 3And 0mendment to the !onstitution, the ;tate was enjoined to take steps, by suitable legislation or any other way, to secure the participation or workers in the management of undertakings, establishments of other organisations engaged in any industry 60rticle 3C07. B. %he state is directed to provide, within a period of ten years 6from the proclamation of the !onstitution7 to all children up to the age of fourteen years 60rticle 387. 4. %he state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the ;cheduled !astes and the ;cheduled %ribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of e#ploitation 60rticle 3B7. %he Indian constitution does provide the enough space to bring the e)uality and social :ustice in the Indian society. %he policy like reservation policy for ;!G;% and H !, reservation for the women in the 5anchayati =aj Institution, ;%G;! atrocity 0ct, =ight to education, =ight to work, etc. are the e#ample which try to bring the e)uality and social justice in the Indian society.

Q 8. $iscuss the -olitics of /e#resentation in India

availa%le to #eo#le9.

Two changes are noteworthy : politics of social movements, voluntary associations, ,GHs, etc., rather than only political parties, and local rather than national concerns. %he process of representation marked by greater emphasis on descriptive representation 6when a person is deemed representative because of personalGsocial characteristics or both of these7 T/2N$&9. .lectoral politics in the 122Ds described as the second democratic upsurge 6the first having succeeded Indias independence from colonial rule7. , dee#ening of democracy emphasis on electoral politics in providing space for the e#pression of rights and claims by disadvantaged groups.
!onsiderable ?,ew

 "as

brought political leaders from historically lower and back$ward castes to centre

stage ;ignificantly higher voter participation amongst the poorer classes, less well educated and socially underprivileged castes and classes (unlike in industriali.ed democracies where participation is biased in the direction of the better educated, more wealthy and advantaged citi.en) Trends indicate 9. Increased participation in electoral politics through political parties /nderline the strength and legitimacy of the political system. 4owever : participation simply does not tell us enough about the status of political e)uality unless we accept the standard formulation that everyones vote should count as one vote, which means that all are e)ual. -olitical e3uality im#lies 9 proportionate distribution of political activity 6political participation in voting, attending public meetings, participating in ralliesGdemonstration7 =arely e#tends to the sphere of representation in crucial decision$making institutions 6no tendency towards e)uality when it comes to the distribution of power or representative bodies7.
0 5olitical

,ccessing /e#resentation9 Two ways: a. -rocess of re#resentation

;%< Quality of re#resentation and res#onsiveness. 6a7 the crsis of legitimate representation- philanthrophic representation- personality representation based on charisma . b. the need to bring elected representatives closer to those who elect them rather than only at the time of elections - particularly in the absence of a recall mechanism india. c. >ynasty politics - constituencies have become like fiefdoms. d. !riminali&ation of politics and politici&ation of crime as political parties cosy upto people with long criminal records. ;hibu soren, pappu yadav. !riminals contesting from even inside jails. e. 5articular sections are underrepresented. (omen, tribals and minorities. (omens reservation bill not being passed. %ribals unable to form a consolidated

nationwide political movement thus possess less leverage in national arena. !aste politics. f. :udicial activism has had to fill the vaccum as a result of the erosion of representative democracy 5ost globali&ation and the states transformation from developmental state to entrepreneurial state the influence of representative democracy has been eroded by actors like civil society, ,gos and corporates who have become powerful interest groups who hijack public interests by influencing representatives I8. $iscuss the changing #litics of re#resentation in India.= in the 128Ds representation derived from the notion that representatives to act on behalf of the society as a whole or the constituency they represented. elief that politicians (H/9> work in favor of larger social interests that were not their own, dominated the first phase of democratic politics. ,o space for descriptive representation. -olitics of dis#ute regarding re#resentation'
,ationalist leaders personified this view of representation 6Gandhi said ?I claim myself in my own person to represent the vast mass of the untouchables7 ;hift from ?politics of idea to ?politics of presence %he !onstitution and the dominant political discourse

1. 0mbedkar posed the problem of representation faced by >alits 6?%he right of representation and the right to hold office under the state are two most important rights that make up citi&enship7 A. ,ehru refused the logic of :innahs demand that the !ongress treat the Muslim 9eague as the authoritative and representative organi&ation of Indias Muslims
-hases of /e#resentation9 The dominant discourse during

the 1>?@s ;e+tended to the

end of the 1>A@s. over four general elections< :

parties crucial aggregative medium for the articulation of collective

interests. !onsensus that the state was the most important means for the promotion of public good and well$being. ;ocial classes like the industrialists, managerial elites and middle classes were central to political life and representation. Contd (rom the late 1>B@s

 ,ew

form of representation, distinct from the models associated with Gandhi and

,ehru. %rend point to a shift towards ?politics of presence ;the #olitical actor claim to act on %ehalf of his or her own Cind : caste. religion or linguistic grou#< >escriptive representation by ones own groupGcategory gained strength !onse)uently, political discourse dominated by ethnic ine)ualities, which dictate the pattern of mobili&ation 6e#ample - %he demand for Gorkha$9and7 Contd The late 1>D@s and 1>>@s Increased political competition 5olitical and administrative importance of caste, the H !s in particular, which took shape around the demand for reserved )uotas in government, set the conte#t for these changes. =ange of social movements including womens, >alit, and minority movements signaled assertions and demands for recognition and power. y giving the lower castes large numbers of tickets and the possibility of a share in power, non$!ongress parties addressed the critical issue of the representation in political institutions. Contd -olitics of identity India has become much more proportional in its approach ;een from the major increase in the number of lower caste legislators 5olitical representation has a new downward thrust ;emergence of BSP, RJD & SP) %he backward castes with no legislative reservations constitute more than a )uarter of the 9ok ;abha today <or 5arliament, B3 percent of the north Indian M5s in the first 9ok ;abha came from the upper castes and only 3.8 per$cent from the H !s@ the share of H ! M5s now increased to over A8 percent. Conclusion : weakening of the congress power in the national arena following its losing power in states from the late 4Ds - kerala and westbengal falling to communism- >ravidian movements in tamilnadu whose legitimacy came from the fact that they were low caste movements- regionalism and the anti$hindi movemenet- v p singhs bringing out the old mandal commission report forever changing the political landscape in 12E2. in educational institutions central and state government services. <uelling the rise of backward caste and regional parties. ;ince then only coalitions. ,arasimha raos coalition that brought India out of economic crisis in 1221. ,>0 success as it lasted full term. /50 success as it lasted full term. ;cope for another coalition in the ne#t general elections.
=eservations

,dvantages of changing #olitics of re#resentation in India : !onsidered a Good development by many upsurge- better representation in centre for regional parties representing previously much underrepresented and marginali&ed people, states and regions. Greater diversity in decision making on national and international issues concerning development as well as foreign policy and finance. ;trengthening of federalism and states have become more assertive in matters of revenue sharing. 9ot of deliberation and discussion goes into making policy and taking decisions.
democratic

/nstable governments. >elay in decision making which becomes a problem particularly when decisions need to be made fast in times of emergency . lack of consensus on economical , foreign policy and strategic issues that leaves these decisions unmade . erosion of planning commission and centrali&ed planning system. democratic institutions be they regulatory or substantive have needed to be and thus are more proactive in their role as today they need to regulate competing and conflicting interest rather than adhering to the whims of a single political party in the centre.