Mechanics

Physics 151
Lecture 5
Central Force Problem (Chapter 3)

What We Did Last Time

Introduced Hamiltons Principle

Action integral is stationary for the actual path Derived Lagranges Equations Used calculus of variation Generalized (conjugate) momentum Symmetry Invariance Momentum conservation One more thing to cover

Discussed conservation laws

We are almost done with the basic concepts

Goals for Today

Energy conservation

Define energy function Subtle difference from the Newtonian version Motion of a particle under a central force Simplify the problem using angular momentum conservation Use energy conservation Distinguish bounded/unbounded orbits

Central force problem First application

Discuss qualitative behavior of the solution

Actual solution Thursday

Energy Conservation

Consider time derivative of Lagrangian

 j L , t ) dL(q, q L dq j L dq = + +  j dt dt t j q j dt j q

L d L Using Lagranges equation = q q dt j j one can derive L L d j q L + =0 t j dt q j

, t ) Define this as energy function h(q, q

Conserved if Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on t

Energy Function?

, t ) q j h( q, q
j

L L j q

Does energy function represent the total energy?

Lets try an easy example first

Single particle moving along x axis

2 mx L= V ( x) 2

2 L h = mx 2 mx = + V ( x) = T + V 2

Total energy

How general is this?

Energy Function

, t ) q j h( q, q
j

L L j q

Suppose L can be written as

 , t ) = L0 (q, t ) + L1 (q, q  , t ) + L2 (q, q , t ) L ( q, q

True in most cases of interest

L0 =0 j q L1 j q = L1 j q j

 2nd order in q  1st order in q

L2 j q = 2 L2 j q j

Derivatives satisfy

Eulers theorem

L , t ) q j h( q, q L = L2 L0 j q j

Energy Function
 , t ) = L2 L0 h( q, q

L = T V

Energy function equals to the total energy T + V if

T = L2 and V = L0

1st condition is satisfied if transformation from ri to qj is time-independent 2nd condition holds if the potential is velocity-independent No frictions Friction would dissipate energy

Lets look into the 1st condition

Kinetic Energy
dri ri j q = Using the chain rule dt j q j mi 2 mi  ri = 2 2 i i ri ri mi ri ri     q j qk = q j qk 2 q j qk j , k q j qk j ,k i
 No q

mi 2 i T = r 2 i

ri = ri (q1 ,..., qn )

Time-independent

2nd order homogeneous

This wouldnt work if ri = ri (q1 ,..., qn , t ) because

dri ri ri  = qj + t dt j q j

Energy Conservation

L , t ) q j L h( q, q j q j

Energy function equals to the total energy if

Constraints are time-independent Kinetic energy T is 2nd order homogeneous function of the velocities Potential V is velocity-independent Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on time

Energy function is conserved if

These are restatement of the energy conservation theorem in a more general framework

Conditions are clearly defined

Central Force Problem

Consider a particle under a central force

Force F parallel to r V is function of |r| if F is central

Assume F is conservative F = V (r )

Such systems are quite common

Planet around the Sun Satellite around the Earth Electron around a nucleus These examples assume the body at the center is heavy and does not move

Two-Body Problem

Consider two particles without external force

r1 and r2 relative to center of mass

2  2 2 mr  (m1 + m2 )R L= + i i V (r ) 2 2 i =1

m1
R

Lagrangian is
O

r1
CoM r m2
2

Motion of CoM Motion of particles around CoM

Potential is function of |r| = |r2 r1| Strong law of action and reaction

m2 r1 = r (m1 + m2 )

m1 r2 = r (m1 + m2 )

i2 1 m1m2 mi r 2  r = 2 2 (m1 + m2 ) i =1

2

Two-Body Central Force

2 1 mm (m1 + m2 )R 1 2  2 V (r ) L= + r 2 2 (m1 + m2 )

m1
r
R
CoM m2

R is cyclic

CoM moves at a constant velocity Move O to CoM and forget about it

L=

1 m1m2  2 V (r ) r 2 (m1 + m2 )

Relative motion of two particles is identical to the motion of one particle in a central-force potential

1 1 1 m1m2 = + Reduced mass = or m1 m2 (m1 + m2 )

Hydrogen and Positronium

Positronium is a bound state of a positron and an electron

e e+ e
p
q2 V (r ) = r

Similar to hydrogen except m(p) >> m(e+) Potential V(r) is identical Turn them into central force problem me me me positronium = = (me + me ) 2 m p me hydrogen = me ( m p + me )

Spectrum of positronium identical to hydrogen with me me/2

Spherical Symmetry

Central-force system is spherically symmetric

It can be rotated around any axis through the origin  2 ) V (r ) doesnt depend on the Lagrangian L = T (r direction Direction of L is fixed r L by definition r is always in a plane Polar axis = direction of L r = r ( r , , ) = r (r , )
Azimuth Zenith = 1/2

Angular momentum is conserved L = r p = const

Choose polar coordinates

L
O
r

More Formally

Lagrangian in polar coordinates r = r (r , , )

m 2 2 2 2 2 2  ) V (r )  + r sin + r L = T V = (r 2

is cyclic, but is not d L L 2 2 ) = 0  = mr ( sin cos  dt

We can choose the polar axis so that the initial condition is

 =0 = 2 ,

2nd term vanishes

 = 0

Now is constant. We can forget about it

Angular Momentum
m 2 2 2  + r ) V (r ) L = T V = (r 2

is cyclic. Conjugate momentum p conserves

L Magnitude of p =  = mr 2 = const l angular momentum Alternatively dr dA 1 2  Areal velocity = r = const dt 2

Keplers 2nd law True for any central force

dA

Radial Motion
d V ( r ) 2   (mr ) mr + =0 Lagranges equation for r r dt Derivative of V is the force V ( r )  = mr 2 + f (r ) mr f (r ) = r
Centrifugal force

m 2 2 2  + r ) V (r ) L = T V = (r 2

Central force

Using the angular momentum l

l = mr 2

l2  = mr + f (r ) 3 mr

We know how to integrate this. But we also know what well get by integrating this

Energy Conservation
m 2 2 2 m 2 1 l2  + r ) + V (r ) = r  + E = T + V = (r + V (r ) = const 2 2 2 2 mr

= r

2 l2 E V (r ) m 2mr 2

1st order differential equation of r NB: This never goes negative

One can solve this (in principle) by t r dr t = dt = = t (r ) 0 r0 l2 2 E V (r ) m 2mr 2 Then invert t(r) r(t) l  Then calculate (t) by integrating = mr 2

Done! (?)

Degrees of Freedom

A particle has 3 degrees of freedom

Eqn of motion is 2nd order differential 6 constants By saying time-derivative equals zero Left with 2 constants of integration = r0 and 0

Each conservation law reduces one differentiation

We used L and E 4 conserved quantities

We dont have to use conservation laws

Its just easier than solving all of Lagranges equations

Qualitative Behavior

Integrating the radial motion 2 l2 = r E V (r ) isnt always easy m 2mr 2

More often impossible

You can still tell general behavior by looking at

l2 Quasi potential including V (r ) V ( r ) + the centrifugal force 2mr 2 Energy E is conserved, and E V must be positive 2 2 mr mr E > V (r ) E= + V (r ) = E V (r ) > 0 2 2 Plot V(r) and see how it intersects with E

Inverse-Square Force

Consider an attractive 1/r2 force

k k f (r ) = 2 V (r ) = r r Gravity or electrostatic force k l2 V (r ) = + r 2mr 2 1/r2 force dominates at large r Centrifugal force dominates at small r A dip forms in the middle
l2 2mr 2

V (r ) k r

Unbounded Motion

Take V similar to 1/r2 case

V (r ) E1
1 2  mr 2

Only general features are relevant Particle can go infinitely far

E = E1 r > rmin E1 = V (rmin )

E2
Arrive from r =

r E3

E =V

Turning point

=0 r
A 1/r2 force would make a hyperbola

Go toward r =

Bounded Motion

E = E2 rmin < r < rmax

V (r ) E1 E2
E3
1 2  mr 2

Particle is confined between two circles

Goes back and forth between two radii

Orbit may or may not be closed. (This one isnt)

A 1/r2 force would make an ellipse

Circular Motion

E = E3 r = r0 (fixed)

V (r ) E1 E2
r E3 r0

Only one radius is allowed

Stays on a circle

E = V (r0 )

=0 r

r = const = r0

Classification into unbounded, bounded and circular motion depends on the general shape of V

Not on the details (1/r2 or otherwise)

Another Example
a V = 3 r

3a f = 4 r

a l2 V = 3 + 2mr 2 r

Attractive r-4 force

V has a bump Particle with energy E may be either bounded or unbounded, depending on the initial r

l2 2mr 2

E
r

Stable Circular Orbit

Circular orbit occurs at the bottom of a dip of V

2 mr = E V = 0 2 dV  = mr =0 dr

r = const

Top of a bump works in theory, but it is unstable

r
stable unstable

Initial condition must be exactly  = 0 and r = r0 r

d 2V Stable circular orbit requires >0 2 dr

r0

Power Law Force

dV l2 = f (r0 ) 3 = 0 dr r = r0 mr0 df dr

l2 V ( r ) V ( r ) + 2mr 2 d 2V df = 2 dr r = r dr
3l 2 + 4 >0 mr0

r = r0

<
r = r0

3 f (r0 ) r0

Suppose the force has a form f = kr n

k > 0 for attractive force Condition for stable circular orbit is knr0n 1 < 3kr0n 1 n > 3

Power-law forces with n > 3 can make stable circular orbit

Summary

Started discussing Central Force Problems

Reduced 2-body problem into central force problem Used angular momentum conservation

Problem is reduced to one equation

l2  = + f (r ) mr 3 mr

l2 Qualitative behavior depends on V ( r ) V ( r ) + 2mr 2 Unbounded, bounded, and circular orbits Condition for stable circular orbits

Next step: Can we actually solve for the orbit?