Generator Basics
GENERATOR BASICS
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Generator Basics
Generator Structure
• Generator is a machine which converts
Mechanical energy to Electrical energy
• Magnetic Induction Principle
• An emf is induced in a coil whenever
a) a coil cuts through a magnetic field
b) a magnetic field cuts through a coil
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Generator Basics
Generator Structure
• emf induction is due to relative motion
between two parts ( coil & magnetic field)
• Relative motion is by Rotation
• Two mechanical parts :
Field - Part which produces magnetism (Rotor)
Armature – part where emf is induced (Stator)
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Generator Basics
Generator Structure
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Generator Basics
Generator components
• Prime Mover
• Rotor (Exciter)
• Stator
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Generator Basics
Generator components- Prime mover
• Source of mechanical power for
relative motion
• Two classes of Prime movers :
High Speed : Steam & Gas Turbines
Low Speed : IC engines, Water turbines and
DC motors
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Generator Basics
Generator components- Prime mover
• Type of prime mover plays an important role
in a generator installation
Many characteristics of alternator
and its construction depend upon
Speed at which the rotor is turned.
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Generator Basics
Generator components- Rotors
• Two types are used in rotating field alternators
- Turbine driven rotor
( used where prime mover is a high speed turbine)
- salient pole rotor
( used with low speed prime movers)
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Generator components- Rotors
Generator Basics
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Generator Basics
Generator components- Stators
• Many types based on
- Power out put
- Voltage output
- Type of cooling
- Number of phases
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Generator components- Generator Basics
Simplified schematic of 3 ph. Stator
• Three single phase windings
displaced by 120 degrees
• Star or Delta connection
• Neutral may or may not be
brought out
• No. of terminals can be
3,4, or 6
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator
Three phase ac power at :
-Rated Voltage
-Rated Frequency
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator – Common Ratings
Small Generators : 25 kVA to 300 kVA
Medium Size Generators : 500 kVA to 1 MVA
Large size Generators : 1 MVA to 25 MVA
Power Plant Generators: 110 MW to 500 MW
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Frequency
• Frequency depends up on the
Speed of Rotation ( direct proportion)
• F = PN / 120 where
F = frequency in Hz
P = No. of poles
N = speed of rotation in RPM
( 120 is a constant to convert minutes to seconds
and poles to pole pairs)
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Frequency
• Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
• Generator frequency can vary due to
load fluctuations
• Frequency Regulation is mainly
by adjusting the speed
• speed is controlled by varying the fuel
input to the prime mover ( Governor control)
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Governors
• Governor ensures frequency at a set value
by increasing / decreasing the fuel input
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Governors
Two types of Governors :
Pneumatic : Fuel flow is controlled by
valve position control
Control Input : DC Voltage
Electronic : Fuel flow is controlled by
a total servo mechanism
Control input : DC Voltage pulses
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Generator Basics
Droop Characteristics of Governors
Speed
Load
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Voltage
• Voltage is induced in the stator winding
• Terminal voltage depends upon :
1) No. of conductors in series per winding
2) Speed at which magnetic field cuts the winding
3) Strength of the magnetic field
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator – Voltage Control
• Nominal Voltage = 415 V, 11 kV
• Voltage can vary due to load fluctuations
• Terminal voltage is controlled by
varying the Strength of magnetic field
= varying the current through the field coil
= varying the voltage applied to the field coil
(Exciter control)
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Generator Basics
Typical Exciter
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator – Exciters
External to Exciter Transformer
Generator Rectifier Unit
Controls
Built on the Small DC machine
Generator attached to same shaft
of generator
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Generator Basics
Typical Exciter
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Generator Basics
Neutral terminal
• Very important from the point of view of
a) reducing the fault currents
b) providing effective protection
• should be used for medium size and above
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Generator Basics
Neutral Grounding Resistors
Protect generators from excessive fault currents
Provides safety for operators
Provides protection for connected equipment
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Generator Basics
Generator Impedance
X
Synchronous Reactance
Transient reactance
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
ϕ = 0o (360O) FORWARD RESISTIVE
ϕ = +30o FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +60o FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +90o FORWARD CAPACITIVE (LOSS OF FIELD)
ϕ = +120o REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWADRD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +150o REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +180o REVERSE RESISTIVE
ϕ = +210o (-150O) REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE
ϕ = +240o (-120O) REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE
ϕ = +270o (-90O) FORWARD INDUCTIVE
ϕ = +300o (-60O) FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE
ϕ = +330o (-30O) FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE
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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Influence of Rotor on Stator
Influence of Stator on Rotor
Effect of Load on Generator
Effect of excitation on Generator Impedance
Influence of generator on prime mover
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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Influence of Rotor on Stator
• Only variable is excitation current
• Terminal voltage is proportional to
Excitation current
• Will influence Generator impedance
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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Influence of Stator on Rotor
• Only variable is the load
• Unbalance loads can cause rotor heating
• Excessive loads can cause out of step
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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Effect of Load on Generator
• Load will decide the pF of generator
• Over loads can cause speed reduction
• Unbalance loads can cause over heating
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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Effect of excitation on Generator Impedance
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Generator Basics
Power output from Generator
Active power kW Controlled by Governor
Reactive Power kVA Controlled by Exciter
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
TYPES OF GENERATORS
TURBO GENERATOR
DIESEL GENERATOR
HYDRO GENERATOR
WIND GENERATOR
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
SUB SYSTEMS OF GENERATORS
PRIME MOVER
EXCITATION SYSTEM
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
GOVERNOR
COOLING SYSTEM
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FAULTS IN GENERATOR
EXTERNAL FAULTS
INTERNAL FAULTS
ROTOR EARTH FAULT
FAULTS RELATED TO SUB SYSTEMS
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EXTERNAL FAULTS
OVER LOADING
UNBALANCE LOADING
SHORT CIRCUIT
EARTH FAULT
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INTERNAL FAULTS
PHASE TO PHASE FAULTS IN
WINDINGS
PHASE TO EARTH FAULTS
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ROTOR EARTH FAULT
DOUBLE EARTH FAULT TRIPPING
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FAULTS RELATED TO SUB-SYSTEMS
UNDER VOLTAGE
OVER VOLTAGE
UNDER FREQUENCY
OVER FREQUENCY
REVERSE POWER
LOSS OF EXCITATION
LOW-FORWARD POWER
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
TYPES OF FAULTS (STATOR SIDE)
VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT
THERMAL OVER LOAD
CURRENT UNBALANCE
OVER VOLTAGE
UNDER VOLTAGE
OVER FREQUENCY
UNDER FREQUENCY
LOSS OF FIELD
REVERSE POWER
UNDER POWER
OUT OF STEP
INADVERTANT ENERGISATION
EARTH FAULT (100%)
EARTH FAULT (95%)
GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL
OVER EXCITATION (V/Hz)
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
TYPES OF FAULTS (ROTOR SIDE)
ROTOR EARTH FAULT
EXCITATION UNDER VOLTAGE
EXCITATION UNDER CURRENT
DIODE FAILURE
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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
11 kV GENERATOR PROTECTION
11000/110v
r 27 59 81
400/5 49 51V 46 40 32 37 64
400/5
87G
6.6 MW
G
400/5
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT
- WHEN O/C FAULT, TERMINAL VOLTAGE REDUCES.
- RELAY MAY NOT TRIP, SINCE FAULT CURRENT
THROUGH RELAY MAY BE LESS THAN SET POINT
NECESSARY TO VARY THE O/C PICK UP SETTING
WITH RESPECT TO VOLTAGE
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT
I*/ [I>]
1.0
0.2
0.2 0.8 V/Vs
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD IN GENERATORS
GENERATOR WILL OVER SPEED &
OPERATE AS AN INDUCTION GENERATOR
(OVER SPEEDS OF THE ORDER OF 2 TO 5% )
GENERATOR WILL CONTINUE TO DELIVER POWER
WILL DERIVE EXCITATION FROM THE SYSTEM
STATOR CURRENT WILL BE 200%
THERE WILL BE HEAVY ROTOR CURRENT
RESULTS IN OVER HEATING
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD IN GENERATORS
PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN
ANGLE ϕ VOLTAGE & CURRENT
IMPEDANCE REPLICA OF
ANGLE α PHASE ANGLE
α = 360O - ϕ
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD IN GENERATORS
ϕ
α
Z
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
ϕ = 0o (360O) FORWARD RESISTIVE
ϕ = +30o FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +60o FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +90o FORWARD CAPACITIVE (LOSS OF FIELD)
ϕ = +120o REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWADRD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +150o REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE
ϕ = +180o REVERSE RESISTIVE
ϕ = +210o (-150O) REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE
ϕ = +240o (-120O) REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE
ϕ = +270o (-90O) FORWARD INDUCTIVE
ϕ = +300o (-60O) FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE
ϕ = +330o (-30O) FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD X
PROTECTION
Z
NORMAL
R
LOSS OF
FIELD
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD X
PROTECTION
Z
NORMAL
R
K1
LOSS OF
FIELD K2
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
REVERSE POWER GENERATORS
GENERATOR WILL BECOME MOTOR
HARMFUL TO THE PRIME MOVER
( STEAM TURBINE WILL OVER HEAT)
(DIESEL ENGINE WILL EXPLODE DUE
TO UNBURNT FUEL)
(HYDRAULIC TUBINE WILL HAVE CAVITATION)
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
STATOR EARTH FAULT
95% EARTH FAULT NORMAL RELAY
100% EARTH FAULT SPECIAL RELAY
SENSES ABSENCE
OF 3RD HARMONICS
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
STATOR EARTH FAULT
0%
95 TO 100%
95%
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
INADVERTANT ENERGISATION
- APPLICATION OF FULL VOLTAGE AT
STANDSTILL
COASTING TO STOP
BEFORE SYNCHRONISM
- PRESENCE OF UNBALANCE VOLTAGE DUE TO
FLASH OVER AT IONE OR TWO POLES OF BREAKER
GENERATOR FORCED TO START AS
INDUCTION MOTOR RESULTING IN MECHANICAL
DAMAGES TO PRIME MOVER AND EXCESSIVE
HEATING IN THE ROTOR
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
V/Hz PROTECTION
- INCORRECT VOLTAGE REGULATOR ACTION
- LOAD THROW - OFF
- SUDDEN OVER VOLTAGE / OVER FREQUENCY
RESULTS IN OVER FLUXING OF GENERATOR
AND OVER HEATING
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LOAD SHARING OF GENERATORS
BC1 BC2
BUS-1 BUS-2 BUS-3
r r
r B1 r B2 r B3 PT3
PT1 PT2
L L L L
L L S S S S
S S - R R R R
R R CT3
CT1 CT2
G1 G2 PULSES FOR G3 PULSES FOR
PULSES FOR GOVERNOR & GOVERNOR &
GOVERNOR & EXCITER EXCITER
EXCITER
LSR = LOAD SHARING RELAY
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GRID ISLANDING SCHEME
GRID INCOMER
TRANSFORMER
REVERSE POWER RELAY
LOW FORWARD POWER RELAY
UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
DIRECTIONAL O/C + E/F RELAY
r
r rr r
dF/dT RELAY
UNDER FREQ. RELAY
DG
OVER FREQ. RELAY PLANT
VECTOR SURGE RELAY LOADS
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SYNCHRONISATION OF GENERATORS
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SYNCHRONISING IS THE PROCESS OF
ELECTRICALLY CONNECTING
TWO AC POWER SOURCES WITH
ROTATING MACHINES
WITHOUT ANY DISTURBANCE TO
EXISTING SYSTEM AND
WITHOUT ANY DAMAGE TO THE
EXISTING SYSTEM
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SYNCHRONISATION
SINGLE GENERATOR TO A BUS
(DEAD BUS / LIVE BUS SYNCH.)
MULTIPLE GENERATORS TO A BUS
(SIZE, VINTAGE, RESPONSE TIMES)
AUTO CHANGEOVER IN BUS CONNECTIONS
MANUAL & AUTO SYNCHRONISATION
REVERSE SYNCHRONISATION
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PARAMETERS GOVERNING
SYNCHRONISATION :
VOLTAGE
FREQUENCY
PHASE ANGLE
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SYNCHRONISING OF GENERATORS
COMMON BUS
r B1 r B2
PT1 PT2
SCM 21
G1 G2
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RESULTS OF INCORRECT SYNCHRONISATION
FREQUENCY ACTIVE POWER FLOW
HIGH FREQ. TO LOW FREQ.
PHASE ANGLE JOLT TO THE SYSTEM
FATIGUE TO SHAFT
DAMAGE TO BEARINGS
OVER HEATING OF STATOR
VOLTAGE REACIVE POWER FLOW
HIGH VOLTAGE TO LOW VOLTAGE
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REVERSE SYNCHRONISATION
GRID INCOMER
TRANSFORMER
r rr r
DG
PLANT
LOADS
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
TYPES OF PARALLEL OPERATION
MULTIPLE GENERATORS ON A COMMON BUS
WITHOUT CONNECTION TO GRID
GENERATORS CONNENCTED TO GRID IN
IMPORT ONLY MODE
GENERATORS CONNECTED TO GRID IN
IMPORT + EXPORT MODE
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED
BASIC PROTECTIONS
•SEQUENTIAL STARTING & SYNCHRONISATION
•NEUTRAL SWITCHING LOGIC
• INSTABILITY & HUNTING AT HIGHER POWER O/P
•CASCADED TRIPPING ON LOAD FLUCTUATION
•REVERSE POWER FLOW DUE TO BREAKER FAILURE
•POOR POWER FACTOR
•EFFECT OF GRID DISTURBANCES &
GRID ISLANDING SCHEMES
•LOAD MANAGEMENT AFTER ISLANDING
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
BASIC PROTECTIONS
OVER CURRENT + E/F
THERMAL OVER LOAD
UNDER VOLTAGE + OVER VOLTAGE
UNDER FREQUENCY + OVER FREQUENCY
LOSS OF FIELD
CURRENT UNBALANCE
REVERSE POWER
DIFFERENTIAL + REF
ROTOR E/F
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
SEQUENTIAL STARTING & SYNCHRONISATION
AMF SCHEME
STARTING LOGIC
AUTO SYNCHRONISATION
- DEAD BUS SYNCHRONISATION (FIRST MACHINE)
STARTING/ STOPPING OF GENERATOR NEXT IN LINE
- LIVE BUS SYNCHRONISATION
(SUBSEQUENT MACHINES)
PT SWITCHING LOGIC
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
SEQUENTIAL STARTING & SYNCHRONISATION
MAINS FAILURE
DETECTION
I/C TRIP &
STARTING LOGIC
3 ATTEMPT
STARTERS
PT SWITCHING
LOGIC
AUTO SYNCH. OF
GENERATORS
CUT IN – CUT OUT
LOGIC
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
NEUTRAL SWITCHING LOGIC
MASTER GENERATOR NEUTRAL TO BE GROUNDED
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
INSTABILITY AT HIGHER O/P & CASCADED TRIPPING
ERRATIC RESPONSE TO LOAD FLUCTUATIONS
- DIFFERENT SIZES OF GENERATORS
- DIFFERENT VINTAGES OF GENERATORS
IMROPER LOAD ALLOCATION TO
EACH GENERATOR
OPERATOR’S LIMITATIONS
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GENERATORS ON COMMON BUS – AUTO LOAD SHARING SCHEME
BC1 BC2
BUS-1 BUS-2 BUS-3
r r
r B1 r B2 r B3 PT3
PT1 PT2
L L L L
L L S S S S
S S - R R R R
R R CT3
CT1 CT2
G1 G2 PULSES FOR G3 PULSES FOR
PULSES FOR GOVERNOR & GOVERNOR &
GOVERNOR & EXCITER EXCITER
EXCITER
LSR = LOAD SHARING RELAY RRS
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
REVERSE POWER FLOW
G1 STOPS DUE TO
BC1 MECHANICAL PROBLEMS
BUS-1 BUS-2
r B1 WILL NOT TRIP
r B1 r B2 G2 WILL FEED G1
PT1 PT2
RELAY RELAY
R1 - R2
CT1 CT2
G1 G2
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Fig. -2
GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
POOR POWER FACTOR
GRID
KEEP RATIO OF
KW/KVAr CONSTANT
r
BUS-1 REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
r PT1 SOURCE
L L
S S
R R
CT1
G1 PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER
LSR09873171145
= LOAD SHARING RELAY scsrex@gmail.com
Fig. -3
GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
HANDLING OF GRID DISTURBANCES
GRID FAILURE
GRID FAULT
OVER LOAD IN THE GRID
UNDER / OVER VOLTAGE IN THE GRID
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
GRID ISLANDING SCHEME
GRID INCOMER
TRANSFORMER
REVERSE POWER RELAY
LOW FORWARD POWER RELAY
UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
DIRECTIONAL O/C + E/F RELAY
r
r rr r
dF/dT RELAY
UNDER FREQ. RELAY
DG
OVER FREQ. RELAY PLANT
VECTOR SURGE RELAY LOADS
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
LOAD MANAGEMENT AFTER ISLANDING
LOAD SHEDDING
- FREQUENCY BASED
- POWER BASED
LOAD SHADING
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
REVERSE SYNCHRONISATION
AUTO SYNCHRONISING
LOCATION OF SYNCHRONISING
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THANK YOU
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