Switching Languages ‘Translingual Writers Reflect on ‘Their CraftGGT Acland ml Coy Cony sty sy Neha Pr A ‘Scare Morel Ud Seo An Sil nue wie ls scl! dy Sen Kon oo cosas spam aaeppe)—ae Sosio7 (Gece) etme et se Ns Contents, Prefice Proclamations An Introduction "The Rosd to Babel, Manifest de Prago ‘The Prague Manifesto (Cnglish tanslaon) French, Language of Culture How to Tame a Wild Tongue Conversions Initiation My English Interview wih Ha fin My American Begining eaInerview with Chang-ae Lee even Lanse ‘ne tae nT Langues ‘uvbigapicl Easy Kostas (Cuando era puertorriquetia ‘ingul n Peso Bio Dany Controversies Mca xobel wa rasone’o Imperialism of Language: English, Language forthe World? “Aican Speech... English Words "The Afican Writer and the English Language saxon mm English andthe Afikaans Weiter "The Black Afrikaans Water A. Contining Dichotomy 97 03 19 135, 37 39 os 167 169 183, 185 1 203 = India From the Authors Foreword to Kanthapura Damme, This Is the Oriental Scene for You! ‘Response to Salman Rushdie Deprrations Living in Translation From “Becoming Anglicised” ‘oustavo vine2 rset Dedication Resistance From The Pla ofthe Bye From "Writing in dhe Language ofthe Other” From “Words: A Basket of Love” Source Acknowledgments Index 239 23 245 261 263 267 289 oo 205, 209 sot 309) su 39 3a 7Preface ‘Teanslingual authors — those who write in more dhan one language ‘rina language other than thee primary one ~ are the prodigies of ‘word iterature. By expressing themselves in mukiple verbal sy tems, they flaunt cei freedom fom the constrains of the culture into which they happen to have been born. And they challenge the pronouncement by George Santayana (who himself composed in English, not his natve Spanish) that ahentic poetry can be writ ten only in the language ofthe lllabis the poets mother sang ‘Though most ofthe word's population ie atleast ing, few excel even in the native tongue, "No tansingual is more dazaling than Vladimir Nabokow, who produced major work in Russian and in English, Prem Chand pioneered modem fiction in Urdu and then proceeded to da the ‘ame in Hind and Mendele Mother Sfora i as important othe bistory of Yiddish literature a hei that of Hebrew erate. "Through is plays and novel, Samuel Becket became a formid ble figere in pwentith-centary French literature, though, born i Dial, he didnot Team the langge at his mosher's knees. And Joseph Conrad néJoref Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski reinvented himself asa distinguished English novelist, though he eame to English, after Polish and French, only in his twenties and, 10 his ying day, spoke the language with an aecent 0 thick it war some: times incomprehensible to his wifes, ‘But, lustrated by the example of Andret Makne, ransinguals an be strated and resented as much a admired. Born in Sibe sian 1957, Makine grew up speaking Russian but adoring French,Tis “grandmaternal tongue ~ the language of his beloved grand smother and ofthe cltre he cherished from afr After emigrating to Parisi 1987, Make wrote fon, notin his naive Russian but in French, Homeve, tempts to ge is work published were re- buffed. Protective of language whose influence has waned since ‘he reign of Louis XIV, Napoleon, and Charles de Gaulle, editors in Pars dismissed Makine ain the phrase he employs in his ‘utobiogephicl fourth novel Dream of My Russian Summers (Le “Testament fiangas), “some fanny litle Russian who thought he could writin French”* ‘Determined to write and publish in French, Makin ried agin, ‘his ime ting editors that hie submission was a French translation ‘of work he hal originally writen in Rusia, Te ruse worked, and the book was published and prited expecially forthe quality of ts “antag.” When an edi insisted on checking the manuscript of Makine’s second nove against the “orignal the author hastily “Soucoted a bogus source hy translating his French into Russian, By 1995, wen the prestigious publishing house Gallimaed brought coat Dreams of My Russian Siommers, Makine ceased needing 0 pretend. He became the fs non-Frenchman evr to win dhe Prix Goncourt, and his was te fst book ever to win both the Prix ‘Goncourt and the Prix Medicis, No longer squalid seeret, Ma in’s eanslingalist made his literary achievement seem all the more remarkable Tor the upstart Makine to ave earned the highest honors in & cle, the Frenchy that ofen defines itself through preserving, ‘efending, and extolling ts cherished ut embattled national ln guage was extraordinary. Yet talented cranslinguals have increas Fngly been forcing eades throughout dhe world to reconsider iter~ ay categories and loyalties. ‘Though his work in English is not ‘aly a brliant asin his native Ruin, Joseph Brodsky served as poet Iareate of the United States, and Ha Jn, an migrant from ‘China, won the Naonal Book Award barely a dozen yearfter he took up English. Brain’s most prestigious wibue for fiction, the Booker Prize, has besa bestowed on several trashing nelad- Preface ing JM. Cootee, Keri Hulme, Kanu Ishiguro, Ruth Prawer ab: vals, Ben Ol, Arundhati Roy, and Salman Rushdie. And dhe mort ‘oweted literary award in dhe wll the Nobel Prize, hain recent ‘decades gone to transinguals Gao Xingian, Joseph Brodsky, Wole Soyinka, Elias Canes, Samuel Beckett, and. ¥. Agnon. isdn enough o write well in one’s primary lnguage. And. itis reasonable to suapect Fal or gen from someone who writes in & second, third, oF even fourth language. When Voltaire pre- sented Candide an 3 translation from German, the prestige med for serious philosophy, he was esting, Osia, James Macpherson's spurious specimen of third-centary Gaelic verse, was prebably the ‘most notorious case of tranaingal counterfeit But when Nabo- ko, wi grew up in St Petersburg, published Lolita in exquisite American sentences (which he himself depreated as “a second- rate brand of English”) he was demonstrating biliant dexterity and mock humili In Russian, English, and even French, Nabo ov wat an extraordinary virtuoso of itrary language So, too, was Apuleius, who emerged ffom the margins ofthe Ronan Ezpire to master Latin prose. Born in Hippo, in what ie now Algeria, Apuleius went on to study Greek belore taking up atin, the language in which he composed The Gales, 2 ‘mathless conte romp that efits Virginia Wool’ contention dha, “Humours the fest of the gifs to perish in a foreign tongue" Tei rectly the haxuriace ~ the prodigious vocabulary and ornate syntax = of Apuleius’ Latin dhat makes the original text of The Golden As such a challenge to the modern reader. As a linguistic interloper, Aplus has mach more to prove than native masters like Virgil or Horace, and he bogins his famous book by pleading forgiveness ~ elegant, disingennously - for any erudeness in his ‘ue of Lain En ecce prefs veniam i quid exotic ae forensis sermonis rds locuta ffendero” (I st erave and beg your pa don, lest I should happen to dspleaseorofend any of you by the rude and rustic utterance of this strange and foreign language)? "The cave of Apuleius isa reminder that talingualinm sas old as mythical Babel, where, fragmented among diferent tongues, humanPreface ‘bing iret found the need to we more than one. Much of ancient Tati iterate was created by inguiste iteopers, authors ~ such 6 Lucan, Maral, Quinlan, and Seneca fom Iberias Ausonins fom Gaui and Augustine and Terence from Aca who chose to appropriate the language of imperial Rome. Viewally all eo-Lain Tteratre was written by analingvals, authors inchuding Petrarch, Deseartes, Erasmus, and Milton for whom Lain was the medium ‘ofa common European cultae but not of thee household. They, too, rete Santayana, Latin has not been the only imperil language, the authoritative form of discourse linking 2 far-ung and diverse population. Arabi, Mandarin, Persian, Rassian and Sanskrit have been others. During the peti of European colonialism, aspiring authors in Alfica, Asia, ad dhe Americas advanced thee ambitions by determining to writen English, French, Portuguese, or Spanish. Spanish iterature of the Wester hemisphere began, i fact, in teanslingualsm, when Garclso de a Veg chose not write Com- ‘entaras reali his naive Quechua. Of approximately five dhou- ‘and langages currendy spoken throughout the world, not many ‘more than 3 couple of donen are of practical value fr establishing and sustaining a Uiterary career. Though their mothers may have ‘sung them to slep in Berber, children who aim to get published are ‘well advised to svitch to Arabic or French. Because it was the donna language ofthe Soviet Union, Fal Iskander chose to ‘write in Russian rather than his native Abkhazian Whea Black Ek spoke, in his famous reminiscences, it was in Lakota, but what fated thei fume ithe fac that John G. Neihart gave readers acces to der in Eis Wir, disease, funine, plitcl oppression, and economic hard ship have cotsibuted to an unprecedented movement of popula- tions across the glabe in recent decades; one estimate puts the current figure at ore than 10 milion migrants* And migration js + powerfal motive for wansingualim, for asinlating to and through the Iangnage of a new environment, Clarice Lispector ‘wrote in Portagvese not because of any special determination on her par, but because while till a young gi, she was taken by her parents fom her naive Ukine to sete in Bra. Though born "Tomas Strasser in Crechosovakia, Tom Stoppard became an English playwright because his father died and his mother then married a British officer who moved them al to England, And Phils Wheatley the frst African American poct, switched ln srnges fom Fon to English, under dures, afer being abducted ftom West Aca and sold to Boston merchant at about the age of ‘Yetfor others translingualism isa way to vaunt their fcedom, No ternal pressure compelled Becket, who was already publishing ‘important workin English, to switch to French, excep the perverse lallenge of renouncing the advantages of native uency. Another Irishman, Oscar Wilde wrote one of his play, Salome, in French recaely inorder to he ery, to disturb the Bish, “Frangais de syupatie je ui Ilandais de race et les Anglais n'ont condaning 2 paler le lngage de Shakespeare” (French by sympathy, am Trish by race, and che English have condemned me wo speak the Tanguage of Shakespeare), he explained in French, rejecting dhe Tinguntic destiny cast for im by others? When ambilinguals ‘writers fluent and accomplished in more than one Fngnage ‘commit themselves to one, i sems an afimation of individual sovereignty “Ihave no recollection whatever of st language: So faras [am avare, I possess equal currency in English, French and Germany" proclaims George Stine, re to determine for himself ‘the language ofeach literary project When Kamala Das decides ‘ach time between English and Malayalam, she isin the postion af Mouar, free to compote hie concerto for ether oboe or fie, depending onthe particular sonoides he wishes to explore a the ‘moment, just as Morar later mnacribed for Qute a concerto he ‘wrote for oboe, Itk Dinesen translated into Danish many of the stores she had conceived in English Recounting in her aobiography, The Promised Land, how she recreated herself in America, in English, Mary Antin erases any ‘race of anguish over abandoning her native Viddish. Yet not every ‘runing acts triumphal. “Thad to work ike oal-minr in hi‘it quarrying all my English sentences out of lack night com planed Conrad about the ordeal of writing in his adopted lan tuage? “To change languages? quipped E. M. Cioran, who ex: ‘hanged Romanian fr French, "isto write a love leter with a ‘icsonary Despite ealy succes writing fetion in English, Yu ‘Lia, an immigract to Americ, discovered constants when she ‘vied to express herein a langage lento her community. “They [the publishers] were only interested in stores hat the pattern of | (Oriental exotics ~ the fet binding of women and dhe addition of opium-smokng men." she told an interviewer. “I dda’ want to ‘wrt that staf. I wanted to write about the stugae of Chinese migrants im Anecan soc" And she did, move fel, by reverting to her native Chinese. “As much as fesh and blood, we are composed of an by words Homo sapiens i species defined by language, then switching the language entail transforming the self. While it canbe Herat ing, disearding one's native tongue is also profoundly unsetings it means constricting 2 new identity sylable by syllable. Some tuthors~ jlo Corts in Pars, Iaac Bashevs Singer in New York, Paul Bowles in Tanger, Nelly Sachs in Sweden, Bara Pound in Kay, Alexander Solhentayn in Vermont, Robert Graves in “Majorca, Malcolm Lowry in Mesico, James Joyce in Test, Zur rie and Paris ~ stubbornly cling other naive tongues amid an alien ambience. Caelaw Milos’ explanation for why he pesistsin ting Polish adhe medium of his poetry and prose even aftr five ‘decades in California suggests some of the ansiey as wellaseila- ‘on in translingual writing: “In my rection of imposing a pro found change on myself by going over to writing in a diferent Tanguage, I perceive a ear oflosing my identity, because ii certain that when we switch languages we become someone else” Refasing to lose his identity a a Russian author, Ina Babel lost, his fe instead. The ease of Babel, five years oder than Nabokow tees tothe power of vector esisting ranslngualism. By 1955, ‘when he last visited his wife and daughter in exile in Paris, Babel ‘va acutely aware ofthe bral dangees awaiting him back in Stax Preface Tins Rawsia, Some of Babel aris stores, dating Kom his ado lescence in Odessa, were writen in French, Yet, incapable of imag ining himslf doing anything but writing, of writing in any language >but Rossian, and of writing Rassian in any land but Rusia, he chose to retra to Moscow: Cynthia Oric ip accurate in her aim that executed by Sing quad on 7 January 1940, "Babe sacrificed Is feo is language? tis not cay t pin down Proteus, and few gnerzation about the protean experiences oftransinguals are val. But evo powekal snd antithetical forces seem to be at work when authors switch languages: populism anc formalism. Authors ty wo trade in the ‘common verbal currency; but some also aim to purify the tanished ‘words ofthe tbe, Wiliam Wordsworth evlitonied the writing ‘of English poetry when, in his 1800 preface to Lyrical Ballads, he proclaimed dat his intention was “to choose incidents and sta ‘ons rom common life, and to relate or describe them, throughout, as far as was possible, ina slecon of language realy used by ‘men.” No longer would there bea specialized lesion of “poctc language” - precious word ike “orsooth,” “ver” or “whim” — that are deliberately appropriated to differentiate a text from ordi nary speech. Embracing the vermacular, many authors ofthe past rillenniam (om Chaucer though Whisman and ‘Twain to the Tats shim poet have trie to erate boundaries between writen and spoken language. Andis toward that en, because code switching js common in conversations among contemporary Latinas, that Gloria Anzaleia, Lorna Dee Cervantes, Sandra Cisneros, Angela de Hoyos, and others aerate between English and. Spanish within a single writen line twas an urge tard verismiitde that ‘coupled John Sayles to teach himself enough ofthe langage to tender most of the dslogue in Los gusanes (991), a novel about Cuban exiles, in Spanish, the language his charicters would surely thie used, Because he et iall somewhere south of Mexico, Sayles ‘made virtually all of his flm Hombres armades/Men with Guns (2997) in Spanish Dante began composing his Commedia in Latin but soonPrefice ‘itched to alin, arguing in De ulgar cequentia (a Latin!) tat ‘he tongue actully spoken in Florence coud be atleasas eloquent the revered language of ancient Rome. The hegemony of Latin ‘was shattered when, during the ate Male Ages and the Renas- sance, authors throvghout Europe began to employ their local ‘vemaculats, The immediate consequence might have been to dis ‘courage tranlingualsms readers and writers in cach country could ‘now ignore Latin, once they as schoolboys (and very few school: ‘lk had survived compulsory instruction in its eonjagations and ‘elensions But inthe lng term, the mosive for terry language ‘switching was strengthened. Even within the bounds of France alone, authors discovered a multitude of languages, dialets, and register. To convey theif around them, itwas not possible to rely ‘ons standardized, fronen classical language or even a single native ‘one. The bard of contemporary Queens, said to be the most el nically diverse spt in the word, wonld sound ludicrous in Latin but alo deficient if oblivious to Arabi, Chinese, Hind, Korean, Rassam, Spanish, and dozens of other languages spoken on dhe borough's stret. For his masterpiece of immigration fiction, Call 1t Slrp (1934), Henry Roth, whose fist language was Yiddish, managed to rene Engi prose suppl enough to carry echoes of Yiddish, Polish, German, and Halin. Switching tongues is the natural way to negotiate a moe universe "Yet many authors adopt thee vocation and their style precisely bbecause they wish to cultivate something ematural, because they ae intent on devising » writen language that is distinet fom the ‘spoken ones. Bor mach ofthe history of Japan, some of that ma ‘is finest authors composed in Chinese, even during periods of| political and cultural autonomy and even ifthey lacked any wish to emigrate to Xian. To erate kane (poetry in Chinese) ot Raman (prose in Chinese) was ~ somewhat ike indalgng in habana, dhe ‘nation of formal fever arrangement - to ubmit oneself wo dhe lscipline ofa ruble art esteemed all dhe more for is ata, [Nor did it preclude wring poetry and prose in Japanese as well “Translingnaism became an exacting eerie in gratuitous creation Unlike Wordswouh, a modem poet in Tangiers, Gato, or De :masous who employs classical Arabic is less concerned with de- ‘moti ambitions of simulating ordinary speech than with probing the exacting possiiles of inherited conventions. To the extent that it overtly ifensits isl from prose, pocty in many cl- tures dellees and distort she language really used by men and ‘women, Outside the privileged space of verse, ew of us rae our thoghts in tera rma or anavophe. Even fre vetse is inerendy translngyl, forging a new, unnatural language out ofthe shards of ‘common speach. But the same could be said of erated prose. The French language even reserves special version of the preterit, called the se ipl and never employed in speech, wo designate Iiterary nage its presence signals we are reading a novel or short, story and in ect rete the separate literary language that Words- ‘worth rejected When Hilda Dooite, TS. lt, ames Joyce, and Ena Pound pit their texts with swatches of Grek, Latin, French, ‘German, Ilan, Gace, Chinese, and Sanskrit, dhe ranlingualism is not driven by concer for versie, Nor is thee polyglot Project exclusively modern In the twelfth century, the abhess nd Inystic Hildegard vom Bingen was mixing German and Lain in an alphabet of her own invention to do what all poets esently do: ‘rete their own verbal universe. But when Rolando Hingjose ‘Sait jumps fom Spanish wo English in his Kil City Death Trip, cycle of novels that aces Chicano experience inthe Ro Grande alley throughout the twentieth century, he is echoing acual speech, not patenting x new language. All of which is to say ha dhe aspirations and achievements of traning ahora alos as varied a dhe languages hey Link ‘When I tied to sarey the phenomenon in The Tranlongual Imag. ination (Univesity of Nebraska Press, 2000), ooked at hundreds ‘of examples and discovered that, chough switching languages has a long antiquity, the business has been particularly brisk in re ‘cent years. Andxé Aciman, Jia Abvare, Edwidge Dantct, Assia Djebar, Ariel Dosfnan, Rosario Ferré, Uraula Hogi, Aleksandar Hemon, Kazuo Ishiguro, Ha Jin, Milan Kundera, Chang-ae Les,‘Ann Maalouf, Andret Maine, Anchee Min, Lue Sane, Vikram Seth, Ahduf Souci, and Han Stavans ae just few of the many authors who have ltl found readers in languages other than thee primary ones The switch from Spanish to English or from Arabic to French snot uncommon, but the ranks of eontemporary tans- lingual also include Amina Darko, who writes in German though she grew up in Ghana, and Lala Wang, a Chinese émigrée who writes tion in Doth. ‘Switching Languages is designed to allow translingwal authors to speak for themselves about their own experience. Among mate- tials alle for inclsion and, if necessary, translation, texts were selected hat represent the range of wanslingual experience ~ fom ‘Mary Ani's tamphal retin ofa new self writing in American gis to Marjorie Agosa's lure to felat home in New England except wher ung Spanish, Texts have bees organized to reflect a specu of responses to tranlnguais, kom afimaton through lamentation to ejection. Languages represented by the authors in this coletion ince Afikans, Arabi, Chinese, Dutch, English, Esperano, French, sin, German, Hebrew, Hind, Igbo, Iris, Kannada, Kikuyu, Korean, Malayalam, Sere, Spanish, Urdu, Vier ramese, nd Yiddish, None ofthe slections is more than a centary ‘ld, because, in searching for appropriate mater T found dat, though switching languages is nothing ney sustained discussion of the phenomenon is relatively recent, Like The Trenslengual Imagi natin, this anthology is ofered in the hope of finding suitable Tataguage to animate that dseusion, Tam gratefl to the University of Nebraska Press for its support of my two-part project and to Tl Stavans for encouraging me to aserble this collection. To expres my grande to Wendy Barks, hack appropriate language. Notes 1s Ande Maine Dramsef My son Sumer, ras Cea Sine (New Yor Arde 07 1 Making, Dm of My i Sammars p20 Preface {Mladic Naoko, tong Opin (NewYork: McGee HA, 3) 4 Vingjina Wool "On Not Knowing Grek" The Coenen Ready, vol (Condon: Hope, 9) 5: Aplin, The Galdn Beng he Metamorph of Laci eins, sith on English Trnaton by dingo (Camb, Mews: Har Usiverey Pe, 97}2-9. (Peer Sake, Woke ithe Proin: The npc of labia on Internal irtion Geneve eterna Labour Onion, 2008. 7 eter to Edmond de Gonna, 27 December gcd i Rcd nan, Ost Mid Now Yorks Aled A. Kop 988}, 355 8: Geog Sines, Extra Ppersn Lilet ed he Langage Retain Sew Yok Athen, 97,85. 9 Late Edvard Care 3 Noga 108; cen Jan Aube one Conrad: Life ad Later, vol (Now York Doubled, Pea Company 7 8 101 EM. Coa, Avathonas ad Admirations, tans. Richard Howard (er Yk Arden) 82 1 Cid in in bang Yin Chine Amero iterate since he 850 (Un: Unive of Minis Pre 200 10, ‘Guan Mion, ilar’ ac tne. Made. Levine (New York a, Sea anGit, 00) 0. 13. Cyt Och The Yar Weng Danger” New Republi 8 May 1 Willan Wordsworth, “Pree totbe Second Bain of yi Ballads in Critical They sine Plate Haar Adan (Bt North 1 Harcourt Bec Jovani 958 48Proclamations‘KAMALA DAS (1934-) Bocn in Malabar to an alu and eminent trary family, Kamala Nair grew up in Caleuta. At the age of iten she maid relave, K Madhava Daya much ole mano whom se bore thre sons. Her abiogapy, My Sty, wat publihed in 976 Defying taboos on the belavior of uppecclss marsied women, Dastas been outspoken and consoverilin her vews on sexual, poles, and ote pis. She has pained, un —unaucesly~ for public office and writen a widely read eam Das is tie Lng ~in ind, Engi nl Mayle ites mono her fon in Malaya, ander the pen tame Madhavi, and most of hex poet in Engh, ap Kamala Des. Her Malayalam ton incudes Playa (3990), Neybayasem (go), and Dayaribberif- ‘ual (12) In aon othe novel The Aha of Last (197) Das has published the flowing volumes of pocty in English: Skomer tn Caleta 1985), The Old Payhowse and Other Poems (7s) and The Anamala: Pens (83). “An lneodctin* which comes fom the 3967 allcson The Dacedants sa confeonal poet ht celebrates Das’ Hberaion hough ranalinguaim,An Introduction | don’ know polities but {know the names (OF chose in power; and can peat hem ike Days of week, or names of months, beginning with Nebr. Lam indian, very brown, bom in Malabar, speak three languages, writen “Tro, dream in one, Dont writen English, they sid, English isnot your mother ters because thei many cba languages are mutually incompreen= ‘bl. They, to, could do with a national language i thee strug Forautonomy. Dutch, perhaps? "The Philippines isan interesting case, for it went fom being a European colony to an American one. The Grst great Flipino 6 ‘novel, NAE me tanger by Jone Rizal ~ the bible, ant were, of Fil Pino identity and independence, 2 book drenched in modern ni- Yioal sentiment - was wren in Spanish. More than one twentcth- century Filipino wie, expressing hinselfn Engh, has deplored the loss of Spanish as the national tongue. Some writers would ike to use Tagalog. But most readers of Tagalog, manly onthe island of Lavon, prefer comic books to literury novels, however expressive of deep national sentiments, So English remain the language of the lite, and thus of most Filipino literature ~ though not ofthe ‘movies, move popular a. "Tagalog wil suvve for longtime just as expect Maaylam wil ‘But many smaller langage continue o disappear, not al cane of English. getdeman named Terk Esenc, dhe lat speaker of a CCaveasian language called Ubyk, died om his farm in Turkey in 1992. Red ‘Thundercloud, om South Carlin, ran ont of people to converse with in Catawba Sioux, and died in 1996, Adstalia used to hive 250 aboriginal languages. Soon thee may be none. ‘Yiddish is dying, certainly 9 a Herary lnguage, and Ladino is almost dead. Deaths are abways sad events. But Iam not sure the ‘colingusts akrays deplore these losses for the right reasons. When languages die because the speakers are massacred or forced to change, this is indeed deplorable, but the ecolingats ‘ink diversity is 2 good thing pers, nd the lss of any language, ‘no matte how smal and whatever the circumstances ofits demise, oss to humanity Fras Daniel Nee and Susanne Romaine, the tutors of Vanishing Pies, argu: “Each language i living nu ‘eum, 2 monument to every cultareit has been vehicle to" This is ‘no doubt eue. And living museums are seit for ing and ‘other enthusiasts, But should every ving museum be preserved for its own sake? Literature may have an intense value, but do spoken languages? The ccolinguiss argue that they do, partly for environ ‘mental reasons. Languages, claim Nee and Romaine, “arelike the ‘mine's canary: whete language ae in danger, iis sign of en vironmental diseas” "‘The Road to Babel 1s this always ue? The Inuit of Nonavat, formerly known as skins ar indeed a threatened community, not by the Canadian ‘government but because they area dwindling group onthe edge of the world, Their auicide rate is horendous. Bu hey clo til peak their native language. Another expression of thcir identi shoot ing rare bowhead whales with 50 caliber hunting rifles. The poiat hee isnot to be facetious, The hunts are not jot forthe mea "They ae defended a call grounds: shooting whales is deemed ‘essential forthe preservation of identity Thi, surely is not what the ecolnguists have in ming, ‘One reno minority languages have been threatened daring the Tas two centres the rise of nationalism. France used to be a ‘courizy of many languages. Bur the republican idea of Her, ‘equality, and faterity has meant that all Pench citizens ~ and preferably the rest ofthe world as well - should speak French ‘This has heen both a good and a bad thing. A common language strengthened a common sense of izenship, which, in principle if not alway in practice, transcended race oF religion It was bad in the aenae that 3 common language was forced on Bretons and other minorities tothe detriment oftheir own. This was based on the flay that people should speak only one language, as dhough rmullingualism should necessarily ear wp the nation, ‘Netle and Romaine say we *necd to divest ourselves of the teadonal equation between lnguige, mation, and state” Ia fact, the word “traditional” here makes ite sense. Most nation-states ‘ne not ery edad ertanly not tera, But they are right in cat ‘many languages ae older than the tates which adopted ther. The ceolinguists prefer to dink of most languages as expressions of| clare, local, even thal culture, languages ofthe heat, 50 t0 speak, rooted in a panicular soil. The metopolitan or “global Tanguages”” on the other hand, ae for “communicating beyond Toca level and expressing ousehes as ciens ofthe world” that is they ae languages ofthe hea, "This, too, isa questionable claim. Geman was dhe mia lan sage ofthe Austro-Hungarian Empire. More cizens of Budapest 8 inthe early evened century read Geman angeage newspapers than Hungarian ones, German was presumably the language of the Ihead. And yt some of the greats literature and poetry to emerge fiom the empire was written in German by people who had m0 local” Germanic roots at al. Many of them were Jews, the so called rootless cosmopolians, and thus perhaps the mont loyal ‘irens of ran Joseph's realm: Kafka, Joseph Roth, Masi To equate language with the state may be wrong, but to equate it catirely wih specific local culture or common ancestry i equally ‘wrong. Ancer ecolingust, David Crystal, has a balanced view of clare and language. Language, he 525, is 2 preeminent but not cxcasve badge oflenty cultures en continue even afte hing to another inguage. But then, by way of assessing the catastrophic consequences of losing a language, e asks us to imagine wat ‘would have happened if Norman French had displaced Old En- fish afer 1066: no Chances, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Dickens. “Truc enough. Bt that isto ansume that Shakespeare could only have expressed himself in English. One might as well sur this imaginary example the other way around. What if English had not displaced Ih a the rain lnguage of Ieelandl? No Joyce, Yeats, Wilde, Shaw And what are we to make of Becket, who weote in French and English, and who, when asked whether snared “Au contri”? Literary genius remains a mystery. The emergence of a Nabokov oe Beckett cannot be rationally explained, but ancestry or nation hood sucely has very litle to do with it It is generally true, of course, that you gain a feling forthe rhythm and expressivenes of langage by growing up wih it by lamang nursery rhymes as a child and talking with other children a school Literate native speakers can spot a cliché when they hear one. But none ofthis is esential A Joseph Conrad can switch languages and still be reat, and not becaie he wat expressing “Polshness” let alone “Baglshness” wat Brit, 9‘The Road to Babel ‘When Goarid began to wit bis famous novel, English was the lingua franca of great empire, but not yet of the would. Will he ddomisance of English produce more Conrads? One ofthe more intresting literary evens of tel few years hasbeen the success ‘of Ha Jn, Chinese writer in English Ha wasin is twenties when he ane tothe United States. He i perhaps no Conrad, but his ‘rose is arresting, One of ts characteristics is a kind of cultural nimi, etiely lacking literary or clr allusions His novel Waiting was set in China, so alasons connected wo dhe English speaking world would hive looked out of place away. And yet ‘one wonders whether Ha Jin's workisa harbinger of new itera tional English syle, in which cultare and langage are entirely disconnected, Kesuo Ishiguro, born in Japan but ised in Brit, tid not consciously suite languages (he doesnot speak fapanese), bathe rest avoid any allusions which can be understood only by native English speakers. He claims to write for the world “The password quality of language, in other words, is deliberately discarded "The current generation of writers in English with a non-English background islivingin a dierent world from the one inhabited by Conrad, Nabokor, or Arthur Koesdr- Before Wosld War I, writers ted thee eaders, whether they came from London, St. Petersburg, ‘or Budapest, il shared cura references. Literate people had a ‘working knowledge ofthe Old andl New Testaments and classical mythology. There was ail such a thing as European, or even ‘Western, civilization, There e much les ofthat now. The common references today ate both global nd parochial, that i to say, they are by and large American: Hollywood, pop muni, ailine and ‘computer jargon. And the consequences ofthis may be wore, some respects, for Americans than for speakers of more minor anges. "The one big advantage of speaking Dutch or Danish, or even ‘German or Bengalis hat on forced toe peoficient in at least ‘one oer Inge fone is going to function inthe moder worl. [Even the mont ardent ecolinguits do not argue for monolngal lm. David Crystal speaks of "healthy blingwalism,” a somewhat ddubions term pethaps (the word “healthy” should be used ith cae), ut his meaning ix clear the mative tong i about history, clue, identity and literature, while the metropolitan language is for communicating with the wider world The distinetion ean be overstated, a I said, but che ability to speak and read more than fone language is surely a good thing. Reading another language allows you to understand not only what people ftom a diferent place think, But how they think. No that thoughts or felings are ‘determined by language. Indced, the more one leas to under stand other languages, che more a common humanity comes into view This doesnot revolve human conflict. Wats would sl occur ven if the whole world spoke English or Esperanto. But you cat ‘only understand your own culsun, political, and socal place in the ‘world ifyou understand the world of others, nd for dat ichelps to comprehend what hey sy Th some respects, den, che metrpole can be a more provincial place than the periphery. With only one language at one's dispel, ‘even iis the Language of dhe world, others wil lok eter very strange or deceptively similar. Thy speak English eat McDonald’ Damburgers and wateh Hollywood fs, so they must be just ke ‘Americans. This canbe as misleading a6 the assumption that be- ‘cause we cannot understand what people say, thei thoughts must be foreign tou too English isthe password language of an international elt, far larger in scale than Pench or Latin ever was, Thies the result of bistory, of empire building, and the power ofthe United Sates. ‘Theres nothing about the English Language isl that predestined itto dominate n some distant future, the gua franca of business tnd culture could be Chinese -dificul to imagine, perhaps, but theoretically possible ‘Milions and millions axpre to jon the Anglophone elite. Per- haps one day there will he alow universal comprehension ofgah, Buethe ambition abe understood by everyone wil surely be matched by an equally tenacious desire to guard one's own passwords, which cannot be w0 realy understood. Unlike the fetred Dutch education minister, {do not expect Dutch to disap ‘pear soon a primary language. On the contrary I believe thatthe "superficial uniformity of globalization wil provoke dhe Frisian ef fect in many ples. The Inte, which inks the whole world is sen a8 an imperialist bastion of English, but in fact is slowy turning ito an electronic feral, where people can use any language dey ike. Indeed the Inteme is becoming a epostory not {just of exiting languages, but of virally extinct languages oo. For itis nly there, on audio inks to cyberspace, tat you can ill hear such rae Australian Aboriginal languages a Jat, whose lst tative speaker ded in 1986. And thats why Lele that ust a we ‘ano stop ourselves fom ebilding the Tower of Babel it willbe Innocked down again and again, EIGHTY-FIRST WORLD ESPERANTO CONGRESS. Artificial languages represent uhe most wif case of switching toagues. Langvages that evolve naturally witin a culture are ust ly not an option for those who row up sihin that cular; if 4 Spaniard speaks Spanish, it i probably not the consequence fof deliberate choice, the way it would be i'che Spaniant spoke ‘ocean. Particular ring the pasa years, numerous systems including Balt, Bopal, Dil, liom Newal, Interlingua, Lingua Franca Nova, Mondolinguc, Noval, Paslingua, Spin, Velpal, and Volaplk ~ have been invented in the hope that individuals ‘would decide to adopt them a a supplement to the natural lan {uoges tht define and vide their peakers throughout the wood. “One who hopes sa translation ofthe name given othe most sccesfil ofthe artical languages Esperanto fom the pseudo~ rym that it inventor, Ludwig Lazaras Zamenbof (1859-1037), de- vise for himsell. in 3887, Zamenhof, an oct lvng in Wars, Published in Russian 2 weatise introducing his linguistic concoc- ‘on, Convinced that the plahora of languages impedes communi cation and exierhatessife, Zamenhof hoped that ane, impartial language would promote world peace. And ifthe imbalance of poner among existing lnguages confeted privilege on speakers of favored languages and handicapped speakers ofeshers, might not Esperanto encourage equal? Within China, Uigur, 2 Taki lan- guage spoken in Sinkang Province, lacks the prestige of Mandarin, Dati Esperanto became lingua francs igoty based om linguists might not havea chance. With a lmited vocabulary, phonetic spelling, and rationalized %‘grammar, Experanto is much easier w lear dhan most natural lan ‘guages. Zamehof was «Jew bora toa Russian peaking family in Bialystok. His futher taught German and French, and he himself ‘ended up speaking Russian, Yiddish, Hebrew, Gennan, Poi, auc French, Exposed to the peril of edie and linguistic rancor, “amenbof hope that Esperanto would ofler neutal ground for ‘universal harmony; Itisave to believe that violence ends when all speak lke iter antagonists share lnguages in Norern Ireland, omnia, and Reanda, And i anyone is choosing to lean another language inthe hope of tniveral commaniaton, a natural one (Gg, English, Hind, Chinese, Spanish, Arabic) might be a more ficient investent of time and energy. Yet the number of Bs- peranto speakers ie now, by some estimates, about 2 milion. None is monolingual, and, except fr a very few whose zealous parents right have taught dn Zaanenhots contraption Sst, virtually all Esperantsts are wilful tranalinguls, Many practice and promote their adopted tongue in centers throughout the world an tater rational conferees. They have made Esperanto a medium for ‘orginal expression and for translation of canonical word iterate Yet none ofthe thousands of books published in the language as attracted much readership outside Esperantst ireles, nor has the ‘only fnture film made in the language, Jnubus (1965), been a hit ‘The United Nations has never seriously considered adopting Es- peranto a an oficial language In July 1996, dhe Bghty-Fist Wor Esperanto Congress met in the Caech Republic and produced The Prague Manito, which, reprodced below in its orignal frm sud in Engi translation, proclaims the importance of switching to Esperanto. Manifesto de Prago Ni, anoj de I etmonds movado por I progesgo de Esperanto dreds & tan manifeston al yj registao, interna) organic} aj homj de bona volo; dblaras nian intencon frmvoe pulabox por la cel & tie esprimit ka vias Bun unuopan organiza taj homon ali al nia strebado. Landita en 1887 Kel proebto de helplingvo por internacia komunikado, kaj rapide evolinta e vivoplenan, nuancoriéan ligvon, Esperanto jar de pl ol areento Funkcias por kunligi homoja tans lings kj Kalra} bar ter tempe, la cla de ij parolanuj ne perdi gravecon kj aktieco. Nella mona uzado de kell nai igo ck progres en la ‘komunika-teiko, nek la malo de ovaj meta de igo instruado vere reaigo jenajn principjn, kiun ni konsideras ‘esencj por just jfk nga rd, 1. pawoxario, Komunkasistemo, ki rrvive pivileyas inj Fhomjsumtempe postuante de aij ke ii invest jaro da eno} ‘or ating mall alten gradon de kapablo, estas fandamente tal ddemokratia, Krankan, kel iu lingvo, Esperanto ne esta pefekia, {i ege supers un rvlon en afro de egalecatutmonds koran ado, Ni aseruas ke lingva malegaleco selvigas komunikan e- legalecon je Gi nivelj, inkluive dela intrnaca velo, Ni esta ‘movado por demokratiakomunikado, ‘2-reansxacta epvxaDo. Cin ena lingo estas igi dint Laltzo kaj nac(ar)o. Bkzemple, lemcjano kin stds Ix anghin lernas pri la kltro,geografo kj politico de a angling lan, precipe Usono kaj Brito. La lergjano Kiu sta Esperanto leenas pi mondo sen ing enki iu lando prevents il jo %Manifesto de Prago [Ni seers ke la edokado per in an etna igo estas iit al di nita perspektive pila mondo. Ni estas movado por uansnacia cdukado, ‘8. PvacoetA EvIKLCO, Nar malganda procentao el ty iy) suds fremdan linvon, casas in. Plena posedo de Fsperanto| bls @ per memstudado, Divers studoj port propedetiskan cfikojn al la lemado de aij Tingy Oni ankadrehomendas Es eraiton kil Kerna ero en karae orl ingva konscigo de leman- to Niasertas ke Ta malfcleo de etna Kinyo im peezentos ‘bstaklon por mult lenin, ky tame profits ela aio de dua lingvo. Ni estas movado por ef ingvoinsiiado, “{ruvmuinevEco, La Esperanto-kornamo estas un el mal ‘uli mondskallingvokomuntmo}kies prolantnj eats sene- ‘seeped ai luring. Cin omanumanoakeeptis Ia taskon ler lime un fend lingo is patoa grado, Makokaze tio kon ‘ula all sco de kj amo al pra lng ka generale al pli vant persona horionto. Niaertas ke la ano} dey igi, granc ka rmalgrands, devas disponi pri tela aco por alproprigi duan ling- ‘on salts komurihanivelo, Ni estas movado por la provizo deta anc. 5. LINGYAy Rasos. La malegaladsdvido de potenco inter Ia Tingooj estas reeepto por kontana nga malsekureco, at reka Tings subpremado, & grnda parto de la monda lofantaro. En la Esperanto-komunimo, Ia ang de ng} grandaj kaj malgrandal, ‘ofc kj neoiciali, kunvenas sue nebeala tere, dank” al reciproka volo kompromis, Tia chlo intr ing rjoka} respondeca) livers precedencon por evolugi kaj pia alain ‘salon alla ingyamaleglec king Koni. Niasertas be vast) potencodierenc} inter a King] subfors la garnsoj, «s- Primija en tons da intenaca) dokument, de egaleca traktado sending piano. Ni ests movado por ling rat 6. uaNova prvenseco. La nici registro) emas konsider Ia sgrandan diversecon de lingo} en la mond Kiel baron al Romo Kado kaj evluigo. Por ls Esperanto komunumo, tamen, Ia ngya diverse estas konstanta aj nemalhavebla fanto de eco. Sekve, 26 in lingy, Kel iu vivjospeco,extasvalora jam pro si mem aj Inds je protektado la) subtenado. Ni asertas ke ln politho de omunikado kaj evouig, se ne extas bait sur respekt al aj subteno de Gy ingve, Kondaranas al frmorto fa plimulion de la lingo de a mondo. Ni estas movado por ingva dversec, 7. HOMA BxANcEEIéO. Cin Kingro kberigas kaj maliberiga sign anojn, dante alii la povon komunit inter sy brant la omunikadon kun al. Planta Kiel universla komunilo, Es peranto estas unu ell grand fnkeiants projekt} de In homa «maneipifo~projeio por eblig al Gu homo partopeni kel nie vidwo en la homara komurumo, kun fms raj Ge sia loka altura aj lingvaidenteco, sed ne limita de ii, Ni asertas he la elsktuziva uzado de macs ingvej nceviteble trigas bargjn al 1a libereeoj de sineprimado, komuikado kaj asoiio. Ni estas ‘movado pola homa emancpigo, 2‘The Prague Manifesto (English Translation) ‘We, members of dhe worldwide movement forthe promotion of Esperanto, address this manifest tall governments, international organizations and people of good will declare our unshakeable ‘ommiment othe objectives se out here; and ell onal organi ‘ons and individuals tooin usin working for these gals. For more ‘han a century Esperanto, which was nched in 1887 a projet for an auxliary language for intermational communication 3nd ‘quickly developed into a rich ving lnguage in it own righty has fanesioned a 4 means of bringing people together across the bar fies of language and entwe. The aims that inspite the users of Bsperanto are stil as important and relevant as ever. Neither the worldwide use of few ational languages, nor advances in com- ‘munications technology, nor the development af new methods of Tanguage teaching slike wo result in a fie and effective language onder based on the fllowing principles, which we hold to be csentl DEMOCRACY. Any system of communication which confers “felong privileges on some while requiring others to devote years of flor o achieving a lesser degree of competence is fundamentally sntidemocraic, While Fsperanto, ike any language is ot perfect, it far outstrips ther languages asa means of egalitarian communi ‘ation on a world scale, We maintain that lnguage ineqsality gives rise to conununicativeinequly at all levels, including the interma- tional level, We are a novetnent for dentoratic communication. 2. GLonAL EDvcarrox. All ethic languages are bound to certain cultures and nations. For example, the ld who learns 29"The Prague Manifesto "English eae about the calknre, geography and plial ystems of the English-speaking work! primary the United States and dhe United Kingdom. The child eho learns Esperanto lar about word without borders, where every county i home. We maitain that education in any language is bound w a certain view af dhe sword. We are + movement for global education. 3. AFFECTIVE PDUCATION. Only small percentage of fregn Tanguage students attain fueney in the target language. In Es peranto, fucney is atainable even through home study. Various studies have shown that Esperanto is usefl as a preparation for Tearing other languages. I has slo een recommend a a core clement in courses in language awareness. We maintain that dhe perant sone ofthe great functional projects fo the emancipation {of humankind ~ one which sims to let every individual cizen atticpate ily in the human community, securely roted in his or her local cultural and language idensty yet not limited by it. We naintain that excasve reiance on national languages inevitably ts up barsiersto he feedoms of expression, communication and ‘ssoition, We area movement for human emancipation.LEoroL SéDAR SENGHOR (1906-2001) Léopol SédarSenghor grew up speaking Serer in his native Joa, Senegal Though he did aot lar his first words of French at 2 Jocal Roman Catholic mitsion schoo, until he was seven, he be- ‘ame one ofthe leading French poets of the twentieth century. In 1938, Senghor recived partial scholarship to study in Pais and by 1935, afer becoming the only Afican o pas the rigorous ag- _réetion requirements he was teaching French to French students fn Tours. Senghor wae an oficer inthe French army during Word ‘War Il when he was capred bythe Germans and sent toa com centration camp. Helter served a8 deputy from Senegal inthe [National Astembly and advocating sn Afican brand of socialism, ‘ras petusive voce for granting independence tothe peoples of French West Africa. When Senegal became independent, Senghor vas elected its fist president, and he continued serving in that position unt dae dle of fh elected term in 1980. ‘Along with Aimé Céssie of Marnique and Léon Damas of Guiana Senghor championed the concept of Nertude an ffir tion ofthe unity and validity of Black experience throughout the ‘world, Inig47, he cfounded Prisene arian, an inlet jour- nal of black culture, and a posty anthology tat he edited in 1948, Anthlogie dea none pedi mgr ef magacke, was nsteumental in preadng knowledge ofthe cotinen’s poetry: Collections ofhis ‘own poetry ince Chants dobre (Songs of shadow, 1945); Hes ties noire (Black offerings, 1948); Bthiopiques (1956); Nocturnes (0961) and Blige majeure (Major eleges, 1979) Ln2984, Senghor Thecame the first lack ever inducted into dhe French Academy: 3"Though he wansated some Afican poety fom indigenous lane sguges, reach is Senghor’s principal medium of expression. In fumerous forums, including the November 1962 issue ofthe jour nal Exit, where this esy fest appeared, he has praised French, the lings Fanca of Francophone nations spread dhroughout the world, at an intument of enlightenment. Seaghor’s embrace of the French language has been mocked and scomed by some post- colonial crits, but a caefl reading of his essay mas it ear thatthe author isnot obvious to the imperfections and abuses of French society: However, French, Senghor's adopted language, represents for him an ideal of waver cvization French, Language of Culture 1 vas in 1997 had then been teaching French, alongwith the clasical languages, for two years atthe Lyefe Descartes in Tous. ‘using vacation in ny native Sena, Iwas invite o give talk. AS my topic, I ad chosen “Tike Cull Problem in French West ‘Alvica” A crowd ofthe “sophisticated white and blac together, tras packed into the large hl of dhe Dakar Chamber of Commerce. "They were expecting to hear me extol Greco-Roman calture, or a least French culture in front ofthe astonished governor general, I Tauncheda vigorous attack against assimilation and extolled Négri tude, advocating a return to our root: tothe black Affcan lan gages. Ie was a suc de scandal, more, all ehings considered, mong the Afcans than among the Evropeans “Now that he has Tearned Latin and Gree” murmured the former, he wants to drag, surback o Wolof” Despite political independence - or autonomy -prochimed, two years ea, i ll the former “Overseas Territories” despite the popularity enjoyed by Néyritude inthe Francophone sub-Saharan tates, Frnch had lost none ofits prestige. Ie vas everywhere prochimed the oficial language ofthe stat, and its radiance was ‘only spreading, even in Mal, even in Guinea. Moreover, llowing ‘Ghana, itself no fof France, the Anglophone nations one air another introduced French into ther secondary school curicula, sometimes even making ta requirement How can we explain thie fvor this fervor, partcalaly this di Junction beoween French police and culture? That is the focus of ‘my remacks.Tet me ake preliminary observation. This junction is more apparent tia ral. Decolonization, which General de Gaulle pute sued tedily and achieved brian in Algeria, did not eount for nothing. In Aca, dhe mind doesnot submit to dichotomy. Unlike Baropeans, Afcans do not separate culture trom politics. ‘The conflict in Bizet most drove French out of Tunisian schools, "Thus, if the teaching of French introduced or maintained in Aftca, if cis strengthened, cis, fest of al, because of political reasons. In Anglophone Aftiea more than anywhere els, To all other reasons, add the following: that the majority of Afian tates are Francophone and, atthe tx, a third ofthe delegations speak French. In ig6o, afer the massive admission ofuew Afican nations into the international organization, Habib Bourguiba drew the logi- cal conclusion: It was necessary to strengthen the teaching of Frooch in Tans. In practice, Hassan IL ha not pursued a die ferent policy. Moroco alone counts ine thousand French “educa tor,” more than half of those who serve abroad, However, the principal aso forthe expansion of French beyond the metropolis, forthe birth ofa Franconia, in euler mate This is the place to answer the question posed ta me personally by Esprits*What does the use of French represent fora black waiter?” ‘Ofcourse, shall not refain from answering ltr But allow me just to expand the discussion, to anewer in the nate ofall the Black clits, ofthe poltieians a well sof the writers. If so, Tata con vince that part ofthe discussion applies ae well tothe North Ai «ans am thinking in patcular about the lat Jean Ammrouche — although they are beter quale han Io speak fr themsces There is, fist ofall de fact reason. Among the ets, many thinking in French, speak French ete than thei mother tongs, dius ic is with Francsms, 2 least in the cites. ‘To take 3 rational example, at Radio Dakar, the broadcasts in French are rer than the broadeasts in dhe venaeulars. Moreover, it is not always easy, forthe uninitiated, ro distinguish dhe voices ofthe Senegalese fom the oes ofthe French ‘Second reason: the vchnes of French vecabulry, Because ofits 36 French, Language of Culture ‘aes of twins, ether popular or larned in org, it conan a huliplcty of synonyms. Lams well aware eat contrary to what the Jeraze Frenchman believes, the black Affican languages posse remarkable richness and felt. But where the Frenchman em ‘loys Latin word to designate a tre, x paraphrase to designate an ‘tion, the black Abcan employs single own ora singe vez. AS ‘uted by Andee Davesne, in Crus de Brows, there are in Wolo, even words to designate a woman of ll repte while “o sek is translated by eleven words dt singby twenty” But what on fst view conaitites she strength ofblack Aican languages at the same Time consiates ther weaknes. They ae pctc language. Their swords, almost always concrete, ae pregnant with images. The rangement of words within causes, of clauses within sentences, ‘anton more of sensibly chan intligbily ofthe heat than of the reason, What in the final analysis proves dhe superiority of Fresh inthis matters that it als provides us witha technical and scientific vocabulary that is unsurpassed. Finally, a profusion of those abstract words that ocr languages lack “Third reason: French syntax. Because i stocked with an abun ‘dant vocabulary, hanks, in pat, tits reserves of Latin and Greek, French isa concise lnguage By the same then, it isa precise and rmanced language, therefore clear. Ii, consequent a dscrsve language, which pats every fact, every argument in its place, with ‘out neglecting any. A language of analysis, French is no less a language of synthess, One cannot analyze without syathesiing: ‘one cannot dillerentate without recombining; one cannot expose & ‘contradiction without transcending it IF French has not retained all ite technical rigor from Lai, it has inherited an entire series of comerstone words, cement words, Lnchpin words. Implement tuons, conjunctions and cojunesive locations ink one proposition to another, one ide to another, subordiatng them to one another, ‘They indicate the stages necesary for active thought, fr eason- ing. Proof ofthis that lack ntllecuals have had to borrow these tools from French in order to bolder their vernaculars. To the ‘nla of justapasition ofthe black Afican languages is opposed 7{he syntax of subordination of French; tothe syntax ofthe ved ceonerete, that ofthe abstract conceived in short, the syntax of reason a that of emotion, Furth reason: French sss, French syle could be defined as a symbiosis of Greek subset and Latin rig, a symbiosis enlivened by Celie passion. Is orination more than order. Ie gens st reach into the vast ditonary ofthe universe inorder to construct ~ ‘ot of material thus assembled facts, emotions, ideas = a new word: that of Man. An ideal world, and atthe same time real, because it derives from Man, where everything, arranged in its place, converges interdependenty toward the same goal tis thus tht French prose ~ and the poem uni the tine ofthe Surrealste~ has taught us to ey on facts and ideas in order to elucidate the universe; indeed, in order to express the internal ‘world dhnough coherent natruturation ofthe universe ‘Fifth reason: French Humanism. I's, precisely, ofthis ucida- tion, ofthis r-enatien, that French Humanism coasit. Fo it has “Man ae object of its sctivty. Whether it i a question of Law, Literature, Art, indeed of Science, the matk ofthe French genius remains this concer with Man. French expresses vay, a oral code. From hat derive its quality of universality, which serves asa corrective to it tae for individual, know the exis leveled at thie humanism of the Aonndte homme, the resonable mans tis a closed, static sytem that is based on equilibria. A few years ago gave a talk ended “The umanis ofthe French Union.” My purpose wast show how, contact with “colonial” reales, that ithe oversea terior, French humanism was enriched, deepening and enlarging itself in order to integrate the values of those cvliations. Hovr it ad passed from assimilation to cooperation to symbiosis. From astatic moray tothe morality of movement dear to PieeTilard de ‘Chardin. As Jean Daniel noted about Algeria in dhe Expras of 128 June 1962, Colonsers and Colonize ae, in eal reiproally colonized: It [the nation of France] is 0 fll impregnate by the sit 975). 35 {5 Herandes Chives, Cakes, ad Belo, Hl guj deo Chines, 1, rea Kf “Ser Joris Leni: Via in America” in aye[Ranrowir aed Klepin eh, The Tbe of Din, 7 Melani Kaya Sig” in MS in Cds Pam and Other Wing (bagh ns Mes Palen, 86), 8 Rell Gon, dm JoeB yong (New Yk: Bass oaks) Sie publi in 6 379 Gn Kanan, Sh: Te Perf Caving Cambie Schenk vo, Herinder‘Chive, Cohen, and Belramo, nga deo Chicana, Conversions i “Hispanic” dived fom Hopes (Dieta, name give © te Irian Pn in ancien ies when iw a yr of he Rata Epi) sds em sige by the vere to make ceo a ie "The Treaty of Casalpe Hidalgo cred the Mein Amticn in 13 Anglos in oder to aleve dhe gui for deposeing the Chiao, steed he Spanish of ra perpered the myth Spanish Sou ‘set We ve mpd the ton dt we ar Han a Spi in ‘rr eons cubes to th dona cles i aborecs of canes 89-91,MaRY ANTEN (A881-1949) Born Maryase Anti to Jewish family in Poltak, Russia, Mary ‘Anin was pat ofthe massive wae of European immigration at the turn ofthe wenieth century that transformed the society of the United States, When she arrived in Boston in 189, she became one ‘of mote than 38 milion new Americans between 1890 and 1920. long leter describing her voyage across the AWantc Ocean that Anti composed in Yiddish and sen o her uncle back in Russa ‘was eventaly revised and published in English, as ~ misspelling the mame of her native to ~ Prom Plath Bost 1899) “twas born, Ihave Tved, and I have been made ove” Ansin declares in the opening sentence of The Promised Land, the aut biography that she published in 912, The book both celebrated the assiiltonist ideal ofthe United States asa meng pocand in its popular sucess, demonstrated that an indigent foreigner cold ‘master dhe language well enough tobe taken seriously san Ames can author. Antin was not oblivion wo dhe hardships of starting a ‘ew life in a strange land and, through an energetic campaign of cssys an lector and a book tiled They Who Kuock at Our Gates (0914), became a prominent advocate of immigrant rights. But, Aesptedatker moments, The Promised Lend i a tory of invid- tal triumph over adversig, « potait of the ars as an earnest, young American, In this excerpt, Antn, who does wot admit any fistess over abandonment ofher native Viddlish, recounts a crcl ‘moment in her childhood when she discovered that she could write flectvely in English oeInitiation Ieis not worth while to refer to voluminous schoo] statist see just how many “grees pupils entered schoo! last September, not knowing the days of the week n English, who next Febrary will be declining patriotic verses in honor of George Washington and ‘Abraham Lincoln, witha foreign accent, nded, but with plenty of ‘enthusiasm eis enough to know that his hundred-old miracle i ‘common tothe schools ia every pat ofthe United States where inumigrants ae received. And iT was one of Chelsea's hundred in 1894, sta oly tobe expected, since I was one of the older ofthe “geen children, andl ha ad statin my ieegular schooling in Rusia, and was cared along by a tremendous desie to learn, and had my fanly to cher me on Twas nota bit to large for my litle chai and desk inthe baby clas, but my mind, of course, was too mature by xo seven years forthe work Soas toon as [could understand what he ache said inet, as advanced othe second grade. This was within week afer Miss Nixon took mein hand. But donot mean to give my dear teacherall he creditor my api progress, noreven bal he credit. shall divide with her om bebalf ny race nd my fay was Jew ‘hough to have an aptitude for language in gener and to bend my mind earnestly tomy task; Iwas Antin enough to ead each lesson vvth my heart, which gave mean inkling of what was coming next, andsocaried me longbyleaps and bounds. Asfor the teacher, she ‘ould best explain what theory she fllowed in teaching us for tigers to read, I can only describe the method, which was 0 ‘Simple dat wish holiness conll be taught in the sme way 6“There were about halfa dozen of us beginners in English, in age from sito flten. Miss Nixon made a special clas of us and aided vi ao kilfilly and earns in our endeavors to "sce--cat? and “hearacdog-bark? and “lookathehen? that we tured over age afer page ofthe ravishing history, eager to find out how the common word looked, smelled, and sted in the strange speech The teacher knew just when to lt us help each other out with a ‘word in our own tongue, -ithappened that we were all Jews and 0, working al ogeder, we acmally covered more ground in a lesson than the native classes, compose entey ofthe litle ts. But we stuck ~ stuck fat ~a the definite arte; and sometimes the leton resolved itself int a species ofKingual gymnastics, in which we all ooked a i we meant to bite out tongues off. Mist [Nixon was prety, and she must have looked wel with her white teeth showing in the ats but atthe time Twas wo solemaly oe- caupied to admire her looks. id ake great pleasure ia her smile of approval, whenever I pronounced well; and her patience and pr severance in strgaling with ue over that thik ite word are be ‘coming to her even now afer fifteen years. Iie not hee ult f any ofus oy give a buzzing sound to the dread English th, | shall never havea beter opportunity to make publi declaration of my love forthe English langage. Lam gl hat American history rns, chapter fr chapter, the way it does; for thus America came to be the country I love so deat Lam glad, most ofall, tht the Americans began by being Englishmen, for thus did T come to inher this beanl language in which I think. [acer to me hat inany other language happiness ot so aweet, ogee not o er. Tamm not sure that 1 could belive in my neighbors as 1 do if thought about dems in un-Eaglsh words. I eould almost say that ray conveton of immorality is bound up withthe English ofits promise. And as Tam atached to my prejudices, I must love the English ngage! Whenever the teachers ddl anything special help me over my private dificulties, my grate went out to them, silent I meant ‘0 much to me that they halted the lesom to give me ali hat I 5 ‘eed must love them for. Dear Miss Carol ofthe second rade, ‘would be amaze to hear what small hogs T remember all beease Tors so impressed at de time with her readiness and sweetness in taking notice of my dices. Says Miss Carrol, looking straight at me: “IfJohanie has theee marbles, and Charlie has evice at man chai” or many marbles has rise my hand for permission to speak “Teacher, on't ow vhat is ce.” ‘Teacher beckons me to her, and whispers to me the meaning of the strange word, nd Tam able owt the sum correct sali the day's work with ber; with me, ti a special ac of kindness and fliceny. She whom I found inthe next grade became so deara frend that, {can hardly name her withthe est though [mention none f them lightly Her approval was always dear w me, fst because she was “Teacher and aferwards 2s longs shelved, because she was my Miss Dillingham. Great was my gre therefore, when, shor after tay admission to er das, I ncutred discipline, the first, and next ‘othe last time in my school carer. ‘The class was repeating in chorus the Lord's Prayer, heads bowed on desks, was doing my best to keep up by the sound; my tind could not go beyond the woed “hallowed,” for which I had not found the meaning In dhe middle of the prayer a Jewish boy across the aisle tod on my fot to get my tention. “You must nat ‘ay tha.” he admonished ina solemn wehisper “i Christian.” 1 whispered ack dha it wan’, ana went ont the Amen” Id not now bat what he was right, but the name of Christ was notin the prayers and Iwas bound odo everyting thatthe class di. IFT had any Jewish srupes, they were lagging 2way behind my interes in ‘school airs. How American this was: two pupils side by side in ‘he schoolniom, each holding this own opinion, but bodh submit ‘ing tthe common lw or the bo a east bowed his head asthe teacher ordered. Bat all Mise Dillingham knew oft was that swo of her pupils 65Initiation ‘whispered during morning prayer, and she muse discipline them, So was degrada fom the honor row tothe lowest ow, anditwas many a day before I forgave that young missionary i was not tough fr my vengeance that he sufered punishment with me, “Teacher, ofcourse, heard usboth defend ourselves but there was time and plce for religious arguments, and she meant to help is remember that point remember to this day what a struggle we had over the word “water” Mise Dilinghamn and I Ieseemed aif could not give the sound of I al “rater” every ime. Patel my teacher worked with me, inventing mouth exercises for me, to get my stubborn ips to produce that uy and when at lst I could say “vllge” and “Swater in rapid ltematin, without miplacing the two nial, that memorable word was sweet on my lips, For we had conquered, sind Teacher was pleased. ‘Geting a language in this way word by word has charm dat may be set aginst the diadvaniages, I is like gubering a posy blossom by blossom. Bring the bouquet into your chamber, and these nasturtiums sand forthe whole aing eaenval of them tubing over the fence out there; these yellow pansies recall the ‘eet crescent of color glowing under the bay window; tis spray of honeysuckle smells ike the wind-tossed masses of it om the porch, ripe and bee-ladens the whole garden ingles tumble. So ‘tis with one who gathers word, loving them, Parcule words remain stscited with important oceasionsin the leame's mind. I ‘ould thus write a history of my English vocabulary dat shouldbe atthe same time an account of my comings and goings, my mistakes and my teiamphs, during the years of my nation IFT was eager and diligent, my teachers didnot sleep. As fast a8 ny knowlege of English allowed, chy advanced me from grade to grade, without reference to the unl schedule of promotions. My father was right, when he ofien suid, in discussing my prospects, that ability would be promptly recognized in the public schools Rapid as was my progress, on account of the advantages with which Tstreed, some ofthe other “sree” pupils were not far [behind mes within a grade oreo, by the end ofthe year. My 6 ‘shes, whose childhood had been one hideous nightmare, what swith dhe tapi tebe, the ere! whip, and the general repression of Iie inthe Pale, surprised my father by dhe progress he made under imeligent, sympathetic guidance. Indeed, he son hada reputation in he school thatthe American boys envied and all through the school course he moe than held his ov with pupils oF is ge. So ‘much forthe right an rong way of ding things. “There isa record of my eatly progres in English moch eter than my reollections, however accurate and definite these may be have several reasoas for introducing it here. First, it shows what the Russian Jew ean do with an adopted language; nex, t proves that vglane of ou publi-school teachers of which I spokes and Tas, Iam proud of That is an unnecessary confession, bt 1 could ot be satisfied to inset the record here, with my vanity unavowed. ‘This isthe document, copied from an educational journal, a tattered copy of whih ein my lap a8 I weite—weasured for fifteen years, you se, by my vanity. Bitor “Primary Education” “This the uncorrected paper of Rann cid ove years, who had stdied Engh ony oor mor. She fad never wnt September, been ost even inher own county sad ha heard Engh spoken only school sal be afte paper fn pup nthe aban explanation may sppearin your paper MS. Dilingham. Cada, Mas. snow ‘Seow it fox misture which comes from the clouds. Now the snow i coming down inthe, which makes nice snow Fale But here stil on Kind of now more Thi kindof sow called snort, frit comes down inline cu ball. These Snowy aren't quit as good for soya a fexhe Makes, fi they (he snow-erystals af dy 0 they can Kep loge st feather kes do, "The nom is deat some chien for they Hike sleighig 7Asad tthe top — the saaw comes rom the dowd [Now de res ar bare, and mo floes ae sein the ik and sardens, (ve all ow why) and he whole word seems ike sles ‘thot the happy birds songs which wl spring Bute snow nich drove wall hve prety and py things ty (Thi) ‘ota make wat al uappy; they covered up the brapehes of the {ees dhe lds, the gardens and houses, and the whole wold looks ike drs ins Bail white - insted of ren rem wih the ‘hy looking down on with pale ce "And the peopl an Sl ome joy in to, without dhe happy Mary Asin, Ad now that stands there, with her name over Lam ashamed ‘of my Rpt ak about vanity. More to me dhan al de praise 1 ‘ould hope to win by de conquest of ty languages isthe arsocia: tion of this dear fend with my earliest efforts at writing and it pleases meta remember tat oer I owe my very fre appearance fn print. Vanity is the least part of it, when I remember how she called ne io her desk, one day ater school was ou, and showed me ‘ny composicion - my own words, that Thad wren out of my own ead printed ot, clear black an white, wth my name atthe end! [Nothing so wonderfl had ever happened t me before. My whole consciousness was suddenly tansfommed. I suppose that was the ‘moment when I became a write. alvays loved to write ~T wrote leaers whenever I had an excuse ~ yet it had never ecurred to me to sit down and srte my thoughts for no person in partial merely to pt the word on paper. But now as T ead my own words, ina delicious conasion, the idea was hora I stared at my name: “Many vrs, Wa that ell 1? The printed characters composing it seemed strange to me all of sudden. I chat was my mame, ana those were the words ot of my own head what elation did itll have to me, who was alone therewith Miss Dilingham, and the printed page between us? Why, it meant cat {could write again, tnd se ny wing printed for people to read! I could write many, ‘many, many things [could write a book! The dea was so huge, 50 bewildering that my mind sare cull accommodate it. 8 LTULIA ALVAREZ (1950-) Born in the Dominican Republic, Julia Alvarce emigrated to New York tthe age of ten when her parents, prominent opponents of the dictatorship of General Raphael Leonidas Trujillo, were forced tofle their Caribean homeland. “What made me int awiter was ‘coming to thin cute she has writen, ‘all ofa sudden losing 2 ‘ature, a homeland, language, 2 fan" Beginning with Home ‘eoming (984) er fst volume of poet, Alvarer established her self as a writer in Engh. Her lest novel, How the Carta Girls Test Their Accents, was published in 295, to wide acl, Other ‘works of ction hy Alsen ae fn the Time of th Butefies (1994), {i! (907), and De the Name of Salome (2000). Though she has lived for many years in Vermont and ia now much more uent in English than Spanish, Dominican landscapes and the ordeal of| acculturation contacto haunt her writing. Included in the essay ‘allection Something te Declare (1998) i thi description of how ‘Avarer began to lose her accent how she switche ftom Spanish to My English”My English ‘Man and Papi used to speakitwhen they baa secret they wanted to keep from as chien, Welived then i the Dominican Republi nd the fanly as a whole spoke only Spanish at home, until my ‘Sners and I sared attending the Carol Morgan School, and we cane a bilingual frye Spanish had its many tongues a wel ‘There was the eastellanoof Pade Joaquin from Spain, whose lisp ve all Toved to imitate, "Then the edatedespafol my parents? Families spoke, aunts and uncles who were always coreting ws thildren, for we spent most ofthe day wide the maids and so ad picked up their bad Spanish” Campesinas, they spoke a liking, Enimated campuno, «swallowed, endings chopped of, funny tums of phrases. This camino was my ue mother tongue, not the Spanish of Caldern de a Brea or Cervantes or even Neruda, but of Chucha and Muminada and Gladys and Ursulina fom Jur calito and Licey snd Boca de Yuma and San Juande la Maguana ‘Those women yakkel as they cooked, they sorta, they gos sped, they sing ~ boleros, merengues, canciones, salves. Theis were the voices dat belonged to the rain and the wind and the tee, teeny stars even a smal child coed blot outwith her dumb. ‘Besies al these versions of Spanish every once ina while another strange tongue emerged rom my paps moth o may manips, ‘What I fist recognized wae not a language, but atone of voice, serious, urgent, something important and top seret being said some uncle in trouble, someone divorcing, someone dead. Say itn English so the chilven won Yandestand. would listen, straining to understand, ehinking that tis was not diferent language but just nMy English ‘another and harder version of Spanish. Say iin English so the children wont rndestand. From the beginning, English was the ‘sound of wory and secret, the sonnel feng et ont Teould make no sens of this “harder Spanish” and so I tied by other means o find out what was going on. Ine my mother's face by heart. When the le lines on the corners of her eyes crinkled, she was amused. When her nosis fared and abe bit her lip, she was trying hard not to laugh, She held her head down, eyes ilancing up, when she thought I as lying. Whenever she spoke that gibberish English, I ranslated dhe general content by watching the Spanish expressions on her fice, Soon, Ibegan to leam more English tthe Carol Morgan School ‘Thatis, wien [had stopped gawking, The teacher and some ofthe American eildeen had the strangest coloration: Fight hair, light ‘eyesight skin, a if Urslina ad soaked thea in bleach too long, to’ detefo, Idd have some blond enasns, but they had deeply tuned skin, and at ehey grew older, thee hair darkened, so their catlerpaleness seemed a phase oftheir xequiing normal color Just as strange was the ile gil in my eader who had 2 cat and dog, that looked just lke un gato y un pete, Her mami was Mather and her papi Father, Why have x whole new language for school and for books with a teacher who could speak it teaching you double the amount of words you realy needed? ‘Bute, bute, bltr, bull ll day, one English word that had particulary struck me would o round and round in my mouth and ‘weave through al the Spanish in my head unt y the end ofthe ay, the word il sound lke jst another Spanish word. And so T would say, “Mami, please pass la manteqila” She would scowl and say in English, “Tm sony, don't understand, But would you be needing some bute on your bread?” Why my pens du’ st ecto in our matve ngage by coroling sina Dominican choo, dot Low Pac ofitwas that Maas any had a wan of sending the boys tthe Sates to p ioardng school and college, and she had been one of the ist gis to be allowed to join her brothers. At Abbot Academy; whose choo! song was our lllby as babies *ANhough Columbus and Cabot never heard of Abbot, is quite the place for you and me"), she had become quite Amercanined, It was very important, be ep saying, che we lear our English. She akway used the posses: sive pronoun: your Bngish, an inheritance we had come into and must wively use, Unortuatey, my English became all mixed up vvith our Spanish Mix-up, or what's now called Spanglish, was dhe language we spoke for several years. There wasnt a sentence that wasn't colo ried by an English word, At school, a Spanish word would sud

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