UNIT 1 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING

Theodolite Traversing

Structure
1.1

Introduction
Objectives

1.2

Instruments

1.3

Adjustments
1.3.1 General
1.3.2 Temporary Adjustments
1.3.3 Permanent Adjustments

1.4

Traversing
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4

1.5

Traverse Computations
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
1.5.5

1.6

General
Types of Traverse
Methods of Traversing
Field Work in Traversing
Traverse Tables
Checks in Linear Measurements
Checks in Angular Measurements
Checks in Open Traverse
Other Computations

Missed Measurements
1.6.1 General
1.6.2 Various Cases of Missed Measurements

1.7

Summary

1.8

Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The introduction of theodolite as an essential equipment for any exhaustive,
accurate and extensive survey exercise like triangulation and precise measurement
of horizontal and vertical angles, contouring and even measuring linear distances
under difficult terrain conditions has already been covered in the first course on
survey.
You were introduced with the details of various elements of a theodolite
instrument, the setting of the instrument at survey station, its temporary and
permanent adjustments etc. which enable you to use theodolite for normal survey
exercise. The simple traversing using chain and compass, plane table and with the
theodolite was introduced in Elements of Surveying in previous semester.
However, the principle of traversing, the problems associated with general
traverse surveying processes and the error adjustments are explained here in
greater details.
In this unit, you will be introduced with more intricate details of the instruments,
their prominent commercial variance and recent developments. The details of
temporary and permanent adjustments required in an instrument and their
importance etc. are explained in greater details with emphasis on traverse
adjustments and computations. Having undergone through this study, the student
will be able to understand the basic principles of traverse surveying, the correct
way to record the observations in traverse table field work, checks and errors,

Advanced Survey

omitted measurements and methods to account for them and the computations
involved.
With the study of this unit, you will be able to appreciate the advantages and
intricacies of accurate surveying using a precision instrument like theodolite.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

conceptualize about adjustments,

understand various methods of traversing,

understand traverse adjustments and measurements, and

conceptualize about traverse computations.

1.2 INSTRUMENTS
Optical Theodolite
The basic construction of the general transit theodolite was described in
Elements of Surveying in Unit 6. This type of general theodolite is also
termed as direct reading theodolite. The readings in this type of instrument
are read directly either by eye or with the aid of a low power Microscope,
e.g. scale readers against the verniers or using micrometer microscopes.
However, it was discovered later that it is possible to etch much finer lines
on glass rather than on brass or silver. The light can pass through glass
scales and can be refracted by a system of lenses and prisms along almost
any desired path. It is possible to present the much fine readings of the
scales to a microscope attached to the telescope barrel or mounted on the
index arm (Figure 1.1).
7
6
2
1
5

4
3

12

8
9
10

(1)

Telescope

(2)

Trunnion (Horizontal) Axis

(3)

Index Standards

(4)

Index Arms

(5)

Vertical Circle Vernier

(6)

Vertical Circular Scale

(7)

Spirit Level

(8)

Upper Horizontal Vernier Plate

(9)

Horizontal Circular Vernier

(10) Horizontal Circular Scale

(11) Lower Horizontal Plate
(12) Spirit Level

11

(13) Inner Axis

15
13
16

(14) Outer Axis

(15) Levelling Head

14

(16) Levelling Screws

17

(17) Foot or Tribach Plate

18

(18) Tripod Head

19

20

Figure 1.1

(19) Tripod Legs

(20) Plumb Bob

The possibility to etch very fine lines on glass also implies that the circular
scales can be greatly reduced in size. In some instruments only 50 mm dia
circular scales are used, with same accuracy which was achieved by
900 mm diameter scales. The representative typical reading along with the
micrometer reading is shown in Figure 1.2 upto an accuracy of half of a
second.

Theodolite Traversing

10
4 5

4 6
20

Figure 1.2

In standard optical theodolites, only one end of each scale is read as opposed
to the two vernier readings of the direct reading theodolites. However, in
more accurate type of instruments, each scale is read at opposite ends of a
diameter and also the mean of these two readings with the help of special
optical devices.
The advantages of optical theodolite are its smaller and lighter sizes, and the
speed with which the observations can be taken and recorded.
Gyro Theodolite
A gyroscope is a device which is constrained to lie in a horizontal plane by
suspending it (Figure 1.3) and then spun. The earths rotation causes the
oscillation of gyroscopes axis and brings it in the direction of the true north.
The gyro attachment can be mounted on a theodolite. It is attached with
Ni-Cd batteries and electronic device to spun the gyro spinner. The
attachment is suspended on a thin metal tape and hangs like a plumb bob
spinning at about 22000 rpm about an horizontal axis. The spinning plane is
maintained in its original position by the rotation inertia influenced only by
earths spinning motion. Thus, the earths gravity and spinning inertia keeps
the spin axis oscillation until it takes the direction of meridian plane.
However, the gyro axis takes a long time to come to this equilibrium
position.
Free Suspension
Gyroscope Spinner

Gyroscope Axis

Figure 1.3 : Gyroscope

Gyro theodolites have many advantages in field astronomy. Good weather

and accurate clock times are required during field astronomy survey
readings for azimuth. The compass readings are liable to gross errors due to
local disturbances in earths magnetic fields. Complex and laborious
calculations increase the chances of computational errors while gyro
mounted theodolites can give very accurate azimuth readings, within a
standard deviation of

Advanced Survey

20 seconds in less than 20 minutes.

1.3 ADJUSTMENTS
1.3.1 General
The basic operations required in any surveying exercise undertaken with a
theodolite are discussed in detail in Elements of Surveying course. There are two
types of operation required for adjustment of any theodolite, e.g. temporary and
permanent. Temporary adjustments are those which are required to be
undertaken at every new set up of the instrument at each survey station before
starting to make any observation. (Section 6.3 of Elements of Surveying). These
include
(a)

Setting up,

(b)

Levelling the instrument at site, and

(c)

Focusing the eyepiece and object lenses, i.e. eliminating the parallax.

Fixed relationships also exists between the fundamental axis of the instrument.
These basic instrument axes are
(a)

Vertical axis,

(b)

Plate levels axis,

(c)

Line of collimation,

(d)

Trunnion axis or horizontal axis, and

(e)

Azimuthal axis or bubble line of the altitude level.

These relationship are established with the help of instrument adjustments known
as permanent adjustments. Once made, they remain to hold for long periods for
many settings of the instrument (Unit 6 of Elements of Surveying).

1.3.2 Temporary Adjustments

As stated earlier temporary adjustment consists of
(a)

Setting,

(b)

Levelling, and

(c)

Parallax removal.

Setting
The vertical axis of the instrument shall be located exactly above the survey
station position marked by a peg permanently fixed in ground. The top of
the peg is normally marked with a cross by permanent paint. In normal
theodolites, a hook is placed in the centre of tripod stand representing the
position of vertical axis of the instrument. A plumb bob is suspended from
this hook with the help of a strong thread.
The instrument assembly is set on the firm ground and tripod legs are
manipulated to be approximately over the station point. The legs are then
moved sideways and/or radially to bring plumb bob exactly over the cross
junction on peg while maintaining tribach horizontal. In more refined
theodolites, optical plummet is used for centering in place of plumb bob
assembly for better accuracy. A centering plate mounted on tripod can also
be used for rapidly centering the instruments.
Levelling
8

To ensure that the horizontal circle does lie in a true horizontal plane which

is normal to vertical axis of the instrument, the theodolite is levelled. This is

done with the help of leveling screws and plate bubbles. Normally, the
instrument has three leveling screws and two plate bubble tubes. The upper
plate of the instrument is rotated until one of the bubble tube is parallel to
the line joining two leveling screws. While the second bubble tube will be
normal to this line. The bubble of the first tube is brought to central position
by moving the corresponding pair of leveling screws simultaneously. The
third screw is then manipulated to bring bubbles in second bubble tube
midway of its run. This movement may cause disturbance in position of first
bubble. The process of leveling is then iterated until bubbles of both the
tubes remains locked up in central position in all rotations of upper
horizontal plate. This will ensure perfect horizontality of horizontal circle
and makes instruments vertical axis truly vertical.

Theodolite Traversing

Parallax Removal
It consists of focusing of the eyepiece and object lens so that the foci of the
eyepiece and object lens coincide the cross hairs plane. As a first step, a
piece of white paper is placed in front of the object lens and eyepiece screw
is manipulated to move eyepiece in or out of instruments tube until the cross
hairs are distinctly and clearly observable. This process ensures that
eyepiece is locked in focused condition. As a next step, the telescopic tube
is directed towards a distinct object and the focusing screw is turned until
the objects image appears sharp and clear. This step may be required every
time the distance between the object and instrument changes while making
observation. This ensures that the image of object is formed in the plane of
the cross hairs.

1.3.3 Permanent Adjustments

As explained in Elements of Surveying (Unit 6), the fundamental axes of the
theodolite can be identified as :

vertical axis,

axes of plate levels,

line of collimation (also known as line of sight),

trunnion axis (or horizontal axis or transverse axis), and

bubble line of the altitude level (or azimuthal axis).

For an instrument to give reliable and accurate observations, certain definitive

relationships must exist between the above fundamental axes of the instrument.
These relationships must also be maintained during the entire surveying exercise.
It may be noted that these relationships are the properties of the instrument and do
not change with survey station positions.
The relationships which must exist between fundamental axes of the instrument
can be listed as follows :
(a)

The plate levels axis is normal to vertical axis.

(b)

The horizontal axis is normal to vertical axis.

(c)

Line of collimation must be perpendicular to horizontal axis.

(d)

The telescopes axis must be parallel to line of collimation.

In addition to above relations, the well adjusted theodolite should also meet
following requirements to make the instrument working easily and smoothly.

Advanced Survey

(e)

The only movement of one part relative to another should be along a

circular arc. There should not be any backlash, whip or looseness.
(f) The verniers of a vernier type theodolite shall be diametrically
opposite to each other. The vertical circle vernier should read zero
when the instrument is levelled.
(g) The geometric centres of vertical circle and trunnion axis should
coincide as should the geometric centres of the axis of the horizontal
plates and vertical axis of the instrument.
The new instruments are checked for all these requirements before marketing.
However, old instruments get wears and tears during usage and require to be
serviced by competent instrument mechanics at regular intervals if high degree of
accuracy is to be maintained.
Some procedures to be adopted for testing these requirements and subsequent
adjustments where necessary will now be described.
Horizontal Plate Level Test
This shall be conducted to test that vertical axis of the instrument is truly
vertical when the horizontal plate spirit level bubbles are central. It must be
noted that horizontal is an important reference plane when the results of one
station are related to observations made from other stations. It is necessary,
therefore, that upper and lower horizontal plates are oriented along this
plane. The manufacturer always ensures that the vertical axis and horizontal
plates are mutually orthogonal.
To start any adjustment, it is essential that diaphragm in the telescope is
truly vertical, to ensure that vertical and horizontal hairs on diaphragm are
truly vertical and horizontal respectively. The instrument is erected and
levelled carefully on a firm ground. A well defined object is sighted, e.g. the
electric pole or corner of a building. Both horizontal and vertical rotations of
telescope are clamped in this position and the telescope is rotated in vertical
plane by corresponding tangent screw. If the sighted line moves along the
vertical hair, the verticality of vertical cross hair is ensured. If not the
diaphragm screw is loosened and diaphragm rotated to ensure verticality.
Then the screw is retightened. For test (a), clamp the lower plate. With
levelled instrument, rotate the telescope through 180o in a horizontal plane.
The plate spirit bubbles must remain central to ensure that horizontal plate is
truly horizontal. If it is not so, then adjustment is required.
Adjustment
Bring the axis of the telescope in line parallel to the line between two
leveling screws. The telescope spirit level (altitude level) is
centralized using the vertical circle clamp and tangent screws. If the
spirit level is on the index arm, the bubble is centralized using
levelling screws.
Turn the telescope about the vertical axis through 90o and centralize
the relevant spirit level bubble using the third leveling screw. Repeat
the process until the bubble remains central in these two positions.
Next, rotate the telescope horizontally through 180o. If the bubble
does not remain central, carefully note the deviation of the bubble (say
n divisions). The bubble is then returned half way to the centre
(n/2 divisions) with the help of corresponding levelling screws. The
telescope spirit level bubble is centralized using clip screws or the

10

vertical circle tangent screw. Clip screw is used in case of index arm
spirit level.

Theodolite Traversing

Turn the telescope through 90o until the bubble is over the third
leveling screw and centralize it using only this screw. The entire
process, as above, is repeated until no further adjustment is
contemplated. The plate spirit level bubbles are now centralized by
adjusting the capston headed screws used for fixing the levels to
horizontal plate. When the above adjustment is completed, all the
bubbles will traverse during a complete revolution of the telescope
ensuring that the instruments vertical axis is truly horizontal. It must
be emphasised here that the rotation of telescope through 180o had
caused a deviation of n divisions. This is termed as apparent error.
It is twice the value of the actual error in the level axis. Hence, it may
be noted that correction was made only for half the value of apparent
error (n/2 divisions).
After performing this adjustment, one more test may be conducted to
ascertain that both the inner axis and outer axis of the instrument are
parallel. In the adjusted instrument, the lower plate is unlocked while
the upper (vernier) plate is clamped. If in this position the bubble does
not traverse during 180o rotation, it indicates that outer axis is not
vertical. If the error is large the instrument cannot be adjusted and
warrant repairing.
Collimation Test
This test is conducted to check whether the line of collimation coincides
with the optical axis of the telescope. It simultaneously checks whether the
line of sight is perpendicular to trunnion axis or not. If the line of sight
passing through cross hair intersection does not coincide with the optical
axis and is not perpendicular to trunnion axis observational errors will creep
in (Figure 1.4).
Cross
Hair

Object
Lens

Staff
First Line of Sight

True Line of Sight

Second Line of Sight

Second Position of
Horizontal Hair

First Position of
Horizontal Hair

Figure 1.4 : Collimation Test (Horizontal Hair)

We can have four sub-tests under collimation test, namely

(a)

Horizontal hair, angular displacement,

(b)

Vertical hair, angular displacement,

(c)

Horizontal hair, lateral displacement, and

(d)

Vertical hair, lateral displacement.

Test (a) : Horizontal Hair, Angular Displacement

Erect the instrument on a firm ground and level it. Clamp the vertical
motion. A staff is sighted at both the sides of the field of view using the

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Advanced Survey

upper plate tangent screw. Both the readings are same if the horizontal cross
hair is truly horizontal, otherwise it is rotated and requires adjustment.
Loosen the capstan headed diaphragm screws, if adjustment is required.
Rotate the diaphragm until both the above readings are same. Tighten the
screws. If the cross hairs are etched on glass, this adjustment will ensure that
vertical cross hair is also truly vertical.
Test (b) : Vertical Hair, Angular Displacement
In any case, whether the cross hairs are etched or not, this test must be
carried out for better accuracy. A plumb line is hung in the field of view of
telescope and verticality of cross hair is checked against this plumb line. If it
does not coincide and the horizontality of horizontal cross hair is already
checked and adjusted, the diaphragm under test is rejected and replaced.
Tests (a) and (b) are repeated till, for a particular diaphragm, both these tests
are simultaneously satisfied.
Test (c) : Horizontal Hair, Lateral Displacement
As shown in Figure 1.4, a staff is placed at about hundred meters from the
instrument which is erected and levelled on a firm ground. Clamp all the
rotations and record the staff reading (say A) and the corresponding
vertical angle.
Rotate the telescope through 180o both horizontally and vertically. If the
new staff reading for same vertical angle reading, as previously measured, is
B and if B does not change with reading A, lateral displacement
adjustment of horizontal hair is required.
Adjustment
Slacken the diaphragm screws and move the horizontal hair vertically
to intercept the staff reading at (A + B)/2, i.e. equal to (OA + OB)/2.
Tighten the diaphragm screws once again and repeat tests (a) to (c).
Iterate the test till OA = OB.
Test (d) : Vertical Hair, Lateral Displacement
Select a nearly level firm ground. Set and level the instrument at an
instrument station S. Place a ranging pole or staff at location A nearly
100 m away from stations (Figure 1.5), clamp the horizontal rotation.
Turn the telescope through 180o and place a second ranging rod B on the
line of sight SA such that SB SA. Place a measuring staff horizontally on
ground at B normal to line of sight SB and note the vertical hair intercept
at B.
Now, unclamp horizontal movement and rotate the telescope through 180o
and sight the station A. Swing the telescope through 180o in vertical rotation
and sight the staff placed at B. Note the vertical hair intercept once again
which might be C. If intercept C coincides with intercept B, the vertical
hair is correctly aligned. If not, adjustment is required.
Adjustment
The deviation CB in the vertical intercept is recorded. After loosening
the diaphragm screws, the vertical hair is moved laterally until staff
intercept D is sited such that CD = CB/4.*
* [In order to move the diaphragm, one screw of diaphragm is loosened while the
diametrically opposite screw is tightened. The cross hair ring will move towards the loosened
screw.]

12

Test (d) is repeated until no adjustment is needed, i.e. C coincides with

B (CB = 0).

After all the adjustments indicated above, i.e. from test (a) to test (d),
these are repeated until no additional adjustment is required.

Theodolite Traversing

100 m

100 m
B

True Collimation Line

S
EP (III)

Verticle circle
e

EP (I)

EP (II)

A'

(a)

True Collimation Line

B
EP (III)

3e

EP (IV)
2e

2e
Verticle Circle

A'
e
C

(I)
(II)
(III)
(IV)

EP = Eyepiece Postion

(b)

Sight A
Transit to sight B (storing through 180o)
Sight B
Transit to sight C

Figure 1.5 : Collimation Adjustment

Horizontal Axis Test

When the vertical axis of the instrument is adjusted for its true verticality,
the trunnion axis shall be horizontal. This is essential for line of sight of
telescope to trace the arc in a vertical plane when the telescope is swing in a
vertical plane.
C
A

Sight A
Depress Telescope
Sight B
Transit and swing telescope
horizontally by 180o
Sight B
Elevate telescope
Sight C

Trunnion Axis (I)

Trunnion Axis (II)

Steps

(a) Front View

Trunnion Axis (II)

Trunnion Axis (I)

B S

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(b) Side View

Figure 1.6 : Trunnion Axis Test

Set up the instrument at a station (say S) and level it carefully. Sight a

well defined point A at a considerable elevation, e.g. top of a pole or
minaret. Clamp the horizontal plates rotation. Rotate the telescope in a
vertical plane and sight a position B on ground near to instrument station.
Transit the telescope, i.e. rotate the telescope horizontally through 180o and
sight B. Clamp the horizontal plate movement. Elevate the telescope and
sight C, an imaginary point at same elevation as A. If trunnion axis is
horizontal, imaginary point C will coincide with real point A. If it is not so,
then adjustment is required.
Adjustment
Using the trunnion axis adjustment screw the line of sight of telescope
is moved in the direction of D, at a point midway between points A
and C, i.e. CD = 1/2 AC. Repeat the test until C coincides with A.
Telescopic Spirit Level Test
The axis of telescope must be parallel to line of collimation. This ensures
that the line of collimation is horizontal when the telescope bubble is
central. This test is essential when the theodolite is used as a level or is used
for measuring vertical angles.
(a)

A fairly level ground is selected and two pegs are driven along a
line AB, where A and B are nearly 100 m apart at positions as
shown in Figure 1.7. Select first instrument station (say S1) as
close to Peg A as possible and read the staff position at B
(reading a).

c
e
g

a
d

f
D
A

S1

S2

Figure 1.7 : Telescope Spirit Level Test

(b)

View the staff held at A through the object glass (reading b).
Through the eyepiece, cross hairs cannot be seen, reading b can
be read with reasonable accuracy due to proximity.

(c)

Remove the theodolite from station S1 and reset it at station S2 as

close to peg at B as possible and read the staff held at A (reading
c). Also read the staff held at B through object glass (Reading d).

(d)

If (a b) = (d c) = D, the true level difference between A and

B, then the axis of telescope coincides with the line of
collimation, if not, corrective adjustment is required.

If (a b) is not equal to (d c) then let e = (a f) be the difference

between line of collimation and horizontal in a distance AB. Then
(a b) = D + e or D = a b e. bf is the true line of collimation at S1
14

or the horizontal line of sight and bo is assumed to be negligibly small

as compared to distance AB.
Similarly,

D=dc+e

where

e=cg=af

Hence,

Theodolite Traversing

2D = (a b) + (d c)

D=

or,

{(a b) + (d

c)}

e=D+cd

and
Adjustment

Check that instrument is still near B, and bubble is still central.

Manipulating diaphragm screws ensures that reading is now g where
g = c e, i.e. the cross wires coincide with reading g.
Repeat the entire test procedure until (a b) = (d c). It may be noted
that the vertical circle reading has been set to zero at the start of this
test before the instrument was levelled at S1 and vertical movement
clamped.
Index Error Test

The previous test is conducted to determine that telescope level is central

when line of collimation is parallel to telescope level and reading of vertical
circle is zero. The index error test is done to ensure that when the line of
collimation is horizontal and vertical circle reading is zero when index arm
bubble is centralized. The procedure of the test will depend upon the
position of the altitude spirit level. This could be on telescope, index arm of
vertical circle. The clip screw and tangent screws could also be mounted on
one index frame or separately on both arms in different models and makes
of theodolites.
Some of these conditions are described below :
(a)

Spirit level is on telescope : Clip and tangent screws are on one

frame.

Test
Set the vertical circle reading to zero using clamp and
tangent screw. Level the instrument using the telescope
spirit level and leveling screws. Swing the telescope
through 180o in horizontal plane. If the bubble does not
remain central, adjustment shall be made.
Adjustment
Centralize the bubble, half of its run using clip screws and
remaining half by using leveling screws. Repeat, till
bubble does not move.
(b)

Spirit level is on index arm : Clip and tangent screws on one

frame.

Test
Level the instrument using horizontal plate levels. Set the
vertical circle reading to zero using clamp and tangent
screws. Centralize the index arm level using the clip

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screw. Reading of a staff is noted which is placed nearly

100 m from instrument. Rotate the telescope by 180o and
set the vertical circle reading to zero again using tangent
screw. Swing the telescope now 180o horizontally and
level the horizontal plate level once again using leveling
screws only. The staff reading in this position shall be
same as the first reading if instrument is correctly
adjusted.

Advanced Survey

Adjustment
If not, set the telescopes cross hairs to intersect mean staff
reading of the two already taken using clip screws and
centralize the index arm spirit level using spirit level
adjusting screws. Repeat the test procedure till perfection.
(c)

The Clip Screw and Tangent Screw are on Separate Index

Frame

Test
If the spirit level is on telescope, test is conducted similar
to Test (a) except that centralize the level tube bubble
using leveling screws.
If the spirit level is on index arm, the test procedure is
exactly similar to Test (b).
Adjustment
Telescope cross hair is set to the mean reading on the staff
using vertical circle tangent screw and vertical scale
reading to zero using the clip screws. The bubble of spirit
level is brought to centre of its run using the screws of the
spirit level.

1.4 TRAVERSING
1.4.1 General
The simple basic principle of traverse surveying is that if the distances and angles
between successive survey stations are measured, their relative positions can be
plotted on survey maps. A survey line may be represented on plan by two
rectangular coordinates if its length and bearings are known. In general, the
magnetic meridian N-S axis is taken as Y coordinate axis while E-W is chosen as
X-axis. Distances measured along Y-axis are termed latitudes while those along
X-axis as departures or longitudes. The known length and bearings of a line are
together termed as course of the line.
The length or linear distances can be measured by chain, tape, tacheometer or by
any recently developed electronic methods of measurements. The bearings, i.e.
angles, are measured by compass, theodolite or electronic equipment. These
measurements are then plotted to scale by method of coordinates, thus giving the
location of main traverse lines on map. These traverse lines can then be used for
plotting the details by measurement of offsets to the details.

16

It is necessary to select a reference direction, particularly at first survey station.

This could be same natural prominent land mark. However, in most of the cases
true meridian, (N-S) or magnetic meridian, is chosen as basic reference direction.

It may, however, be noted that this meridian direction varies with time and station
location requiring necessary corrections.

Theodolite Traversing

1.4.2 Types of Traverse

A traverse is generally classified as
(a)

closed, or

(b)

open traverse.

When the location of the first and last station coincides, so that a complete circuit
is made (Figure 1.8(a)) or when the coordinates of the last station and first station
are known (Figure 1.8(b)) so that survey work could be checked and balanced, the
traverse is known as closed traverse.
A traverse is termed open when it does not form a closed polygon (Figure 1.8(c)).
It consists of a series of lines extending in the same general direction, so as not to
return to the starting station.
B

C
E
D

D
A

F
C

B
C

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1.8 : Types of Traverse

1.4.3 Methods of Traversing

A close traverse method of surveying can be employed for land surveys of
moderately large areas. It is also used for locating areas like woods, lakes etc.
While open traversing is more suitable for survey of a long strip of land, e.g. road
or railway routes, river valley etc. For very large areas geodetic survey and
triangulation is used.
The basic methods for determining the directions of the survey line in any type of
traversing could be by :
(a)

chain angles, e.g. chain traversing

(b)

free or loose needle method

(c)

the fast needle method and

(d)

direct measurement of angles between successive lines.

Chain Traversing

Chain angle method is used in chain traversing where all the survey work is
accomplished by using only chain and tape. The angle between the
successive lines can be decided by measuring the length of the tie lines with
chain or tape. Angles so determined are termed as chain angles. Tie lines
should have sufficient length to ensure accuracy in measurements. However,
angle measurements so obtained are less accurate than those made using
angle measuring instruments like compass or theodolite.
The tie lines could be internal like B1B2 or external, e.g. C1C2
(Figure 1.9). The distance B1 B2 of the internal tie line is obtained after
B

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Advanced Survey

fixing the positions of B1 (colline AB, measuring BB1) and of B2 (on line
BC, measuring BB2). For external tie line, line BC is extended upto C1
(measuring CC1 along BC) and line DC is extended up to C2 (measuring
CC2). External tie line length C1 C2 is measured to fix angle BCD. As a
check measure length of alternate tie line C1 C3 and distance CC3.
B

C1

C2
C
B2

C3

B
D
B1
A

(a) Closed Traverse

D

B
B1

B2
C3

C2
C1

(b) Open Traverse

Figure 1.9 : Chain Angle Method

To obtain the value of angle ( CBA) in Figure 1.9, BB1 is chosen equal to
BB2. Then
sin

B B
B1 B2
=
/ BB1 = 1 2
2
2
2 BB1

or

BB

= sin 1 1 2
2
2 BB1

or

B B
= 2 sin 1 1 2
2 BB1

. . . (1.1)

The chain angle method is not preferred except in exceptional circumstances

only, when survey is to be conducted while angle measuring instruments are
not available. The measurement is prone to errors where even a small error
in measuring B1 B2 will be magnified greatly at location of ends of survey
line AB and BC. It is against the first principle of surveying of working from
whole to part.
B

Free or Loose Needle Method

The bearing of each line is taken with respect to the magnetic meridian at
each survey station with the help of an angle measuring instrument like
prismatic compass. Loose or free needle refer to magnetic needle mounted
freely on frictionless pivot in the compass.
Fast Needle Method

18

Theodolite is used for measuring horizontal angle to determine the bearing

of the line. The theodolite used for this purpose is fitted with a magnetic

needle. This method is more accurate than the compass bearings, as

theodolite is a more precise and sensitive instrument.

Theodolite Traversing

Angle Measurement Method

Theodolite is employed for measuring horizontal angles between the survey

lines. These angles could be with reference to
(a)

an already fixed reference line whose bearings are known,

(b)

included angles between successive lines, or

(c)

deflection angles between successive lines (Figure 1.10).

The details of measuring these angles with the help of compass is described
in detail in Elements of Surveying, Unit 3, and using theodolite in Unit 6.
N
Bearing of
Line AB

Included Angle between

Lines AB and BC
C

Deflection Angle between

BC and CD

Deflection Angle between

AB and BC

Figure 1.10 : Horizontal Angles of Survey Lines

1.4.4 Field Work in Traversing

When a definitive framework is required for detailed survey the traverse is usually
preferred. The examples of this could be to plot the outlines of small land areas or
water bodies, where details can be surveyed with reference to main traverse lines.
In land development, traversing is used as reference framework for marking the
details. Large land areas can also be mapped in flat densely wooden areas.
The field work involved in traverse surveying has to be carried out in a planned
way. The basic steps depend on the extent of information which can be obtained
before starting the actual surveying. As a preliminary step of survey the existing
maps of the area under consideration are collected for getting as much information
as possible. If no reliable maps are available an outline reconnaissance survey has
to be conducted. This consists of taking photographs of all the salient features and
conducting a rapid rough survey using compass and estimating distances without
actual distance measurements with accuracy. This will help in locating the most
suitable positions of possible survey stations to be used for precision surveying
subsequently. The selected survey stations must be visible and approachable from
several of the other selected stations and such that maximum number of details
and salient features can be measured from the survey lines joining these stations.
The chosen stations are then marked with a wooden or metallic pegs. Stations
which are of permanent or semi-permanent nature should be marked with a
concrete block.
Once stations are finally chosen, these should be marked with signals such as
ranging rods, ranging poles and in particular circumstances with elaborate mast.
The actual survey can then be started by measuring the angles and distances.
While every care is undertaken to ensure that the measurements are made and
recorded as accurately as possible, it should also be noted that degree of accuracy
to be achieved should be as uniform as possible for all the measurements. It would
19

Advanced Survey

be wastage of time and effort to measure angles to the accuracy of 0.1 sec by
geodetic theodolite, if distances are to be measured using chain laid on ground.
The choice of instruments and methods to be used for linear and angular
measurements will mainly depend upon the degree of precision required, which
depends upon the purpose of survey. As a general rule, if is error permitted in
angular measurement and n cm in measuring a linear distance of l cm, then for
the degree of precision to be same, following relationship should be satisfied.
tan =

n
l

. . . (1.2)

1.5 TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS

1.5.1 Traverse Tables
As soon as the angles and distances are measured in field, these should be
recorded in a tabular form, for subsequent calculations and use. The recording and
results of calculations are usually set out in a traverse table. The most commonly
used form of traverse table preferred in practice is called Gales Traverse Table in
Table 1.1.
The computations involved in a traverse survey are explained with the help of an
illustrative example. The specimen traverse is shown in Figure 1.11. It has six
stations A, B, C, D, E and F. The reference direction is Y, which is normally the
magnetic or True North direction. True North is used in geodetic surveying while
magnetic north is used in normal traversing after suitable corrections for local
attraction. Parallel reference directions are drawn in Figure 1.11 at A, B, C, D, E
and F. The orthogonal X-axis in this case will be East-West. Some salient feature
of permanent nature is selected as origin such that coordinates of first station A are
(XA, YA) relative to origin O. Angle YA AB is measured (= ) which may be the
bearing of line AB if YA is north and XA is east. The lengths LAB, LBC, LCD, LDE,
LEF of the traverse line, and bearings 1, 1, 1 etc. are measured in the field and
converted to included angles , , etc. In theodolite traversing, these can be
obtained directly. It may be noted that angles are always measured with reference
to previous survey line in a clockwise direction.
For plotting the survey map with same accuracy as used in measurements of
length and angles, these measurements must be used to obtain the coordinates of
survey stations. Direct plotting of angles by scale and protractor cannot give this
degree of accuracy. The plotting errors will become cumulative in these cases.
The absolute coordinates of survey stations with reference to origin are obtained
by first computing the coordinates at each station with respect to the preceding
one. These are termed latitudes and departures as explained in earlier unit. The
absolute coordinates will then be
XA = XA : YA = YA

at station A

XB = XA + XAB : YB = YA + YAB

at station B

XC = XA + XAB + XBC

at station C

: YB = YA + YAB + YBC
B

XD = XA + XAB + XBC + XCD : YA + YAB + YBC + YCD at station D and so on.

It may be noted that X measured towards east is + ve and towards west is ve.
Similarly, Y measured in the direction of north is + ve and towards south is ve.
In Figure 1.11, XAB, XCD and XDE, YAB, YBC, YCD and YFA are positive while XBC, XEF
and XFA, YDE, and YEF will have negative numerical value. The computations are
20

shown in Table 1.2 in tabular form. The angles 1, 1, 1 . . . are the reduced
bearings at station B, C, D . . . etc.

Theodolite Traversing

21

Advanced Survey
Y

YD
XDE
YC

XBC
1

L CD

YCD

YE

XC

XD

L DE

(XC,YC)

D (XD,YD)

YDE

YB
L BC

XEF

B (XB,YB)

XE

E (XE,YE)

XB

LEF

YA

A
(XA,YA)

LA

YAB
XA
LFA
YFA

YA

XFA
XA

YEF

YF

XF

F (XF,YF)

XAB

Figure 1.11 : Specimen Traverse

Table 1.2 : Computation of Coordinates

Coordinates
Station

Local
Departure

Global
Latitude

XA

YA

XAB = LAB sin

YAB = LAB cos

XB = XA + XAB

YB = YA + YAB

XBC = LBC sin

YBC = LBC cos

XC = XB + XBC

YC = YB + YBC

XCD = LCD sin

YCD = LCD cos

XD = XC + XCD

YD = YC + YCD

XDE = LDE sin

YDE = LDE cos

XE= XD + XDE

YE = YD + YDE

XEF = LEF sin

YEF = LEF cos

XF = XE + XEF

YF = YE + YEF

XFA = LFA sin

YEF = LFA cos

XA = XF + XFA

YA = YF + YFA

Check XF + XFA = XA

YF + YFA = YA

(Numerical cross check)

1.5.2 Checks in Linear Measurements

The results as tabulated in Gales traverse table must be of specified accuracy. To
achieve this desired degree of accuracy it is necessary that these should be
checked wherever possible. If the survey has been conducted properly, that is, if
all the linear and angular measurements are precisely measured, the algebraic sum
of all the departures and latitudes as obtained in Table 1.2, i.e. sums of second
column and sum of third column should be independently zero. In other words the
22

coordinates XA and YA of station A, as given in first row and as obtained in last

row of Table 1.2, should be numerically equal.

Theodolite Traversing

This generally will not happen and a value D in col 2 and L in col 3 in
Table 1.2 will be obtained which is not zero. This is termed as linear error in
closure E where :
E =

(L)2 + (D ) 2

. . . 1.3(a)

E = {( L) 2 + ( D) 2 }

or

. . . 1.3(b)

The magnitude of E will provide the degree of error indicating the level of
accuracy achieved. It is usual to refer it as accuracy ratio. Where accuracy ratio
AR is
AR =

...

Li
i =1

1.3(c)
where

Li

= sum of the lengths of traverse lines or the parameter of the

i =1

surveyed traverse. The AR value will vary from area to area and from one method
of traversing to the other. Depending upon the nature of survey and desired
accuracy, AR will range from 1 in 5000 to 1 in 10000.
If the accuracy ratio achieved in a traverse survey is larger than the permissible
limit, i.e. if its value is less than 1 in 5000 (say), the entire survey in the field need
to be re-conducted and repeated. However, if it is within the permissible limit
(more than 1 in 5000 say), the correction is sought to be applied and readings of
latitudes and departures as obtained in Table 1.2 are adjusted by distributing the
closing error throughout the traverse. The adjustment process is known as
balancing the traverse.
Traverse Balancing
There are several alternative methods of balancing of traverse. These are
arbitrary method, Bowditch rule (compass rule), transit rule, least square
method, Crandalls method etc.

The Crandalls and least square methods are based on theory of probability
and are more complex hence not generally used in practice, while in the
arbitrary method the latitude and departures are adjusted arbitrarily on the
judgement of the surveyor. For example, if in the opinion of the surveyor
one or more of the traverse sides may not have been measured as precisely
as others, because of particular practical difficulties or obstructions in the
field, the whole of the larger part of linear error of closure may be assigned
to that side or sides, arbitrarily depending purely on surveyors perception.
However, it is observed that all the traverse lines are measured linearly and
angularily with same precision, it is common practice to apply either the
Bowditch rule (compass rule) or the transit rule.
In transit rule, the adjustment to latitude (or departure) are applied in
proportion to their lengths. Thus, longer a latitude (or departure), the greater
is its adjustment, i.e.
X i =

Xi
n

Xi

Xi

. . . 1.4(a)

i =1

23

Advanced Survey

and

Yi =

Yi

Yi

. . . 1.4(b)

i =1

where Xi ( Yi) are adjustment in departure (latitude) in ith side, U X (UY)

are total closing error in departure (latitude), Xi (Yi) are departure (latitude)
of side I, while Xi and Yi are sum of columns 2 and 3 in Table 1.2.
It is preferable to apply this method when linear measurements are less
precise than angular measurements.
The compass rule or Bowditch rule is applied when both angular and linear
measurements have similar precision.
In this method

and

X i = X i

Li

Li

. . . 1.4(c)

Yi = Yi

Li

...

Li``

1.4(d)
where Li and Li are lengths of traverse line i and the perimeter of traverse,
i.e. sum of all the lengths of traverse sides.
The differences in the above two sets of corrections are relatively small. The
calculations are simple and results are fairly accurate. For precision
surveying like geodetic surveying and triangulation, more precise methods
like Crandall or least square method is adopted.
The corrections are carried out in tabular form and the results of the
computations along with corrected coordinates are recorded as shown in
Gales traverse table (Table 1.1).
As a field check, all linear measurements should be repeated if possible in
opposite direction of traverse, compared to first measurement. If situation
permits these could be checked by tacheometric methods using a theodolite
at either of the stations.

1.5.3 Checks in Angular Measurements

A check of angular error of closure is available in closed traverses with n stations.
The internal angles should sum to 180 (n 2)o and sum of external angles should
be 180 (n + 2)o , where n is number of sides of the traverse.
Due to problem of the field observations and in instruments there will always be
some discrepancy, however small it may be. This is termed as angular error of
closure (E). If the closing error is relatively large and more than the permissible
limit, the surveying exercise is required to be repeated. The permissible limit is
normally taken as n where is the least count of measuring instrument
and n is number of sides in the traverse. If the closing error (E) is small, it is
distributed either equally among the stations if the traverse sides are nearly equal.
The angles so corrected and adjusted shall satisfy the conditions of internal or
external angles of the traverse. If, however, some of the traverse lines are too short
relative to others, the angular corrections are advised to be applied to the angles
adjacent to these lines preferably in ratio of their lengths. This is because
24

centering errors are more likely to occur on short lines. It is important to take
cross bearings wherever possible. This will help in localizing any large errors.

Theodolite Traversing

Some other angular checks to be applied in case of closed traverses could be as

follows :
Deflection Angles

The algebraic sum of the deflection angles of a traverse should be equal to

360o. It is important to follow same sign convention in this process. For
example, right hand deflection angle can be taken as positive while left hand
as negative, or vice-versa.
Bearing

The accuracy of traversing can be checked by comparing the fore bearing of

the last line with its back bearing observed at initial station.

1.5.4 Checks in Open Traverse

In an open traverse, an attempt is made at closure even if an extra station has to be
introduced otherwise the measurements as a whole cannot be checked. Some
checks could be as follows :
(a)

Cut off lines between certain intermediate stations can be run. Let
there is an open traverse ABCDEFGH . . . (Figure 1.12). AE and EM
are cut off lines, thus dividing the open traverse into two closed
traverses ABCDE and EFGHKM. The linear and angular
measurements of each part of the traverse can now be checked. The
traverse ABCDE is checked by observing the direction of AE both at A
and at E and observing whether the difference between these bearings
is 180o and also by measuring distance AE. Similarly, traverse
EFGHKM can also be checked.
O

E
D

B
C

F
G

Figure 1.12 : Checking Open Traverse

(b)

Well defined prominent object (say, O) lying on one side of the

traverse is chosen. The bearings of object O is taken at intervals. Let
the bearing of object O in Figure 1.12 is taken from stations A, E and
M. The coordinates of object O can be computed from measurements
of traverse ABCDEOA. Bearing of line MO can then be obtained from
the coordinates of station M and object O. This computed bearing of
MO can then be checked with the actual observed bearing of line MO
from station M. The other part of the traverse
EFGHKM can then be carried out and coordinates of O are computed
once again from the new traverse measurements. The two computed
values of coordinates of O are then compared for the accuracy of
traverse A to M.
The methods of open traverse checking as described in (a) and (b) are
used for normal survey work wherever possible. However, for

25

precision surveys, particularly when length of the open traverse is very

large, the angular errors can be determined by astronomical
observations for azimuth at regular intervals during the progress of the
traverse.

Advanced Survey

1.5.5 Other Computations

As described in unit on theodolite in Elements of Surveying (Unit 6) and else
where in present unit on traverse surveying, angular measurements are made with
the help of compass and/or theodolite. These angular measurements, whether
these are whole circle bearings, included angles (interior or exterior) or deflection
angles, are used to compute the value of other angles. The procedure followed can
be described as follows.
Method of Included Angles

If the traverse survey is made by the method of included angles and the
whole circle bearing of the initial line is measured, the bearings of other
traverse lines can be computed as follows
To the whole circle bearing of any line (known) add the included angle
between that line and the next line, measured in clockwise direction.
ND
E
FB of DE
NA

Included Angle at D
D

BB of CD

NC
FB of AB

NB

FB of BC

FB of CD

Included
B Angle at B

BB of BA

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.13

If the sum is greater than 180o subtract 180o, and if the sum is less than 180o
add 180o. The result will be the whole circle bearing of next line.
Let the fore bearing of line AB = whole circle bearing of line AB = 130o in
Figure 1.13(a) and included angle between line AB and BC is 110o. Then
adding the two values 130 + 110 = 240o, which is greater than 180o, hence
reduce this value by 180o (i.e. 240o 180o = 60o). Thus, the whole circle
bearing of line BC will be 60o which is fore bearing of line BC at station B.
Similarly, let the WCB of line CD (i.e. FB of CD at C) is 70o while included
angle between lines CD and DE measured clockwise if 60o. The total is
70o + 60o = 130o, which is less than 180o. Add to this 180 to obtain the
WCB of line DE (180o + 130o = 310o), i.e. fore bearing of line DE
(Figure 1.13(b)).
Example 1.1

In a closed traverse survey ABCDE, the observed bearing of line AB is

120o300 (Figure 1.14). The included angles measured are as follows.
26

Station

76o4900

Included
Angles

150o 2040

98o2030

102o1540

112o1410

Theodolite Traversing

Calculate the bearings of remaining sides of the traverse.

E
N

D
o
120 30'00''

A
C
B

Figure 1.14

Solution
Bearing of line AB

150o2040

Add B
=
Subtract 180

120o300

270o5040>180o
180o

Bearing of line BC

90o5040

Add C

98 2030
=

189o1110 >180o

Subtract 180o

180o

Bearing of line CD

9o1110
o

Add D

102 1540
=

Add 180o

(b)
o

111o2650 <180o
+ 180o

Bearing of line DE

291o2650

(c)

Add E

112 1410
=

Subtract 180

(a)

403o4100 >180o
180o

Bearing of line EA

223o4100

(d)

76o4900

Add A

300o3000 >180o
Subtract 180o

180o

Bearing of line AB

120o3000

(e)

The computed bearing of line AB is same as observed value of bearing of

line AB. Hence, the accuracy of measurement and calculations is cross
checked.
Method of Deflection Angles
If the traverse is run by measuring the bearing of initial line and deflection
angles, the whole circle bearings of remaining lines can be computed using
the following procedure.
N
FB of BC
B (Clockwise)
N

B
FB of
AB

N
FB of
CD

C (Anticlockwise)
C

27

Advanced Survey

Figure 1.15

WCB of any line = WCB of preceding line , where is deflection angle

taken + ve if deflection angle is clockwise (right) and ve if it is counter
clockwise (left). To the obtained WCB add 360o if it is negative and subtract
360o if it is more than 360o to obtain true value of WCB of the line.
Bearing of line BC = Bearing of AB + B
Bearing of line CD = Bearing of AB B
Check : Bearing of last line = FB of initial line + Sum of deflection angles.
Example 1.2

The following table gives the deflection angles in a traverse survey. The
bearing of line AB is 120o3000. Compute the bearings of remaining
traverse line.
Station

Deflectio
n Angles

103o 1100
(anticlockwise)

29o3920
(anticlockwise
)

81o3930
(anticlockwise
)

77o4420
(anticlockwise
)

67o4550
(anticlockwise)

Solution
Bearing of line AB
Deduct B
Bearing of line BC
Deduct C

120o3000

29o3920

90o5040

=
Add 360o

Deduct A
Bearing of line AB

68o3310 < 0
+ 360o

291o 2650

(iii)

67o4550

Deduct E
Bearing of line EA

(ii)

77o4420

Deduct C

Bearing of line DE

81 3930
9o1110

Bearing of line CD

(i)

223o4100

(iv)

103 1100
120o3000

(v)

The computed bearing of line AB is same as given value.

Checked

Bearing of line AB = 120o3000 (29o3920 +

81o3930 + 77o4420 + 67o4550 + 103o1100)
= 120o3000 (360o)

. . . (vi)

The value of bearing of line AB by rule of checking is ve hence add

360o. Hence, true bearing of line AB by rule of checking is
28

120o3000 360o + 360o = 120o3000

. . . (vii)

Theodolite Traversing

Included Angle and Deflection Angle

Conversion of included angles () measured in clockwise direction from the

back station to corresponding deflection angle () can be achieved as
follows
(a)

Included angle > 180o :

= 180o

then
(b)

Check of a closed traverse is

equal to 360o

If < 180

= 180o o

then
Example 1.3

Compute the deflection angles in a closed traverse whose included angles

are given as follows :
Station
Included
Angle ()

50o40

191o38

103o19

79o48

220o13

74o22

Solution
The traverse ABCDEF is sketched as shown in Figure 1.16.
F

74o 22'
E
A
A

50o40'

220o 13'

191o 38'

D
o

79 48'
B

103 19'
B C

Figure 1.16

Deflection angle at station B = 191o 38 180o

= 11o 38 (+ ve) clockwise
Deflection angle at station C = 180o 103o19
= 76o 41 ( ve) counterclockwise
Deflection angle at station D = 180o 79o48
= 100o 12 ( ve) counterclockwise
Deflection angle at station E = 220o 13 180o = 40o 13 (+ ve) clockwise
Deflection angle at station F = 180o 74o22 = 105o 38 ( ve) anticlockwise
Deflection angle at station A = 180o 50o 40 = 129o 20 ( ve) anticlockwise

29

Advanced Survey

( ve) = (100o12 + 105o38 + 129o20 + 76o 41) = 411o51

(+ ve) = (11o38 + 40o13) = 51o 51
Algebraic sum = 411o 51 + 51o51 = 360o = 360o (OK).

1.6 MISSED MEASUREMENTS

1.6.1 General
As described earlier, two measurements are required to be made for each traverse
line, i.e. its length and bearing. With the help of these field measurements, the
coordinates of each survey stations along global Y-axis (usually North) and global
X-axis (usually East), can be determined for plotting the traverse map. The
distances computed parallel to Y-axis (North) is called latitude while those parallel
to X-axis (East) are termed as departures. A closed traverse is considered to be
completely surveyed when the length and bearing of each of its sides are known as
obtained by field observations.
It is, however, possible that some of these field measurements are accidentally
omitted during the survey or could not be made due to certain unavoidable
obstructions in the field. If these omissions or missed measurements are only one
or two in number, these can be manipulated and obtained by calculations. The
sides affected by these omissions are called affected sides. However, during these
computations it has to be assumed that all field measurements were precise and
accurate. There is no scope for computation of balancing or closing errors in such
cases.
The common cases of missed measurements during field survey can be listed as
follows.
(a)

Only one side is affected, i.e.

(i)

Bearing of one side is unknown

(ii)

Length of one side is missing

(iii) Length and bearing of one side is omitted.

(b)

Two sides are affected, i.e.

(i)

Length of one side and bearing of another side is wanted,

or

(ii)

Lengths of two sides were not recorded, or

(iii) Bearings of two sides are missing.

These measurements in case of a closed traverse can be obtained using the
principle that sum of the latitudes of all the traverse sides is zero and the sum of
the departures of traverse side is also zero. Thus, from the above two equations
two unknown measurements can be obtained. If the unknown measurements are
more than two the problems is indeterminate. For computational work, following
relationships are useful
(a)

Latitude Yi = li cos i and departure Xi = li sin i

. . . 1.6(a)

where li and i are length and reduced bearing of ith traverse line.
(b)
30

tan i =

xi
and li = ( xi2 + yi2 ) = y1 sec i = xi cosec i
yi

. . . 1.6(b)

Theodolite Traversing

1.6.2 Various Cases of Missed Measurements

Case 1 : When Bearing, or Length, or Bearing and Length of One Side is
Missing

This case is explained by Example 1.4.

212.6 m
N 88.78330 w
E

S 22.04150 w

318.4 m

318.22 m

N 47.13330 W
C

Imaginary Closing Line

(Case 2)

N 57.60 E
S 62.68330 E

376.4 m

278.6 m

Figure 1.17 : Missed Measurements

Example 1.4

The field measurements of a closed traverse ABCDE are reproduced in the

following table. Fill in the blanks.
Line

AB

BC

CD

DE

EA

Length (m)

278.6

376.4

318.4

212.6

117 19

Bearing
(WCB)

57 36

312 52

271 13

EA
Computed
318.22

Solution
S62.6833o E

N57.6000oE

N 47.1333oW

N 88.7833oW

Latitude Yi

127.85

+ 201.69

+ 216.61

+ 4.51

+ 294.96

294.96

Departure Xi

+ 247.53

+ 317.81

233.81

212.55

+ 119.42

119.42

Reduce
Bearing

lEA = {( 294.96) 2 + ( 119.42) 2 } = 318.22 m

tan EA =

119.42
= 0.4049 = S 22.0415o W
294.96

Two values of reduced bearings EA are obtained. In first or third quadrant

the third quadrant selected because both latitude YEA and departure XEA
are ve indicating S. W. quadrant.
Case 2 : When Length of One Side and Bearing of Another Side is Missing

In Case 1, the length and bearing of same line were missing. Now it is
assumed that length of one survey line and bearing of another survey line
are missing. To start with consider that line j and k are adjacent. Let k
indicates line DE and j indicates line EA, two adjacent lines in Figure 1.17.
The problem is attempted to be solved first by neglecting the affected sides
DE and EA and considering the traverse ABCD closed by an imaginary line

31

Advanced Survey

DA. Its length and bearing are computed using the procedure followed in
Case 1.
Let in triangle ADE, the included angles are , and , respectively at A, D
and E. Then the sine rule can be used to analyse this triangle, e.g.
DA
AE
DE
=
=
sin sin sin

. . . (1.7a)

Since bearing of line DE is known and of AD calculated earlier, magnitude

of can be obtained.
Also, since length EA is known and DA computed earlier the expression
DA
AE
=
sin sin
can be used to obtain

sin =

or

DA
sin
AE

. . . (1.7b)

Having the values of and , can be obtained as

+ + = 180o or = 1800 ( + )

. . . (1.7c)

Finally, length DE can be computed as

DE = DA

sin
sin

. . . (1.7d)

Example 1.5

The survey records of a closed traverse are given in the following table. Fill
up the missing entries
Line

AB

BC

CD

DE

EA

Computed
DE

Value

Length

278.6

376.4

318.4

318.22

212.61

EA

Bearin
g

117o19

57o36

312o52

271o13

Solution

In Figure 1.17 imaginary closing line AD closed the traverse ABCDA,

omitting the effected sides DE and EA. LDA and EA are obtained by exactly
following the procedure of Case 1.
Line

Closing
DA

+ 216.61

+ 290.45

290.45

233.37

+ 331.97

331.97

AB

BC

CD

278.6

376.4

318.4

S62.6833o

N57.6000oE

N 47.1333oW

Latitude yi

127.85

+ 201.69

Departure xi

+ 247.53

+ 317.81

Length
Reduced
Bearing

LDA = {( 290.45) 2 + ( 331.97) 2 } = 441.10 m

32

tan DA =

331.97
= + 1.1430
290.45

Theodolite Traversing

DA = S48.8164o W (in third quadrant, as both latitude and departure

are ve).
Check

LDA = L 90.45 sec 48.8164 = 441.10 m (OK)

Now RB of line DE = N 88.7833o W and of DA = S 48.8164o W

Hence

= 180o 88.7833o 48.8164o = 42.4003o

sin =

441.102
sin 42.40030
318.22

= 0.9347 or = 69.1778o or 180o 69.1778o = 110.8222o

And

is selected as explained in figure of Example 1.4

= 180o (110.8222o + 42.4003o) = 26.7775o

Then

lDE = DA

sin 26.7775o
= 212.61
sin 110.8222o

(OK)

Reduce Bearing of EA = 90o + 20.8222o

= 110.8222o

(OK)

Case 3 : When Lengths of Two Sides are Missing

The lengths of two affected adjacent sides are omitted, i.e. lj and lk are
missing.
In Figure 1.17, let adjacent sides DE and EA of close traverse ABCDE are
the affected sides. This problem of missed measurements is attempted in a
similar way as in Case 2, i.e. ignoring the affected side, the traverse ABCD
is closed using an imaginary closing line AD and the length and bearing of
the closing line is calculated.
Since the bearing of all the lines are given the magnitude of , and of
the triangle ADE is computed and cross checked as + + = 180o.
Applying sine rule the lengths lDE and lEA can be obtained.
Example 1.6

Following table gives the site measurements of a traverse (Figure 1.17).

Calculate the missed lengths.
Line
Lengths (m)

AB
278.6

BC
376.4

CD
318.4

WCB

117 19

57 36

Reduce
Bearing

S62.6830E N 57.6000o E

DE

EA
?

312 52

271 13

201o56

N 47.13333oW

N 88.7833oW

S 21.9305oW

Solution

The length and bearing of closing line DA are obtained by finding the
latitude and departures of lines AB, BC and CD as in following Table.
Line

AB

BC

CD

Closing Line
DA

33

Advanced Survey

Length (m)

278.6

376.4
o

318.4
o

S 62.633 E

N 57.6000 E

N 47.1333 W

Latitude

127.85

+ 201.69

+ 216.61

+ 290.45

290.45

Departure

+ 247.53

+ 371.81

233.37

+ 331.97

331.97

R Bearing

lDA = {( 331.97)2 + ( 290.45) 2 } = 441.10 m

tan DA =

331.97
= 1.1430
290.45

RB of DA = S 48.1864oW
RB of AD = N 48.8164oE
RB of EA = S 22.0415oW
RB of AE = N 22.0415oE
RB of DE = N 88.7833oW
RB of ED = S 88.7833oE
Here

= 22.0415o + 48.8164o = 26.77o

= 88.7833o + ( 180o 48.8164o) = 42.4003o

and

= 110.8222o

Check

+ + = 179.9974o = 180o

(OK)

Knowing length, AB = 441.10

l
l
441.10
= DE = AE
sin
sin sin

or

lDE = 441.10
l AE = 441.10

sin 26.7749o
sin 110.8222o
sin 42.4003o

sin110.8222o

= 212.60

= 318.22

Case 4 : When Bearings of Two Sides are Missing

Angles of two adjacent sides are missing, i.e. J = ?, K = ?

Similar to Cases 2 and 3, assume AE and DE are affected sides.
The procedure is similar to that followed in earlier procedures, except that
area of triangle ADE is computed by following formula, i.e.
= {s ( s a ) ( s b) ( s c)}

Then angles and of triangle ADE are obtained by equating

to 1/2 product of lengths of two sides multiplied by sin of angle between
them, i.e.

=
34

1
2
l AE lED sin or sin =
l AE . lED
2

1
2
lEA l AD sin or sin =
l AE . lED
2

1
2
l AD lED sin or sin =
l AD . lED
2

Theodolite Traversing

Case 5 : When Affected Sides are Not Adjacent

Refer to Figure 1.18 of closed traverse ABCDE.

E'
E
D

C'
A'

C
A
B'
B

Figure 1.18 : Missing Dimensions Sides Not Adjacent

Let the sides affected are EA and CD which are not adjacent. In this case,
any of the affected side say EA is shifted parallel to itself to a position
adjacent to other (in this case CD). The known sides are shifted parallel to
themselves. Thus, in order to form an imaginary close traverse with adjacent
affected sides, shift the known sides AB and BC parallel to themselves.
Thus, closing line AE and then the procedure of solutions from Case 1 to
Case 4 can be repeated.
The method is based on the principle that length and bearing of a line
remain unaffected when moved parallel to itself. In attempting such
problems, it is advantageous to draw the traverse to scale.

SAQ 1
(a)

What is gyro theodolite? Explain with Figure.

(b)

What are the types of adjustment used in theodolite? Explain in

details.

(c)

What is collimation test? Explain with Figure.

(d)

Explain basic principle of traverse survey? Explain types of traverse.

(e)

Explain traverse computation with Figure.

(f)

A traverse ABCD was supposed to be run but due to an obstruction

between the stations A and B, it was not possible to measure the length
and direction of the line AB. It was only possible to obtain the
following data :
Line
Length (m)
Reduced Bearing (RB)

AD

DC

CB

44.5

67.0

61.3

N50o 20E

S69o45E

S30o10E

35

Advanced Survey

Determine the direction and length of BA. Also, work out the perpendicular
distance between C and AB along with the distance of the foot of the
perpendicular from C on AB from B.

1.7 SUMMARY
Theodolite is a highly sensitive instrument for measuring angles, both horizontal
and vertical. It can also be used for obtaining bearings of line with an attached
compass. With vertical movements of the telescope locked in horizontal position,
it can be used for levelling. For highly undulating grounds, it can be used for
trigonometric levelling. Horizontal distances can also be measured, using the
tacheometric diaphragms, fairly accurately.
Using theodolite for general survey work, it is required to be adjusted. The
adjustment could be temporary or permanent. Temporary adjustments are needed
at every instrument station, while permanent adjustments are required to assure
the prescribed relationships between instruments fundamental axis.
The land to be surveyed is measured by technique of traversing, which could be
closed one or open. The main survey lines of traverse are so selected that the
entire survey area is adequately covered. For getting the information and location
of all salient ground features, secondary and tertiary survey lines are drawn with
reference to main traverse sides and details measured by laying the offsets from
these lines. The data so obtained from traverse survey is required to be
manipulated with corrections and computation so that the accurate realistic survey
maps are prepared. Survey maps are essential for all subsequent applications of
survey exercises in civil engineering projects, like land measurements, fixing plot
boundaries and locations contouring, drawing longitudinal and cross sections and
earth work computations.

1.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Further Reading given at the end to get the answers of SAQs.

36