Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 1 Description and Estimation of Rock Properties

In this chapter, properties of reservoir rocks and their measurements are introduced. Porous materials are seen and used everywhere in nature, in science and technology, and everyday life. The definition of a porous material may differ somewhat in different studies. For the purpose of studying of porous media flow, the porous materials are solid or semisolid containing pores or voids and are permeable to a variety of fluids.

1. Definitions
The porosity of a porous medium is the volume fraction of its pore space. It is expressed as 1.1 Porosity

Vb

(1-1)

Vb the bulk volume of the porous medium the pore volume. Vp The porosity varies between zero and unity, depending on the type of porous material and the way it was formed. Total porosity represents the total void space of the medium. Effective porosity is the amount of the void space that contributes to the flow of fluids.

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Hydrocarbon porosity refers to the part of the porosity that contains hydrocarbon. It is total porosity multiplied by the fraction of the pore volume that contains hydrocarbon. Two kinds of pores or voids: Pore space, called interconnected or effective pore space Dead pore space that consists of isolated or noninterconnected pores or voids dispersed in the medium. Only the effective or interconnected pore space contributes to the flow of fluids through the porous medium. Experimental methods commonly used to determine the porosity: i) Imbibition method. The porous sample is saturated with a preferentially wetting fluid by letting the fluid imbibe into the sample under vacuum. The sample is weighed before and after imbibition. From the two weights, the density of the fluid and the dimensions (bulk volume) of the sample, the porosity can be calculated. ii) Mercury injection method. As most materials are not wetted by mercury, it will not penetrate into the pores unless a pressure is applied. After the sample is evacuated, mercury is forced to penetrate into the sample under high pressure. iii) Gas expansion method. The porous sample is enclosed in a vessel of known volume V1 under known gas pressure P1. When the vessel is connected to an evacuated vessel of known volume V2, the gas expands into this vessel and the gas pressure in the first vessel decreases to a lower value P2. Applying the ideal gas law to the above process gives the effective pore volume Vp of the sample:

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 P2 V p = Vb V1 V2 P P 2 1

(1-2)

where Vb is the bulk volume of the sample which is determined in a separate measurement. iv) Density method. The bulk density of the sample b and the density of the solid matrix of the sample s are determined. The total porosity of the sample is calculated by

= 1

b s

(1-3)

Average porosity of a reservoir The accuracy of the average porosity of a reservoir as found from core analysis depends on the quality and quantity of the data available and on the uniformity of the reservoir. The porosity is also calculated from electric logs and neutron logs, often with the assistance of some core measurements. 1.2 Permeability 1.2.1 Definition and Darcys law - The property of a porous medium which allows a fluid to flow through it is called permeability. - This parameter is determined entirely by the pore structure. Darcys law : The darcy permeability k is calculated by applying Darcys law (Darcy, 1856) to a slow (creeping), one dimensional, horizontal, steady flow of a Newtonian fluid:

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q=
q A L P

k A P L ,
volumetric flow rate (cm3/sec) cross-sectional area of the sample (cm2) length of the sample in the flow direction (cm) hydrostatic pressure drop (atm) viscosity of the fluid (cP)

(1-4)

Using these units in Darcys law results in the practical unit of permeability the darcy (D). One darcy is equal to 0.987 (m)2 in SI units. One darcy is a relatively high permeability, and for tight porous materials the unit millidarcy (mD) is used. 1.2.2 Measurement of permeability Measurement of permeability is usually performed with onedimensional, cylindrically shaped samples. In the measurement various flow rates of the fluid are recorded as a function of pressure drop. Permeability is obtained by fitting a straight line to the data points. Theoretically, this line should pass through the origin.

Figure 1. Effect of turbulent flow on measured permeability

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Both liquids and gases are routinely used to measure permeabilities. Liquids, however, may interact with the rock sample and thus change the pore structure of the medium and therefore the permeability of the medium. For example, the flow of fresh water through porous samples containing clay caused permeability reduction because of clay swelling upon contact with fresh water. 1.2.3 Units of Darcys Law under different systems The potential (datum pressure) of a fluid: = p + g z Darcys law in general form:

q=
or

kA d ds

q=

kA dp dz +g ds ds

Darcy unit system:

q=

kA dp dz 1 g + ds ds 1.01325 x106

k darcy, A cm2, cp, p atm, s cm, gm/cm3, g 980.7cm/sec, q cm3/sec SI unit system:

q=

kA dp dz +g ds ds

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k m2, A m2, kg/m-sec, p N/m2 (Pa), s m, kg/m3, g 9.8 m/sec2, q m3/sec Field unit system:

q = 0.001127

kA dp g dz + ds 144 g c ds

k md, A ft2, cp, p psia, s ft, lb/ft3, g 32.17ft/sec2, q bbl/d cgs unit system:

q=

kA dp dz +g ds ds

k cm2, A cm2, gm/cm-sec(poise), p dyne/cm2, s cm, gm/cm3, g 980.7cm/sec2, q cm3/sec 1.2.4 Gas Permeability In using gas in measuring the permeability, the gas volumetric flow rate varies with pressure. Therefore, the value of q at the average pressure in the core must be used. Assuming the used gases follow the ideal gas behavior, Darcys law is in the following form: 2 kA( p12 p2 ) qgb = (1-5) 2 g Lpb qgb gas volumetric flow rate at base pressure (cm3/sec) A cross-sectional area of the sample (cm2) L length of the sample in the flow direction (cm) P1 inlet (upstream) pressure (atm) P2 outlet (downstream) pressure (atm) Pb base pressure (atm) g gas viscosity at mean pressure (cP)

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The Klinkenberg Effect The permeability of a porous medium sample measured by flowing air is always greater than the permeability obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid. This is because that gases exhibit slippage at the pore wall surface. The gas slippage results in a higher flow rate for the gas at a given pressure differential. For a given porous medium, the calculated permeability decreased as the mean pressure (pm) increased. If a plot of calculated permeability versus 1/pm is extrapolated to the point of 1/pm = 0 (or pm = infinite), this permeability would be approximately equal to the liquid permeability (see Figure 2). The straight-line relationship in Fig.2 can be expressed as:

1 k g = k L + c p m

(1-6)

kg = calculated gas permeability pm = mean pressure (pm = (p1+p2)/2) kL = Klinkenberg permeability c = slope of the line The magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core permeability and the type of the gas used in the experiment.

Figure 2. The Klinkenberg effect in gas permeability measurement

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Figure 3. Effect of gas pressure on measured gas permeability for various gases. (Calhourn, J., 1976) 1.3 Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution If ( D ) is the distribution of pore volume fraction as a function of pore size, D, then the pore size is selected such that (Dullien, 1992)

( D)dD = 1 .
0

(1-7)

Mercury porosimetry -The volume of mercury penetrating the sample is measured as a function of the pressure imposed on the mercury. -Drainage capillary pressure curves obtained by mercury intrusion porosimeter are customarily interpreted in terms of the bundle of capillary tubes model. -The pore size is calculated from this pressure by Laplaces equation of capillarity and, using the bundle of capillary tube model of pore structure, the volume of mercury is assigned to this pore size.

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In the case of interconnected pore space the body of each pore is connected to the bodies of adjacent pores via necks or throats. The sizes of both the pore bodies and the pore throats play an important role in determining various macroscopic properties, such as permeability, capillary pressure curves of porous media, etc. Both the body and the throat sizes can be measured using computer reconstruction of pore structure from photomicrographs of serial sections of the sample. 1.4 Resistivity Factor A resistivity factor, often called formation resistivity factor, is defined as

F=
Ro

Ro Rw

(1-8)

the electrical resistance of porous sample saturated with an ionic solution, Rw the bulk resistance of the same ionic solution occupying the same space as the porous sample (same cross-section area and length). In the case of nonconductive solids Ro is always greater that Rw and therefore, F is always greater than unity.

Correlation of the formation resistivity factor with porosity cementation exponent m. 1 F = For clean and uniform sand 2 Archie (1942) suggested:

and a

F = m

1.3 < m < 2.5

It is more common to express the formation factor as:

F = a m
where a, m are unique properties of sample.

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1.5 Isothermal Compressibility (coefficient) The isothermal compressibility for a substance is:

c=
Where

1 dv v dp

1 dv c = or more generally v dp T c = isothermal compressibility v = volume p = pressure

(1-9)

Rock-matrix compressibility cr: The rock-matrix isothermal compressibility is the fractional change in solid rock volume with a unit change in pressure while the temperature is held constant:

cr =

1 vr

dvr dp

(1-10)

Units are in reciprocal pressure units, psi-1. Rock-bulk compressibility cb:

cb =

1 dvb vb dp T

(1-11)

Pore volume compressibility (Formation isothermal compressibility) cf : At any value of external-internal pressure difference, the change in pore volume per unit of pore volume per unit change in pressure. Note that pore volume increases with the pore pressure:

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cf =

1 vp

dv p dp T

(1-12)

Or

cf =

1 d dp T

(1-13)

Example: The values of cf for limestone and sandstone reservoir rocks: 2 x 10-6 to 25 x 10-6 psi-1. When the internal fluid pressure within the pore spaces of a rock is reduced: the volume of the solid rock material increases the pore volume decreases Both of these volume changes act to reduce the porosity of the rock slightly, of the order of 0.5% for a 1000 psi change in the internal fluid pressure (e.g., at 20% porosity to 19.9%).

2. Fundamentals of Capillarity
2.1 Surface (interfacial) tension Interface is a boundary between two immiscible phases and is taken as a mathematical line or mathematical surface. Types of interfaces liquidGas (LG) LiquidLiquid (LL) LiquidSolid ( LS) GasSolid (GS) Surface Tension, , and Interfacial tension, , are basic properties of interfaces. The stress causing this spontaneous decrease of surface area

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is called surface or interfacial tension. Surface tension may be thought of either as a force per unit length in a surface (dyne/cm, or equivalently, mN/m), or a free energy per unit surface area (erg/cm2, or equivalently, mJ/m2). The term Surface Tension is reserved for interfaces involving a liquid in equilibrium with their own vapour, or for liquid-air type of interfaces. The term Interfacial Tension (IFT) is used for L-L or L-S types of interfaces. The physical meaning of force per unit length and energy per unit area is understood by the following examples.

Figure 4: Example of film of soap Work = Force Length or displacement W = (l) dx

W = dA

where

dA = l dx and denotes the change in interface area.

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Typical IFT values H2O-air Hg-air Hydrocarbons-air H2O-Oil (H2O + NaCl)-Oil (H2O + Soap)-Oil 72 mN/m 450 mN/m ~2050 mN/n ~20 mN/m ~30 mN/m ~0.1mN/m to 110-3mN/m

2.2 Wettability and Contact Angle The relative wettability of a porous medium by two fluids is characterized by the contact angle . The contact angle is defined as the angle between the tangent to the liquid/solid boundary constructed at a point on the three-phase line of contact and the tangent to the gas/liquid boundary constructed at the same point.

Figure 5

Contact angle of a liquid on a solid surface

Youngs equation:

sg sl = lg cos

where lg and sg respectively, and sl solid.

, (1-14) are the surface tensions of liquid and solid, is the interfacial tension between the liquid and the

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The contact angle may have any value between 0 and 180. It is customary to simply classify fluids into two categories: wetting and nonwetting fluid. For wetting fluids, 0 < 90, and for non-wetting fluids, 90 < 180. In the pores of porous media, the curved interfaces between two immiscible fluids may take different shapes and directions of the curvature.

Figure 6

Menisci in (a) a water- wet and (b) an oil-wet capillary.

Terminology Used in Contact Angle Measurements

A, Advancing contact angle: The contact angle when the interface is forced by human action or otherwise to move in the direction of the wetting phase displacing the nonwetting phase. A is usually measured through the wetting phase and the solid surface. R, Receding contact angle: The contact angle when the wetting phase is receding ( e.g. when the nonwetting phase displaces the wetting phase). R is also usually measured through the wetting phase and the solid surface. E, Equilibrium or intrinsic Contact Angle: the contact angle when the system was attained equilibrium position over time.

Equilibrium Contact Angle - Approach to Equilibrium Rock- fluid interactions are time dependent. They significantly affect the measurement of contact angles. Salinity of water, pH, type of ions, temperature, and polar groups in the crude oil, all have an effect on equilibrium contact angle A.

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2.3 Capillary Pressure Immiscible fluids in porous media are separated from each other by curved interfaces across which there exists a pressure difference or a step change in pressure. This pressure difference, called capillary pressure PC, is balanced at equilibrium by a pressure difference P at any points of contact between the two fluids: (1-15) where subscripts w and nw represent wetting and non-wetting phase, respectively. As, at equilibrium, Pnw > Pw, the capillary pressure is, by definition, always positive. Equation 1-15 shows that the capillary pressure always tends to compress the non-wetting phase relative to the wetting phase. It is helpful to remember that the pressure in the phase on the concave side of the surface is always greater than the pressure in the phase on the convex side. Laplaces equation for capillary pressure in a capillary tube is:

PC P = Pnw Pw

2 PC = P = rm

(1-16)

Where rm is the mean radius of the curvature of the meniscus. Typical application of Eq. 1-16 is in a circular capillary of a very small radius. If the contact angle of a liquid on the capillary walls is zero, the meniscus can be approximately thought to be hemispherical. Thus, the mean radius of the curvature is equal to the radius of the capillary.

2 PC = r

(1-17)

where r is the radius of the capillary.

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The general case is when the liquid/gas surface or liquid/liquid interface meets the circular capillary wall through contact angle , as illustrated in Fig. 2-3. If the meniscus is a spherical cap and both r and R are positive quantities, the following geometric relation holds:

R=

r cos

(1-18)

and Eq. 2-7 becomes

PC =

2 cos r

(1-19)

Figure 6. The relationship between the radius of the curvature of the meniscus and the radius of the capillary tube.

Equation 1-19 is the most widely used form of Laplaces equation in porous media.

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2.4 Capillary Rise The best illustration of the phenomenon of capillary rise may be the capillary rise method for measuring the surface tension of a liquid, such as water in a clean glass capillary. The contact angle of some fluids on a clean glass surface is near zero. Eq. 1-19 can be used directly. At equilibrium, the P, or PC, in Eq. 2-9 must equal to the hydraulic pressure drop in the liquid column in the capillary. This is P = gh, where is the difference in density between liquid and gas phase and g is the gravitational constant. Eq. 1-19 becomes

gh =

2 r

(1-20)

Figure 7. Capillary rise in a glass tube

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2.5 Capillary Pressure Curves Capillary pressure-saturation relationship When a porous sample saturated with a single fluid, e.g. air, is submerged in a second fluid, e.g., water, one of the following phenomena may be observed: 1. The water may spontaneously imbibe into the sample and thus displacement of air from the sample takes place. Water wetting phase Air non wetting phase Porous sample water wet Displacement free imbibition 2. The water may not penetrate at all into the sample unless it is placed under an externally applied pressure. Water non wetting phase Drainage capillary pressure curve The quasi-static displacement of wetting phase, e.g., water, by a nonwetting phase, e.g., oil or air, is defined by the set of increasing values of the capillary pressure, Pc, and a corresponding set of decreasing values of water saturation. The wetting phase is drained out of the sample. Imbibition capillary pressure curve The capillary pressure verses saturation relationship for the process of wetting phase displacing non-wetting phase in quasi-static steps. Capillary pressure hysteresis Because of the difference between the conditions for configurational stability of the fluid-fluid interfaces during the drainage process and the imbibition process, the capillary pressure curves display hysteresis. The advancement of the non-wetting phase into the medium is controlled by the neck pores. The advancement of the wetting phase is controlled by the bulge pores.

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Figure 8. Typical capillary pressure curves The definitions of main terms of capillary pressure curves: Irreducible (wetting phase) saturation Swi: The reduced volume of the wetting phase retained at the highest capillary pressure where the wetting phase saturation appears to be independent of further increases in the externally measured capillary pressure. Residual (non-wetting phase) saturation Snwr: The reduced volume of the nonwetting phase that is entrapped when the externally measured capillary pressure is decreased from a high value to zero.

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Primary drainage curve: The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the wetting phase from 100% saturation to the irreducible saturation. (Secondary) Imbibition curve: The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the nonwetting phase from the irreducible saturation to the residual saturation Secondary drainage curve: The relationship characteristic of displacement of wetting phase from residual saturation to the irreducible saturation Hysteresis loop Experimental evidence has indicated that the irreducible saturation obtained by initial drainage is the same as that obtained by secondary drainage. When the residual saturations are the same, the imbibition after secondary drainage will follow exactly the imbibition curve obtained after primary drainage. The secondary drainage curve and the secondary imbibition curve constitute a closed and reproducible hysteresis loop. Leverett J-Function Because the capillary pressure is a function of pore size, which is a function of porosity and permeability, it varies with reservoir porosity and permeability. It is not practical to measure a separate capillary pressure curve for each value of porosity and permeability, all capillary pressure curves for a particular reservoir can be combined into one curve by use of the Leverett J-function given by:
J= pc cos k

(1-21)

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If the capillary pressure curves are measured for several different porosities and permeabilities, all the data can be plotted on one curve by use of J-function.

3. Steady Multiphase Flow in Porous Media

3.1 Introduction When two immiscible fluids flow simultaneously through a porous sample under steady conditions, there will be a pattern of occupancies of the two fluids which greatly influence the effective permeabilities of the two fluids in the sample. The distribution of the two fluids depends the saturations the wettability conditions of the pore surface the interfacial tension fluid viscosities the pore velocity The case of the most interest corresponds to one of the two fluids wets the pore surface preferentially the interfacial tension is large the velocities are low Flow of immiscible fluids in porous media: Steady-state All macroscopic properties of the system are time invariant at all points Unsteady-state Properties change with time Co-current Both phases flow in the same direction Counter-current Different phases flow in opposite directions Steady state flow VS. displacement (imbibition, drainage)

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3.2 Saturations Saturation is defined as the fraction, or percent, of the pore volume (PV) occupied by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water): Oil, gas, and water saturation are: V V V So = o , Sw = w Sg = g , PV PV PV Where Vo, Vg and Vw are oil, gas, and water volumes, respectively. The saturation of each individual phase ranges between zero and 1.0. The sum of the saturations is 1.0:

So + Sg + Sw = 1.0.
3.3 Relative permeabilities - A macroscopic (phenomenological multiphase flow in porous media Equations of relative permeabilities ) description of

Darcys Law:

q=

kA P L

Conditions of steady cocurrent flow are usually established by injecting both fluids at constant rates and allowing time for the discharge rates to become equal to the injection rates. Under these conditions it has been found in experiments that the saturation and the capillary pressure are approximately independent of position. An extended Darcys law for two-phase flow in porous media, under steady-state conditions:

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qi =
qi Pi i ki

k i A Pi i L ,

i = o, w

(1-22)

the volumetric flow rate the pressure drop the viscosity of phase i. the effective permeability of the porous medium to phase i.

It is coustomary to express ki as relative permeability, i.e., as a fraction of the absolute permeability of the porous medium k

ki k ri = k
and write Eq. 1-22 as

i = o, w

(1-23)

qi =

k ri k A Pi i L

i = o, w

(1-24)

As the saturation of a particular phase decreases, the effective permeability of that phase also decreases. The sum of the effective permeabilities is always less than or equal to the absolute permeability, i.e.,

ko + k g + k w k
Or

k ro + k rg + k rw 1

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Figure 9 Schematic of relative permeability curves of primary drainage and secondary imbibition (Dullien, 1988).

Experimental methods of measuring relative permeabilities

The methods available for the measurement of relative permeabilities can be divided into two categories: steady and unsteady flow tests. Steady flow tests In a typical steady-state method the two liquids are injected simultaneously as a fixed ratio and know, metered flow rates. The criterion of steady state is determined by the condition that the inflows equal the outflows and /or the constant pressure drop has been reached across the sample. The attainment of steady state may take anywhere

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from 2 to 40 hours or even longer, depending on the sample permeability and the method used.

Figure 10 apparatus

Schematic diagram of steady state relative permeability

Procedure: (for waterflooing) Saturate the porous sample with the wetting phase (water) Displace the wetting phase with the non-wetting phase (oil) to irreducible water saturation Starting from irreducible water saturation, increase water saturation step by step to determined oil and water permeabilities at different water saturations until the residual oil saturation reached.
Unsteady flow methods In the unsteady-state (external drive) method, one phase is displaced from a core by pumping in the other phase and the relative permeabilities are calculated by history matching the production data (produced fluid ratio and pressure drop across the core sample) using reservoir simulation.

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Advantages of the unsteady-state method: Fast The relative permeabilities measured in this fashion will exactly reproduce the experimental oil recovery data (from which they were derived). Procedure: (for waterflooding, SPE 99763 by Wang and Dong, 2006)

The absolute permeability is first measured by injecting single water phase through a 100% water-saturated sandpack. Initial water saturation is established by injecting oil until water was no longer produced, which is followed by the determination of effective oil permeability at irreducible water saturation. The relative permeability test is conducted at a constant water injection flow rate. After waterflooding, the average oil saturation in the core sample is measured using a Dean Stark glass distillation assembly, which is applied to check the recorded production data.
Relative permeabilities for a fluid pair can be affected pore structure Wettability capillary forces saturation history viscosities of fluid pair Drainage and imbibition relative permeabilities Whenever capillary forces are controlling, there is also a hysteresis effect of the relative permeability curves, as shown schematically in Fig. 9, i.e., imbibition relative permeability curves are different from drainage relative permeability curves.

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Effect of Wettability
The difference of procedures in determining relative permeability curves driving the sample down to irreducible water saturation and measuring the relative permeabilities at increasing water saturations. in a water-wet samples imbibition-type relative permeability curves are determined in an oil-wet sample drainage-type relative permeability curves are determined. The most noticeable difference in relative permeability characteristics of the two types of rocks is the difference in water saturations at which water and oil relative permeabilities are equal: greater than 50% for water-wet and less than 50% for oil-wet. Summary of relative permeability curves
Connate water saturation Usually greater than 20 to 25% Saturation at which oil Greater that 50% water and water relative saturation permeabilities are equal Relative permeability to Generally less that 30% water at maximum water saturation; i.e., floodout

Water-wet Oil-wet

Generally less that 15%, frequently less that 10% Less than 50% water saturation Greater than 50% and approaching 100%

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 2 Reservoir Fluids Properties

2.1 Reservoir Types Defined in Reference of Phase Behavior
The types of reservoirs can be defined by the phase behaviour of the initial reservoir temperature and pressure with respect to the two-phase (gas and liquid) region on pressure-temperature (PT) phase diagrams. Pressure temperature phase diagrams:

Typical pressure-temperature phase diagram of a pure substance Vapor-pressure line Critical point Triple point Melting-point line Sublimation-pressure line

Typical pressure-temperature diagram of a multi-component mixture Bubble point line Dew point line Two-phase region two phases, gas and liquid, coexist. Two phase region - enclosed by the bubble-point and dewpoint lines. Constant liquid volume line -The curves within the two-phase region show the percentage of the total hydrocarbon volume that is liquid for any temperature and pressure. Constant liquid volume line Cricondentherm, or maximum of two-phase temperature (250F for the present example) Cricondenbar, or maximum of two-phase pressure Phase diagram depends on the composition of the mixture. Initially each hydrocarbon accumulation will have its own phase diagram, which depends only on the composition of the accumulation.

Examples of paths of production and phase change:

(Textbook Page 7) Point A: Fluid at 300F and 3700 psia. One-phase state (gas) in reservoir during production. A-A1: It will remain in the single-phase or gaseous state as the pressure declines along path A-A1. A-A2 : The fluid produced through the wellbore and into surface separators may enter the two-phase region due to the temperature decline (A-A2).This accounts for the production of condensate liquid at the surface from a gas in the reservoir. Point B: fluid at temperature of 180 oF and an initial pressure of 3300 psia. One-phase state (gas), where the reservoir temperature exceeds the critical temperature. Point B1: The dew-point pressure is reached at 2700 psia. B1-B2: Below dew-point pressure a liquid condenses out of the reservoir fluid as a fog or dew. This type of reservoir is commonly called a dew-point (retrograde) reservoir. The term retrograde is used because generally vaporization, rather than condensation, occurs during isothermal expansion.
3

B2-B3: Vaporization of the retrograde liquid occurs from B2 to the abandonment pressure B3. Low reservoir temperature and high abandonment pressure will cause more loss of the condensate. Point C: Fluid at 2900 psia and 75F. One-phase state (liquid). The temperature is below the critical temperature. This type is called a bubble-point (undersaturated) reservoir. C-C1: Pressure declines, the bubble point will be reached (at 2550 psia) at point C1. Below C1: Bubbles, or a free-gas phase, will appear. The free gas evolved begins to flow to the well bore, and in ever increasing quantities. Other names for this type of liquid (oil) reservoir are depletion, dissolved gas, solution gas drive, expansion, and internal gas drive. Point D: Fluid at 2000 psia and 150F. A two-phase reservoir, consisting of a liquid or oil zone overlain by a gas zone or cap. The composition of the gas and oil are different from each other. The oil is at its bubble point and will be produced as a bubble-point reservoir with the presence of the gas cap.

2.2 Gas Properties

1. Ideal Gas Law Equations of State: Describe the pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) behavior of a fluid. The ideal gas law: PV = nRT p V n T R' - absolute pressure - volume - moles - absolute temperature - the gas constant (1.4)

Units: p - psia, V - ft3, n - lb-moles, T Ro (Rankine) , R' = 10.73 p - atm, V - cm3, n - g-moles, T K (Kelvin), R' = 82.05 Ro = 460 + oF K = 273.15 + oC
4

Standard conditions: 14.7 psia and 60F. Volume of gas at standard conditions: SCF (standard cubic feet), MSCF (1000 standard cubic feet), MMSCF. Example: Calculate the moles, pounds and molar volume at standard conditions of ethane in a 500 cu ft tank at 100 psia and 100oF. n=pV/RT = (100 x 500)/(10.73 x 560) = 8.32 lb-moles m = Mn = 8.32 x 30.07 = 250.2 pounds Vmolar=10.732x(60+460)/14.7 = 379.4 SCF/Mole 2. Specific Gravity Density of gas, g, at a given temperature and pressure:

g =

Mw
R'T

Mw = molecular weight Specific gravity - the ratio of the density of a gas at a given temperature and pressure to the density of air at the same temperature and pressure, usually 14.7 psia and 60F. The specific gravity of a gas (at standard conditions):

g =
3. Real Gas Law

g air

pM w Mw Mw R'T = = = p x 28.97 28.97 29 R 'T

(1.5)

pVa = znRT
Va the actual gas volume.

(1.7)

Compressibility factor z (gas deviation factor) a measure of the deviation from the ideal behavior. It is a dimensionless quantity and varies usually between 0.70 and 1.20. Definition of the gas deviation factor:

Figure 1.3 Gas deviation factors of two gases (Textbook 16)

Determination of the gas deviation factor: The gas deviation factor is different for each gas or mixture of gases and for each temperature and pressure of that gas or mixture of gases. 1). The gas deviation factor is commonly determined by measuring the volume of a sample at desired pressures and temperatures, and then measuring the volume of the same quantity of gas at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature sufficiently high so that all the material remains in the vapor phase.

Example: A gas has a volume of 364.6 cu cm at 213F and 3250 psia. At 14.80 psia and 82F it has a volume of 70,860 cu cm.

The deviation factor at 3250 psia and 213F is:

2). Estimation from specific gravity:

(Textbook P.17) The correlations of the two curves are: ppc = 756.8 131.0g -3.62g Tpc = 169.2 + 349.5g -74.02g 3). Pseudocritical pressure and temperature method Pseudocritical pressure and temperature are defined as: (1.8) (1.9)

T pc = y j Tcj
yj j

and

p pc = y j pcj
j

mole fraction of jth component

Tcj and pcj are critical temperature and pressure of jth component. Effects of CO2 and H2S on calculation of pseudoreduced properties (Wichert and Aziz) = 120 (A0.9 A1.6) + 15(B0.5 B4) (1.15) A - sum of the mole fractions of CO2 and H2S in the gas mixture B - mole fraction of H2S in the gas mixture The modified pseudoproperties are given by: Tpc = Tpc Ppc = ppcTpc/[Tpc + B(1-B) ] (1.15a) (1.15b)
8

4. Gas Formation Volume Factor Bg Bg = [volume of gas in the reservoir] [volume on the surface (standard conditions)] Bg = psczT/Tscp Bg = 0.02829 zT/p cu ft/SCF =0.00504 zT/p bbl/SCF (1.16) (1.17)

(The constants in Eqs. (1.17) are for 14.7 psia and 60F) Example: For Bell Field gas at 3250 psia, 213F, and z = 0.910:

Discussion: 1) 1 SCF (at 14.7 psia and 60F) gas occupies 0.00533 ft3 or 0.000949 bbl of space in the reservoir at 3250 psia and 213F. 2) 1000 ft3 of reservoir pore volume in the Bell Field gas reservoir at 3250 psia contains G = 1000/0.00533 = 188MSCF 5. Gas Isothermal Compressibility cg

Definition:

cg =

1 dv v dp

1). Isothermal compressibility of ideal gases:

2). Isothermal compressibility of real gases:

Discussion: I. For an ideal gas z = 1.0 and dz/dp = 0 , the compressibility is the reciprocal of the pressure. That is: (for ideal gas) cg = 1/p II. For real gases, cg is a function of both pressure and z-factor. a. At low pressures, the z-factor decreases as pressure increases. dv/dp is negative and cg is larger than in the case of an ideal gas. b. At high pressures, the z-factor increase with pressure. dv/dp is positive and cg is less than in the case of an ideal gas.

10

Fig 1.6. Gas compressibility of gas deviation factor versus pressure (Textbook). Example Find the compressibility of a gas from z-factor curve (Fig 1.6). Given: The gas deviation factor curve for a gas at 150 oF, Fig. 1.6. Solution: At 1000 psia, dz/dp = - 127x10-6, z = 0.83 cg = 1/1000 -1/0.83(-127x10-6) = 1153x10-6 psi-1 At 2500 psia, dz/dp = 0 cg = 1/2500 =400 x10-6 psi-1 At 4500 psia, dz/dp = -110 x 10-6, z = 0.90 cg = 1/4500 -1/0.90(110x10-6) = 100 x 10-6 psi-1

11

3) Isothermal compressibility of gas mixtures:

p = ppc ppr and dp = ppcdppr,

Equation (1.9) can be written in the following form:

cg =
Define: There is:

1 1 dz p pc p pr zp pc dp pr

(1.20)

cr = cgppc
cr = 1 1 dz p pr z dp pr

(1.21)

Correlations presented in Figs 1.7 and 1.8 can be used to find the isothermal compressibility for gas mixtures.

2.3 Crude Oil Properties

1. Specific Gravity and API Gravity Oil gravity, o, is defined as the ratio of the density of the oil to the density of water, both taken at the same temperature and pressure, mostly at standard conditions.

o =

o w
141.5 131.5

API gravity is defined as:

o

API =

Where o is the specific gravity of the oil at standard conditions.

12

2. Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, Rso Rso = Solution gas volume measured at standard conditions (SCF) Stock tank oil volume (STB) The solubility of natural gas in crude oil depends on the pressure, temperature, and the composition of the gas and the crude oil. The quantity of solution gas increases with pressure. The quantity of solution gas decreases with temperature. The quantity of solution gas increases as the compositions of the gas and crude oil approach each other. Saturated oil: A oil is said to be saturated with gas if on a slight reduction in pressure some gas is released from solution. Undersaturated oil: if no gas is released from solution as pressure is reduced, the crude oil is said to be undersaturated. Fig. 1.11 shows the change of Rso of an oil with pressure (textbook).

Determination of Rso Laboratory analysis with reservoir fluids Estimation using correlations o Charts (McCain, 1990) o Equations

13

3. Formation Volume Factor of Oil, Bo (FVF) The definition of FVF: The volume in barrels that one stock tank barrel with solution gas occupies in the formation at reservoir conditions. Bo = Volume of reservoir fluid (STO + solution gas) at reservoir conditions Volume of oil entering stock tank at standard conditions The reciprocal of FVF is called Shrinkage factor: bo = 1/Bo Example of FVF change with pressure and temperature is shown in Fig. 1.12.

Fig. 1.12

FVF of Big Sandy Field oil (Text book page 34)

14

Two-phase formation volume factor (Total formation volume factor) Bt Definition: The volume in barrels one stock tank barrel and its initial dissolved gas occupies at any pressure and reservoir temperature.

Bt = Bo + Bg(Rsoi Rso)

(1.28)

Discussion of Eq. (1.28) (see figure for this equation): For one barrel of stock tank oil plus its dissolved gas. The volume of oil at the lower pressure is Bo. The quantity of gas evolved is Rsoi Rso, measured at standard conditions. The volume of free gas at reservoir conditions is Bg(Rsoi Rso). The total volume is equal to the total formation volume factor, Bt. Above or at the bubble-point, Rsoi = Rso, Bt = Bo. Below the bubble point, Bo decreases and (Rsoi Rso) increases as pressure decreases, two-phase factor increases.

15

Example of calculating Bt at 1200 psia using Fig 1.13:

Fig 1.13 Demonstration of Bo and Bt Calculation (Textbook page 36) Knowns: Based on 1STB Initial solution gas = 567 SCF/STB At 1200 psia and 160F the liberated gas has a deviation factor of 0.890 liquid phase shrinks to 1.210 bbl at 1200 psia At 1200 psia Rso = 337 SCF/STB Solution: The gas volume factor with reference to standard conditions Eq. (1.17) Bg = 0.02829 zT/p = 0.02829x 0.890 x 620/1200 = 0.01300 cu ft/SCF = 0.002316 bbl/SCF Rsoi Rso = 567 337 = 230 Vg = Bg(Rsoi Rso) = 230 x 0.002316 = 0.5326 bbl Bo = 1.210 bbl/STB Bt = 1.210 + 0.002316 (567 - 337) = 1.210 + 0.533 = 1.743 bbl/STB

16

4. Isothermal Compressibility of Oil, co Definition:

co =

1 dv v dp

dv/dp is negative, the negative sign converts the compressibility to a positive number. co changes with pressure. Average compressibilities can be estimated using the following equation: 1 V1 V2 co = (1.31) V p1 p2 The reference V in Eq (1.31) can be V1, V2, or the average of the two. 5. Viscosity of Oil

Fig. 1.14 Viscosity of reservoir oils (Textbook Page 40) The viscosity of oil under reservoir conditions is commonly measured in the laboratory. Viscosities of reservoir oils o Above bubble point, viscosity decreases with decreasing pressure. o Below bubble point, viscosity increases with pressure owing to the release of solution gas. Correlations have been developed for both above and below the bubble-point pressure.
17

Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 3 Single-Phase Gas Reservoirs 3.1 Introduction Reservoirs single-phase gas reservoirs Reservoir fluid natural gas Dry gas reservoir no condensate formed in the reservoir, but condensate may form in the wells and on the surface 3.2. Gas in place by volumetric method The gas pore volume Vg is related to the bulk, or total, reservoir volume Vb by the average porosity and the average connate water Sw.

Vg = Vb (1 S w )

The standard cubic feet of gas in a reservoir: V G= g Bg If Vb of the reservoir is in acre-feet, and the standard cubic feet of gas in place, G, is given by:

G=
Example (Bell Field): Area Thickness Vb Porosity

43,560Vb (1 S w ) Bg

(3.1)

= 1500 acres = 40 ft = 60,000 ac-ft = 22%

Sw Bg (@3250 psia)

= 23% = 0.00533 cu ft/SCF

G = 43,560 x 60,000 x 0.22 x (1-0.23)/0.00533 = 83.1 MMM SCF Bulk productive volume of reservoirs: The volumetric method uses subsurface and, isopachous maps based on the data from electric logs, cores, and drill-stem and production tests.
Subsurface contour map - lines of equal elevations on the top of a bed Net isopachous map - lines connecting points of equal net formation thickness Isopach lines - lines of equal thickness

Equations used to determine the approximate volume of the productive zone: h Vb = ( An + An +1 + An An +1 ) (3.2) 3
Vb the bulk volume between n and n+1 isopach lines (acre-feet)
An the area enclosed by the lower isopach line (acre) An+1 the area enclosed by the upper lsopach line (acre) h the interval between the lsopach lines (feet)

The volume between successive isopach lines, and the total volume is the sum of these separate volumes. Or use the trapezoid equation: For a series of successive trapezoids:

Vb =

h ( An + An+1 ) 2

Vb =
A0 A1, A2, An tavg h

h ( A0 + 2 A1 + 2 A2 + ... + 2 An1 + An ) +tavg An 2

(3.3)

the area enclosed by the zero isopach line the areas enclosed by successive isopach lines the average thickness above the top isopach line the isopach interval.

Connate (Intersticial) water in gas reservoirs:

takes the amount of pore space available to gas affects gas recovery not uniformly distributed in the reservoir varies with the permeability, lithology, the height above water table

Calculation of average reservoir pressure after initial production

Well average pressure = Areal average pressure =

p
0

(3.4)
i i

p A
0

A
0

(3.5)

Volumetric average pressure = Notes:

p Ah
i 0

i i

Ah
0

(3.6)

i i

n is the number of wells in (3.4) and of reservoir units in (3.5) and (3.6). Volumetric average is used in the volumetric and material balance calculations.

3. Recovery from Volumetric Gas Reservoirs Gas-in-place in one unit (1 ac-ft) of bulk reservoir rock: Vb = 1 ac-ft, Eq. 3.1 becomes:

G=

43,560 (1 S w ) (SCF/ac-ft) Bg

(3.7)

Gas at abandonment pressure:

Ga =

43,560 (1 S w ) Bga

(SCF/ac-ft)

(3.8)

Bga the gas volume factor at the abandonment pressure. For a reservoir under volumetric control, no change in the interstitial (connate) water.

Unit recovery (Gas produced at abandonment pressure):

1 1 Unit recovery = 43,560 (1 S w ) B B SCF/ac-ft gi ga

(3.9)

Bgi (G Ga ) = 1 Recovery factor = G Bga

(3.10)

4. Recovery under Water Drive Under water drive, after an initial decline, water enters the reservoir at a rate to equal the production, and the pressure stabilizes. In this case the stabilized pressure is the abandonment pressure. At the abandonment pressure, a unit (1 ac-ft) contains: 43,560 (1 S gr ) ft3 Volume of water: Volume of residual gas in reservoir: 43,560 S gr ft3 Gas volume at surface:
43,560 S gr Bga

SCF

Sgr residual gas saturation

1 S wi S gr Unit recovery = 43,560 B B SCF/ac-ft gi ga

(3.11)

S gr Bgi (G Ga ) = 1 Recovery factor = G 1 S wi Bga

(3.12)

If the water drive is very active so that there is essentially no decline in pressure, Eqs (3.11) and (3.12) become:

1 S wi S gr 43 , 560 x Unit Recovery = B gi

1 S wi S gr Recovery Factor = B gi
5

Discussion: For the same residual gas saturation (or the same gas volume), higher abandonment pressure will retain more mass of gas, or the recovery will be greater for the lower stabilization pressure. Generally gas recoveries by water drive are lower than by volumetric depletion (the same conclusion does not apply to oil recovery).

3.5 Material Balance Derivation of Equation 3.15: Material balance is used to find the gas in place for the reservoir as a whole from production and PVT data. For most gas reservoirs, the formation and water compressibilities are negligible. Assume: the pore space volume is constant Vp Vp Vp = = Vg GBgi + + Wi Vw
(all are initial)

= [gas volume] + [Initial water + water influx water produced] = (G Gp)Bg + Wi + We WpBw (3.15)

G (Bg Bgi ) + We = GpBg + WpBw

If We = 0 and Wp = 0 Eq. (3.15) reduces to: G (Bg Bgi ) = GpBg From Eq. (1.16), Bg = We have Bg =
p sc zT Tsc p

(3.16)

p zT p sc zT and Bgi = sc i i . Substituting Bg and Bgi gives: Tsc p Tsc pi

psc zT p zT G sc i i Tsc p Tsc pi

= Gp

psc zT Tsc p

(3.17)

If the reservoir temperature is constant, T = Ti

G
or

z z z G i = Gp p pi p
(3.18)

p p pi Gp + i = zi z zi G
Eq (3.18): pi, zi, and G are constants p/z vs. Gp a straight line
pi zi At any p, Gp known, G can be found.

Slope =

pi , y intercept = zi G

Discussion of Fig. 3.6: 1) If p/z is set equal to zero, Gp = G 2) The plot could be extrapolated to any abandonment p/z to find the initial reserve. 3) A plot of Gp versus p is not linear (why?) 4) In water-drive reservoirs, Gp vs. p/z is not linear. The pressure drops less rapidly than in volumetric reservoirs. If Eq (3.16) is expressed in terms of the initial gas pore volume, Vi Vi = GBg,

psc zT Tsc p p zT Bgi = sc i Tsc pi Bg =

We have Eq (3.20)

pscG p Tsc

piVi pV i ziT zT pscG p

(3.20)

Or

Vi =

Tsc p pi f z iT zfT
(3.20-1)

3.6. Gas Equivalent of Produced Condensate and Water To modify Gp to include the condensate liquid production at surface To find gas and GE volume produced from low pressure separators using correlations

GE of 1stock tank barrel (STB) condensate liquid:

GE (1STB ) = VSC = n R'TSC pSC

(3.21)

n =

mass 350 o = M wo M wo

(1bbl of water = 350.5 lb)

For a three-stage separation system:

Gp = Gp(surf) + GE(Np) = Gps + Gss + GSt + GE(Np)

(3.23)

For a two-stage separation system:

Gp = Gp(surf) + GE(Np) = Gps + Gst + GE(Np) (3.24) Two correlations (diagrams) for the amount of gas and in low pressure separators: Gp = Gps + Veq (Np) (3.25)

Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 4 Material Balance for Gas-Condensate Reservoirs above Dew Point

1. Introduction Gas-condensate reservoirs generally produce: Liquids with gravities above 45oAPI (light color or colorless) Gas-oil ratios in the range of 5,000 to 100,000 SCF/bbl 2. Calculation of Initial Gas and Condensate To calculate initial gas and condensate from generally available field data collected at pressures above dew point pressure Derivation of Equation (4.1): On the basis of 1STB and (R1 + R3) SCF gas, the mass of the well fluid is: Mass of the well fluid = Mass of the gas + Mass of the liquid
mW = ( R1 1 + R3 3 ) x 29 + 350 o = 0.0764( R1 1 + R3 3 ) + 350 o 380

Total moles
nt = ( R1 + R3 ) 350 o + = 0.00264( R1 + R3 ) + 350 o / M wo 380 Mo

The molecular weight of the total well fluid

MW = mW 0.0764 ( R1 1 + R2 2 ) + 350 o = nt 0.00264 ( R1 + R3 ) + 350 o / M wo

The specific gravity of the well fluid is Mw/29, then

W =
MW ( R1 1 + R3 3 ) + 4600 o = 29 ( R1 + R3 ) + 133,000 o / M wo

(4.1)

The molecular weight of the stock tank oil is given by the following correlation: 5954 42.43 o M wo = = (3.22) o , API 8.811 1.008 o

3. Recombination of surface fluids composition known The surface liquid and gases must be recombined in order to determine the properties of the gas in the reservoir. Once the composition of the reservoir gas has been calculated, its PVT properties can be predicted. Known: Compositions of the stock tank liquid, separator gas, and stock tank gas The producing gas oil ratios Steps: Convert gas-oil ratios in SCF/STB to lb-mole gas/lb-mole stock tank liquid (the density and molecular weight of the liquid must be calculated). The gas-oil ratios of lb-moles are used to combine the compositions of separator gas, stock tank gas and stock tank oil in the proper ratios. Example 4.2 A gas-condensate reservoir produces through a separator at 250 psia and 70 oF to a stock tank. The separator produces 86,000 SCF/STB and the stock tank produces 550 SCF/STB. The stock tank liquid gravity is 56 oAPI. Compositions of the separator gas, stock tank gas and stock tank liquid is given below. Calculate the composition of the reservoir gas.
Component C1 C2 C3 i-C4 n-C4 i-C5 n-C5 C6 C7+ SP gas composition 0.852 0.085 0.043 0.005 0.008 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.001 1.000 Properties of C7+: Specific gravity = MW = ST gas composition 0.323 0.184 0.262 0.046 0.082 0.032 0.036 0.029 0.006 1.000 0.812 124 lb/lb mole ST liquid composition 0.001 0.006 0.036 0.068 0.042 0.048 0.035 0.011 0.753 1.000

Solutions: MSTO = 108.5 lb/lb-mole STO = 0.755 STO = 264.1 lb/STB Mole ratios: 93.0 lb mole SP gas/lb-mole STO 0.595 lb mole SP gas/lb-mole STO Composition of combined reservoir gas:
Calculation Results based on 1 lb-mole STO
Component C1 C2 C3 i-C4 n-C4 i-C5 n-C5 C6 C7+ SP gas composition 0.852 0.085 0.043 0.005 0.008 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.001 1.000 lb mole SP gas 79.236 7.905 3.999 0.465 0.744 0.279 0.186 0.093 0.093 93.000 ST gas composition 0.323 0.184 0.262 0.046 0.082 0.032 0.036 0.029 0.006 1.000 lb mole ST gas 0.192 0.109 0.156 0.027 0.049 0.019 0.021 0.017 0.004 0.595 ST liquid composition 0.001 0.006 0.036 0.068 0.042 0.048 0.035 0.011 0.753 1.000 Total lb moles 79.429 8.020 4.191 0.560 0.835 0.346 0.242 0.121 0.850 94.595 Composition of recombined gas 0.840 0.085 0.044 0.006 0.009 0.004 0.003 0.001 0.009 1.000

Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 5 Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs 1. Introduction Undersaturated oil reservoirs: Initial reservoir pressure is higher than the bubble point pressure of the oil (no gas cap). Free gas develops after p < pb. There may be water influx. 2. Oil in Place and Oil Recoveries Under initial conditions a unit (1 ac-ft) oil reservoir contains: Interstitial Water Reservoir oil Stock tank oil
7,758 S w 7,758 (1 S w ) 7,758 (1 S w ) Boi

(1 ac-ft = 7758 barrels) For oil reservoirs without water influx, at abandonment conditions 1 acft of bulk rock contains: Interstitial water Reservoir gas Reservoir oil Stock tank oil
7,758 S w

7,758 S g 7,758 (1 S w S g ) 7,758 (1 S w S g ) Bo

Sg = the gas saturation Bo = oil volume factor at abandonment

Recovery per ac-ft (in STB):

(1 S w ) (1 S w S g ) 7 , 758 Recovery = B Bo oi (1 S w S g ) Boi Recovery factor = 1 (1 S w ) Bo

(5.1) (5.2)

For reservoirs under hydraulic control (no appreciable pressure decline), the oil remaining at abandonment in barrel per acre-foot, is: Reservoir oil Stock tank oil
7,758 S or 7,758 S or Boi

Sor = residual oil saturation after water displacement

7,758 (1 S w S or ) Boi (1 S w S or ) Recovery factor = (1 S w )

Recovery =

(5.3) (5.4)

Correlation of oil recovery by water-drive recovery (residual oil saturation) in sandstone reservoirs:
RF = 0.114+0.272log k+0.256 Sw -0.136 log o-1.538 -0.00035 h (5.5)

3. Material Balance

@ p > pb
1) Neglecting change in porosity of rocks with the change of internal fluid pressure 2) Zero or negligible water influx 3) Initially undersaturated (initially only connate water and oil, with their solution gas) 4) Solubility of gas in reservoir water negligible 5) Water production small and negligible 6) From Pi to Pb, the reservoir oil volume constant, and oil produced by liquid expansion. Incorporating the above assumptions and considering volume balance, Eq (5.7) can be derived as follows: Reservoir oil volume = Constant [Initial reservoir oil volume] = [Reservoir oil volume @ p > pb]

NBoi

(N Np)Bo

@ p > pb, Bt = Bo and Boi = Bti (see Fig. 5.2), rearranging the above equation gives:

Fractional recovery:

N(Bt Bti) = NpBt N(Bo Boi) = NpBo

Np N = Bo Boi Bt Bti = Bo Bt

(5.7) (textbook) (5.7)

RF =

(5.8)

@ p < pb
Below bubble point pressure, a free gas phase develops. The hydrocarbon pore volume remains constant, that is

Voi = Vo + Vg

(5.9)

Terms in Eq (5.9): Voi = NBoi Vo = (N Np)Bo Vg = [Initial total gas] - [solution gas in res.] [produced gas] (N - Np) Rso NpRp]Bg = [NRsoi Eq (5.9) can be expanded to:

NBoi = (N Np)Bo + N(Rsoi Rso)Bg + Np(Rso Rp)Bg

Adding and subtracting the term NpRsoiBg on the right side hand of the above equation, applying Bt = Bo +(Rsoi Rso)Bg, and rearranging it give Eq (5.6) of the textbook:

N(Bt Bti ) = Np[Bt + (Rp Rsoi)Bg]

From Eq (5.6), N and RF can be solved:

(5.6)

N = Np[Bt + (Rp Rsoi)Bg]/ (Bt Bti )

(5.10) (5.11)

RF = Np/N = (Bt Bti )/[Bt + (Rp Rsoi)Bg]

Discussion: Rp - net cumulative produced gas-oil ratio of the produced from the reservoir (Gp) and all the oil produced (Np) RF is fixed by the PVT properties and the produced gas-oil ratio (see 5.11) Large produced gas-oil ratios give low recoveries and vice versa.

4. Calculations Including Formation and Water Compressibilities The effect of compressibilities on calculations for N is examined. @ p > pb Derivation of Equation (5.21) 1. Recall the derivation of Eq. (5.7): Reservoir oil volume = Constant [Initial reservoir oil volume] = [Reservoir oil volume @ p > pb]

NBoi

(N Np)Bo

2. Consider the water influx and water production (without considering compressibility of water and formation): Reservoir volume = Constant @ p > pb

NBoi + W
Oil Water

= (N Np)Bo + (W + We WpBw)
Oil Water

3. Consider the compressibilities of water and formation Volume of pore space decreases

V f c f p =

NBoi c f p 1 S wi

Expansion of water

Wcw p = V f S wi cw p =

NBoi S wi cw p 1 S wi

NBoi + W V f c f p = (N Np)Bo + (W + We WpBw) + Wcw p

Then

cw S wi + c f N ( Bo Boi ) + NBoi 1 S wi
Solve for N:

p + We = N p Bo + BwW p

(5.21)

N=

N p Bo We + BwW p c S + c Bo Boi + Boi w wi f p 1 S wi

(5.22)

Oil compressibility, co, is often used with the following definition:

co =
Therefore,

vo voi B Boi = o voi ( pi p ) Boi p

Bo = Boi + Boi co p
NBoi co p = V f S o co p =

(5.23)

Expansion of oil

NBoi S o co p 1 S wi

(Above the bubble point, Bo = Bt, and Boi = Bti)

Substituting (5.23) into (5.21) and rearranging gives:

p = N p Bo We + BwW p (5.25) co S o + cw S wi + c f Effective fluid compressibility, ce, is defined as: ce = 1 S wi

Eq. (5.25) can be written as

co S o + cw S wi + c f NBoi 1 S wi

NBoi ce p = N p Bo We + BwW p

(5.27)

For volumetric reservoir, We =0, and Wp is negligible, and from (5.27):

N p Bo N= ce p Boi

(5.28)

If cf = cw = 0, ce = co, and co Boi p = Bo Boi , then (5.28) reduces to (5.8):

Np N
@ p < pb ,

Bo Boi Bt Bti = Bo Bt

(5.8)

N p Bt + ( R p Rsoi ) Bg We + BwW p N= c S + c Bt Bti + Bti w wi f p 1 S wi

(5.29)

Part I

The General Material Balance Equation

1. Introduction General material balance equation can be applied to all reservoir types. General material balance equation can provide insight for different reservoir drives. Purpose of material balance: to predict how these fluids behave in the reservoir as reservoir pressure declines. 2. Derivative of Material Equation Major changes in fluids: Oil, gas, and water production Remaining oil and gas expansion Water influx Water and formation compressibilities: Water and formation compressibilities are less significant in o gas reservoirs o gas cap reservoirs o undersaturated oil reservoirs below Pb (there is appreciable gas saturation) Water and formation compressibilities generally neglected in above reservoirs, except in undersaturated reservoirs producing above the bubble point.

Change in Oil Volume: Change in oil volume Initial reservoir = oil volume Oil volume at p (2.1)

Oil volume change

NBoi (NNp)Bo

Change in Free Gas Volume: Define:

m=

Initial reservoir free gas volume GBgi = Initial reservoir oil volume NBoi

Initial free gas volume = GBgi = mNBoi Free gas in the reservoir at t =
Initial gas free + dissolved

produced

Gas

Gas remaining in solution

(in SCF)

mNBoi SCF) + NRsoi N p R p (N N p )Rso (in Free gas at time t = Boi mNBoi Re servoir free gas volume at time t = + NRsoi N p R p (N N p )Rso Bg Boi

mNBoi Change in free gas volume = mNBoi + NRsoi N p R p (N N p )Rso Bg Boi

(2.2)

Change in Water Volume: Change in water volume =

Water influx

Water produced

Water (all in SCF) expansion

Change in water volume = We W p Bw Wcw p

(in bbls)

(2.3)

Change in the Void Space Volume:

Change in pore space = V f c f p

NBoi + mNBoi 1 S wi NBoi + mNBoi W = V f S wi = S wi 1 S wi Vf =

(2.4)

Initial void space can be expressed as: Initial water reservoir volume:

Combination of the changes in water and rock volumes: Change in water volume Change in pore volume

We W p Bw +

NBoi + mNBoi NBoi + mNBoi S wi cw p + c f p 1 S wi 1 S wi

p
(2.5)

cw S wi + c f W W B m NB + ( 1 + ) = e p w oi 1 S wi

Equating the changes in the oil and free gas volumes to the negative of the changes in the water and rock volumes:

Change in oil volume

Change in free ga s volume

Change in + water volume

Change in pore space volume

mNBoi Bg NBoi NBo + N p Bo + mNBoi NRsoi Bg + N p R p Bg + NBg Rso N p Bg Rso B gi

cw S wi + c f + ( 1 + ) W W B m NB e p w oi = 1 S wi

Bt = Bo + ( Rsoi Rso ) Bg
And

Boi = Bti
Bg N ( Bti Bt ) + N p Bt + ( R p Rsoi ) Bg + mNBti 1 B gi

cw S wi + c f We W p Bw + (1 + m) NBti 1 S wi

(2.6)

Rearranging Equation 2.6 gives:

N ( Bt Bti ) + cw S wi + c f mNBti ( Bg Bgi ) + (1 + m) NBti Bgi 1 S wi p + We

= N p [Bt + ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] + W p Bw

(2.7)

Discussion of Eq. (2.7): On the left-hand side: The first two terms account for the expansion of any oil and/or gas zones. The third term accounts for the change in pore volume, which includes pore space decrease and expansion of the connate water. The fourth term is the amount of water influx that has occurred into the reservoir. On the right-hand side: The first term represents the production of oil and gas. The second term represents the water production.

Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 6 Saturated Oil Reservoirs 1. Introduction Reservoirs with an initial gas cap: The oil is initially saturated. The energy stored in solution gas is supplemented by that in the gas cap. Recoveries from gas cap reservoirs are generally higher than from those without caps, other things remaining equal. Gas cap retards pressure decline and t herefore the l iberation of solution gas within the oil zone. Expansion of gas cap displaces oil downward toward the wells and, therefore, vertical component of fluid flow is important for gravitational segregation. Recoveries from volumetric gas cap reservoirs could range from the recoveries for unders aturated reservoirs up to 70 to 80% of the initial stock tank oil in place. Good gravitational segregation characteristics include: pronounced formation structure, low oil visc osity, high permeability, and low oil velocity. Water drive/hydraulic controlled recovery process: The vol ume of t he r eservoir i s constantl y reduced by t he wat er influx. The re servoir p ressure is re lated to th e ra tio o f wate r in flux to voidage. Under favorable conditions, the o il recoveries are high and range from 60 to 80% of the oil in place.

4. Laboratory PVT Studies (Reservoir Fluid Studies, PVT Studies, Phase Behavior Studies) Reservoir fl uid s tudies pr ovide values of physi cal properti es of oi l required in material balance calculation and reservoir simulation. Physical properties of oil and gas Bubble point pressure Formation volume factor of oil Solution gas-oil ratio Total formation volume factor Coefficient of isothermal compressibility of oil Oil viscosity Z factor of gas Formation volume factor of gas Gas viscosity Solubility of gas in oil as a function of pressure The five major tests Composition measurement Flash liberation Differential liberation Separator tests Oil viscosity measurement Flash liberation process: (Constant composition expansion) All the gas evolved during a reducti on i n pres sure re mains in con tact a nd in equilibrium with the liquid phase from which it is liberated. Differential process: T he gas evol ved duri ng a pressure reduction is removed from contact with the liquid phase as rapidly as it is liberated. Separator test: Simulation of a separation process.

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 7 Single Phase Flow in Reservoirs 1. Introduction Flow of fluids in reservoirs and the models that are used to relate reservoir pressure to flow rate. Introduction to well testing. Discussion limited to single-phase flow. 2. Darcys law of single phase flow

Darcy's law (1856):

q=

kA P s

k = permeability, darcy (D) = fluid viscosity, cp A = cross-sectional area of the porous medium sample, cm2 p = pressure, atm s = Length of the porous medium sample, cm Definition of the permeability of a porous medium: If a fluid of 1 cp flow through a porous medium of a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2 and a length of 1 cm at a flow rate of 1 cm3/sec under a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm, the permeability of the porous medium is 1 darcy. 1 D = 1000 millidarcies (md)

3. The classification of reservoir flow system Three types of reservoir fluids: 1) incompressible Simplifies many equations and sufficiently accurate for many purposes No true incompressible fluids 2) slightly compressible Describes nearly all liquids by the following equation (c is constant):

V = VR ec ( p R p )
R

(7.2)

= reference conditions

Equ (7.2) can be approximate as:

V = VR [1 + c( pR p)]
3) compressible All gases are in this category. Volume change with pressure as cg change with pressure as
znR 'T V= p 1 1 dz cg = p z dp

(7.3)

(1.7) (1.19)

4. Steady-state flow 4.1 Liner flow of incompressible fluids

q = 0.001127
or

kA ( p1 p2 ) L kA ( p1 p2 ) B L

(bbl/d)

q = 0.001127
Example:

(STB/day)

(7.7)

pressure differential = 100 psi permeability = 250 md viscosity = 2.5 cp formation volume factor = 1.127 bbl/STB length = 450 ft cross-sectional area = 45 sq ft q = 1.0 STB/day

4.2 Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids Recall Eq (7.3) There is:

V = VR [1 + c( pR p )] q = q R [1 + c( p R p )]

Darcys Law is written as: q q k dp = = R [1 + c( pR p)] = 0.001127 A A dx Separating variables and integrating give Eq (7.9):

4.3 Linear flow of compressible fluids Units: For gas flow rate, we want to use SCF/day; In Darcys law under field unit system, flow rate is in bbl/day. Recall Eq (1.17):

Bg =

pSCTz 5.615TSC p

(bbl/SCF)

q (SCF/day) x Bg (bbl/SCF) = qBg (bbl/day)

qBg =
Darcys law:

qpSCTz 5.615TSC p

(q in SCF/day)

Variation of viscosity and z-factor:

Fig. 7.4 Isothermal variation of z with pressure Variation of z vs. pressure of a real gas: For p < 2000 psia, nearly constant For p > 2000 psia, z/p is nearly constant For T, k, z or z/p are constant, there is Eq (7.10): (7.10)

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 7 Single Phase Flow in Reservoirs II

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Chapter 8 Water Influx 1. Introduction Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or all their perimeters by water bearing rocks aquifers. As reservoir fluids are produced, a pressure differential develops between the surrounding aquifer and the reservoir. The aquifer reacts by encroaching across the original hydrocarbon-water contact. Aquifers retard pressure decline in reservoirs by providing a source of water influx We. We is a function of time (production). We is dependent on the size of aquifer and the pressure drop from the aquifer to the reservoir. 2. Steady-state method Schilthuis Steady-state method is the simplest model for water influx. Water influx is proportional to the pressure drawdown (pi p):

dWe = k ( pi p) dt
Integrating Eq (8.1) gives

(8.1)

We = k ( pi p)dt
0

(8.2)

Where

k = water flux constant, bbl/day-psi

p = pressure at the original oil-water contact pi = initial pressure at the external boundary of the aquifer.

Calculation of k and We from production data: In a reasonably long period, if the production rate and reservoir pressure remain substantially constant, there is: Reservoir voidage rate (Volumetric withdraw rate) = Water influx rate

dN p dN p dW p dWe = Bo + ( R Rso ) Bg + Bw dt dt dt dt
where
dN p dt dN ( R Rso ) p dt dW p

(8.3)

= daily oil production rate, STB/day = daily free gas production rate, SCF/day = daily water production rate, STB/day

dt

Equation (8.3) can be rearranged to: dN (by adding and subtracting Rsoi Bg p )
dt

dN p dN p dW p dWe = Bt + ( R Rsoi ) Bg + Bw dt dt dt dt

(8.4)

k can be found from Equation (8.1)

k = dWe 1 dt ( pi p)

(8.5)

If the pressure stabilizes and the withdraw rates are not reasonably constant, water influx in the pressure stabilized period t can be calculated from the total productions of oil, gas and water within t:

We = Bt N p + (G p Rsoi N p ) Bg + Bw W p Then k can be found from the following equation:

k = We t ( pi p )

(8.6)

(8.7)

For an under-saturated oil reservoir and at pressures higher than the bubble point pressure, Equation can be simplified to:

dN p dW p dWe = Bt + Bw dt dt dt

(8.8)

3. VEH unsteady-state method Van Everdingen and Hurst solutions to the single-phase unsteadystate flow equation is used to calculate water influx. The hydrocarbon reservoir is the inner boundary condition and is analogous to the well in Chapter 7 and the aquifer is the flow medium analogous to the reservoir in Chapter 7. Properties of aquifer are assumed homogeneous and constant. Reservoir and aquifer are assumed cylindrical in shape.

re

rR

Water flux is calculated by the following equations:

We = B WeDj p j
j =1

(8.9)

In Where WeD is given as a function of dimensionless time dimensionless radius

t D and

rD

(see Tables 8.2 and 8.2 and Figures 8.7-8.10): (8.10)

WeD = f ( rD , t D )
and

B = 1.119 ct rR2 h

360
5

(8.11)

The dimensionless time and dimensionless radius are defined as

t D = 0.0002637
(8.12)

kt ct rR2

r D=

re rR

(8.13)

In Equations (8.9) and (8.11), is the angle subtended by a pie-shaped cylindrical reservoir. For example: For a circle, = 360o For a half circle, = 180o.

WeD as a function of tD and rD.

Values for pj are determined from measure pressures. The pressure changes are calculated as follows to approximate the pressure-time curve: 1 p1 = ( pi p1 ) (8.14) 2
1 p2 = ( pi p2 ) 2 1 p3 = ( pi p3 ) 2 1 and p j = ( p j 2 p j ) 2

(8.15) (8.16) (8.17)

Pressure steps used to approximate the pressure-time curve.

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4. Fetkovich Pseudosteady-state method The size of the aquifer is known-finite aquifer. Any water influx from the aquifer depletes the pressure according to the material balance equation. Steps of calculation of water influx by using Fetkovich Pseudosteadystate method: 1. Calculate the initial encroachable water, Wei(in bbls), in the aquifer pi ct (re2 rR2 )h Wei = (8.18)
5.615 360

Where pi is the initial reservoir pressure. 2. Calculate the productivity index, J, for flow from the aquifer to the reservoir For finite aquifer with no flow at the outer boundary:
J= 0.007082kh r (ln e 0.75) 360 rR

(8.19)

For finite aquifer with constant pressure the outer boundary: 0.007082kh J= (8.20) r ln e 360
rR

3. Calculate the average reservoir pressure during a time step: p + prn p Rn = Rn 1 (8.21) 2 where pRn = reservoir pressure at the end of the nth time step p Rn = average reservoir pressure during the nth time step

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4. Calculate the water influx during a time step jpi t n Wei Wei We = ( pn 1 p Rn ) 1 e (2.22) pi pn1 = average aquifer pressure at the end of (n-1)th time step 5. Calculate the total cumulative water influx at the current time

We = Wej
j =1

(2.23)

6. Calculate the average aquifer pressure at the end of the current timestep

We p n = pi 1 W ei
7. Repeat Steps 3 to 6 for next time step.

(2.24)

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Chapter 9 Decline Analysis 1. Introduction The most widely used method of forecasting future production form oil and gas fields since Arps developed the technique in 1945. The technique has few fundamental theoretical foundations. The simplicity and success of its forecasts responsible for its general acceptance and use. Decline analysis involves the use of curves of flow rate versus time of the well. 2. Arps Decline Model Arps decline model relates the production rate with time:

qt =
Where qi = qt = di = n=

qi (1 + nd i t )1 / n

(9.1)

initial oil production rate production rate at time t initial decline rate hyperbolic decline exponent

The decline rate is defined as the rate of change of the natural logarithm of the production rate with respect to time:
d = 1 dq d (ln q) = q dt dt

(9.2)

The minus sign has been added because dq and dt have opposite signs and it is convenient to have d always positive.

Arps recognized the following three types of rate decline behaviour: 1. Exponential decline, n = 0

qt = qi e d i t
Np = qi qt di

The cumulative production at time t is given by

(9.3)

(9.4)

2. Hyperbolic decline, 0 < n < 1

qt =
and

qi (1 + nd i t )1 / n

(9.5)

qin Np = qi1 n qt1 n (1 n)

3. Harmonic decline, n = 1

(9.6)

qt =
and

qi (1 + d i t )
qi qi ln di qt

(9.7)

Np =

(9.8)

Example 9.1 -- Production forecasting Using the following production data of a well to determine the production rate and cumulative production at t = 3 years using (1) exponential decline, (2) hyperbolic decline (n = 0.6), and (3) harmonic decline: qi = 500 STB/d , di = 1.8% /month
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3. Parameter Estimation for Decline Analysis 1. Exponential decline The most widely used of the three methods, primarily because it is easy to determined the parameters and gives a more conservative estimation of the future reservoirs for given parameters. If n = 0, the decline is exponential. qi and di need to be determined. Taking the natural log of both sides of the equation (9.3) gives:

ln qt = ln qi d it
A plot of lnqt vs. t gives a straight line: slope m = -di, y-intercept b = lnqt
6.4 6.2

(9.9)

6 lnq (STB/d)

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2 0 5 10 15 20 t (month) 25 30 35 40

Figure 1. Exponential decline curve: lnqt vs. t (from examples 1)

2. Harmonic decline If n =1, the decline is harmonic. Equation (9.8) can be rearranged to

ln qt = ln qi

di Np qi

(9.10)

A plot of lnqt vs. Np gives a straight line: slope m = -di/qi, y-intercept b = lnqi
6.4

6.2

y = -0.00004x + 6.21461 2 R = 1.00000

lnqt

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Np 10000 12000 14000 16000

Figure 2. Harmonic decline curve: lnqt vs. Np (from examples 1) Harmonic decline is also linear if 1/qt is plotted as a function of t:

1 / qt = 1 / qi + (d i / qi )t
slope m = di/qi, y-intercept b = 1/qi

(9.11)

3. Hyperbolic decline All real wells have hyperbolic decline. Approaches to calculation of parameters of hyperbolic decline include trial-and-error methods, type-curve overlays, graphical methods, mathematical or statistical analysis. Hypobolic decline-curve analysis using linear regression (Towler and Bansal, J. Petroleum Science and Engineering, 8, 257, 1993) Method 1: Using Equation (9.5) Equation (9.5) can be rearranged to: logqt =logqi 1/n x log (1+ndit) (9.12)

1) Assume a value of ndi; 2) Plot logqt vs. log (1+ndit); 3) Try ndi to obtain a straight line or a maximum regression coefficient (R2). Slope m = 1/n y-intercept b = logqi di = (ndi)/n
2.8

y = -1.6667x + 2.699 R =1
2

log qt

2.6 .

2.4 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Log (1+ndit) 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

Figure 3. Linear regression of hyperbolic decline data, ndi = 0.0108 (month-1)

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Method 2: Using Equation (9.6) Equation (9.6) can be rearranged to:

(1 n)d i Np (9.13) qin 1) Assume a value of n; 1 n 2) Plot qt vs. N p ; 3) Try n to obtain a straight line or a maximum regression coefficient (R2). qt1 n = qi1 n
Slope m =
(1 n)d i qin

y-intercept b = qi1n
12

11.5

y = -0.0002x + 12.011 2 R =1

11 qt^(1-n)

10.5 . 10

9.5

9 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Np 10000 12000 14000 16000

Figure 4. Linear regression of hyperbolic decline data, n = 0.6