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Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse
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Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Wastewater Treatment and Reuse".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 10 November 2024 | Viewed by 22827

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Daniela Mesquita

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), Universidade do Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: water and wastewater treatment; microscopy; spectroscopy; waste valorization; chemometric techniques
Dr. Cristina Quintelas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB), Universidade do Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: adsorption; biodegradation; chemometrics; pollutants removal; advanced analytical techniques
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over time, the development of new technologies and products has promoted not only progress but several environmental concerns. Conventional methods to remove pollutants from wastewater treatment plants are inefficient, and new methods are welcome. The discharge of large quantities of pollutants to surface waters is a contributing factor to the lack of potable water. In addition, supply and demand of fresh water is skewed in the world, which increases water stress in many regions, with some serious conflicts as a result. While there is a severe shortage of fresh water, many water uses do not require high-quality water. Wastewater reclamation, i.e., the reuse of treated wastewater, has been identified as one of the most significant approaches to meet current and future water demands.

The current Special Issue will focus on emphasizing the timely research studies that address the existing new technologies used to remove pollutants from wastewater aiming the water reuse. The topics for the Special Issue should include but are not limited to the following areas: the different sources of pollutants; their fate and occurrence in the environment; toxicity and risk assessments; different methods employed to remove these pollutants from the environment; advances in analytical chemical and bioanalytical techniques for the identification and quantification of pollutants in aqueous systems; advances in technologies used to assess removal processes; and methods to assess the quality of the treated water aiming the reuse. We invite the authors to submit scientific studies that include original and innovative research papers, reviews, and short communications.

Dr. Daniela Mesquita
Dr. Cristina Quintelas
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • wastewater
  • treatment
  • monitoring
  • pollutants
  • water reuse

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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18 pages, 2974 KiB  
Article
Degradation of Procion Golden Yellow H-R Dye Using Ultrasound Combined with Advanced Oxidation Process
by Rahat F. Momin, Kalyani R. Deshmukh and Parag R. Gogate
Water 2024, 16(16), 2344; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162344 - 21 Aug 2024
Viewed by 513
Abstract
The current study aims to degrade Procion Golden Yellow H-R through ultrasound-induced cavitation coupled with various oxidants. A comprehensive investigation was conducted to examine the impact of parameters, specifically pH, power, and frequency, on the extent of degradation. The primary aim was to [...] Read more.
The current study aims to degrade Procion Golden Yellow H-R through ultrasound-induced cavitation coupled with various oxidants. A comprehensive investigation was conducted to examine the impact of parameters, specifically pH, power, and frequency, on the extent of degradation. The primary aim was to optimize degradation by solely utilizing a cavitation reactor where only 23.8% degradation was observed under the established optimum conditions of pH 2.5, frequency of 22 kHz, and power of 200 W. The investigation of the combined process of cavitation with H2O2, Fenton reagent (H2O2/Fe2+), NaOCl, and potassium persulphate (KPS) was subsequently conducted under optimized conditions. The combined operations greatly enhanced degradation with the use of H2O2 loading of 0.1 g/L leading to 53.3% degradation and the H2O2/Fe2+ ratio of 1:0.25 resulting in 94.6% degradation, while the NaOCl quantum of 0.075 g/L yielded 90% degradation and the KPS quantity of 2 g/L resulted in 97.5% degradation in the specific combinations. A toxicity test on two bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, was carried out using the original dye solution and after treatment. The various individual and combination processes were compared using the parameters of cavitational yield and total treatment cost. The study elucidates that combining ultrasonic cavitation with KPS is an effective method for treating wastewater containing Procion Golden Yellow H-R dye, especially when implemented at a larger scale of operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Structure of Procion Golden Yellow H-R.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic representation of the experimental setup involving the ultrasonic reactor.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Effect of the pH on the dye decolorization. (Experimental conditions: power: 200 W, frequency: 22 kHz, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, and time: 3 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Effect of frequency on the dye decolorization. (Experimental conditions: pH: 2.5, power: 200 W, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, and time: 3 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Effect of ultrasonic power on dye decolorization. (Experimental conditions: pH: 2.5, frequency: 22 kHz, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, and time: 3 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Effect of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> loading on dye decolorization using the US + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> approach. (Experimental conditions: pH: 2.5, frequency: 22 kHz, power: 250 W, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, and time: 3 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Effect of Fenton loading on the dye decolorization using the US + Fenton approach. (Experimental conditions: pH: 2.5, frequency: 22 kHz, power: 250 W, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, time: 30 min, and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> loading: 100 ppm).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Effect of NaOCl loading on the dye decolorization using US + NaOCl approach. (Experimental conditions: pH: 2.5, frequency: 22 kHz, power: 250 W, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, and time: 3 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Effect of KPS loading on the dye decolorization using the US + KPS approach (Experimental conditions: pH: 2.5, frequency: 22 kHz, power: 250 W, operating volume: 4 L, initial dye concentration: 25 ppm, temperature: 32 °C, and time: 3 h).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Comparison of different processes based on ultrasound and oxidants in terms of dye decolorization and COD reduction.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Toxicity analysis using various bacterial strains for the differently treated and raw samples.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 2104 KiB  
Article
Virtual Screening of Fluorescent Heterocyclic Molecules and Advanced Oxidation Degradation of Rhodamine B in Synthetic Solutions
by Gabriela Vizuete, Fabián Santana-Romo and Cristina E. Almeida-Naranjo
Water 2024, 16(15), 2141; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152141 - 29 Jul 2024
Viewed by 543
Abstract
A virtual screening, a process based on computational chemistry that involves the rapid evaluation of a large number of compounds to identify those with the most promising characteristics, is presented. This screening found concordance in the fluorescent heterocyclic compounds with isosteres of similar [...] Read more.
A virtual screening, a process based on computational chemistry that involves the rapid evaluation of a large number of compounds to identify those with the most promising characteristics, is presented. This screening found concordance in the fluorescent heterocyclic compounds with isosteres of similar reactivity, determining that rhodamine B (RhB) meets the necessary criteria for its use. Furthermore, with the values calculated in silico, it is considered to be a compound with low adsorption and oral bioavailability, so its degradation was evaluated by advanced oxidation processes (POAs), such as the catalytic process with titanium dioxide (TiO2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and presence or absence of dissolved oxygen (O2), in which the concentration of RhB and amount of TiO2 were varied, and the photo-Fenton process with an ultraviolet light emitting diode (UV-LED), zero-valent iron (ZVI) and H2O2, in which the amount of ZVI and H2O2 were varied. The results indicate that the catalytic process achieves a removal of 95.11% compared to 80.42% in the photo-Fenton process, concluding that the greater the amount of ZVI in the solution, the greater the degradation of RhB and that the residual amount of iron (II) (Fe2+) ions in the solution is less than 0.3 mg/L without causing secondary contamination. These results highlight the efficacy and feasibility of POAs for the removal of dyes such as RhB, which offers a promising solution for the remediation of contaminated waters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Initial computational hypothesis—2D structure of xanthene.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Library of fluorescent heterocyclic molecules <b>2</b>–<b>18</b>. In blue, the common core for heterocyclic compounds.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Isostere of molecule <b>9</b>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Molecules for biotechnological purposes Alexa Fluor<sup>®</sup>; In blue, the common core for heterocyclic compounds.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Second computational hypothesis—molecule <b>12</b>. In blue, the common core for heterocyclic compounds, and in magenta, all the possible substituents of the computational hypothesis.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Second computational hypothesis—molecule <b>12</b>; (<b>a</b>) SMILES code; (<b>b</b>) 2D structure; (<b>c</b>) 3D structure for molecule <b>12</b>.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Commercial substances electronically equivalent to RhB.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Degradation percentages of Rhodamine B with catalytic oxidation process. (<b>a</b>) RhB initial concentration = 50 mg/L, and (<b>b</b>) RhB initial concentration = 25 mg/L.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Linearization of the L-H mathematical model for the experiment results with 25 mg/L of RhB and 0.8 g of TiO<sub>2</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Percentage of Rhodamine B degradation with UV-LED photo-Fenton treatment. * = 20 µL H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>/h, ** = 30 µL H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>/h, *** = 40 µL H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>/h.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 12086 KiB  
Article
Rapid Formation and Performance of Aerobic Granular Sludge Driven by a Sodium Alginate Nucleus under Different Organic Loading Rates and C/N Ratios
by Chunjuan Gan, Qiming Cheng, Renyu Chen, Xi Chen, Ying Chen, Yizhou Wu, Cong Li, Shanchuan Xu and Yao Chen
Water 2024, 16(10), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101336 - 8 May 2024
Viewed by 788
Abstract
The use of aerobic granular sludge (AGS) for wastewater treatment has emerged as a promising biotechnology. A sodium alginate nucleus (SAN) incorporated into the AGS system can enhance aerobic granulation. Two important parameters influencing AGS formation and stability are the organic loading rate [...] Read more.
The use of aerobic granular sludge (AGS) for wastewater treatment has emerged as a promising biotechnology. A sodium alginate nucleus (SAN) incorporated into the AGS system can enhance aerobic granulation. Two important parameters influencing AGS formation and stability are the organic loading rate (OLR) and C/N ratio. In this study, AGS containing the SAN was cultivated under different OLR and C/N ratios. Through morphological analysis, physicochemical properties, and water quality analysis, the effects of the OLR and C/N ratio on the rapid formation and performance of AGS containing the SAN were investigated. The results showed that the most suitable OLR and C/N ratio in the SAN system were 1.4–2.4 kg/(m3∙d) and 10–15, respectively. A recovery experiment of sodium alginate (SA) showed that the group that formed AGS generally had a higher recovery efficiency compared with the group that did not form granular sludge. This work explored the suitable granulation conditions of AGS containing the SAN, and the results provide a theoretical basis for future practical applications. The recycling of SA as presented in this study may broaden the application prospects of SA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram and operation cycle of the SBR.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM images of the internal structure of granules in (<b>a</b>) P1-R1, (<b>b</b>) P1-R2, and (<b>c</b>) P1-R3 during the stabilization phase under varying OLRs.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) MLSS concentration and (<b>b</b>) settling velocity of sludge in the P1-R1, P1-R2, P1-R3, P1-R4, and P1-R5 groups under varying OLRs.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Particle size distribution of mature AGS in (<b>a</b>) P1-R1, (<b>b</b>) P1-R2, and (<b>c</b>) P1-R3 under varying OLRs.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Variation in the PN and PS contents in P1-R1, P1-R2, and P1-R3 during granulation with varying OLRs.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Variations in COD removal efficiency, (<b>b</b>) NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>-N removal efficiency, (<b>c</b>) TN removal efficiency, and (<b>d</b>) TP removal efficiency under varying OLRs.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Morphology observations of sludge in (<b>a</b>) P2-R1, (<b>b</b>) P2-R2, (<b>c</b>) P2-R3, and (<b>d</b>) P2-R4 under varying C/N ratios.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>SEM images of the internal structure of granules in (<b>a</b>) P2-R1 and (<b>b</b>) P2-R2 at the stabilization phase under varying C/N ratios.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>(<b>a</b>) MLSS concentration and (<b>b</b>) settling velocity of sludge in P2-R1, P2-R2, P2-R3, and P2-R4 groups under varying C/N ratios.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Particle size distribution of mature AGS in (<b>a</b>) P2-R1 and (<b>b</b>) P2-R2 under varying C/N ratios.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Variation in PN and PS contents in P2-R1 and P2-R2 groups during granulation with varying C/N ratios.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>(<b>a</b>) Variations in COD removal efficiency, (<b>b</b>) NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>-N removal efficiency, (<b>c</b>) TN removal efficiency, and (<b>d</b>) TP removal efficiency under varying C/N ratios.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Recovery efficiency of SA in excess activated sludge.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 4664 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Reverse Osmosis Feed Spacer Design for Enhanced Dimethylphenol Removal from Wastewater: A Study of Hydrodynamics and Performance Indicators
by Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi, Farhan Lafta Rashid, Arman Ameen, Mohammed Kadhom and Iqbal M. Mujtaba
Water 2024, 16(6), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16060895 - 20 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1040
Abstract
Due to its high pollutant rejection and low energy usage, the spiral wound module of reverse osmosis (RO) process is the most commonly used technology utilised in wastewater treatment. For a spiral wound module, the presence of a feed spacer is important as [...] Read more.
Due to its high pollutant rejection and low energy usage, the spiral wound module of reverse osmosis (RO) process is the most commonly used technology utilised in wastewater treatment. For a spiral wound module, the presence of a feed spacer is important as a key solution to mitigate the concentration polarisation phenomenon, due to disorderly fluid flow, and to improve the mass transfer coefficient. Undoubtedly, improvements in the spiral wound module design, mainly in the symmetrical shape of the feed spacer, can have a significant impact on the cost and probable use of these modules. Despite the wide interest in appraising the impact of feed spacer geometry and orientation on the performance of a spiral wound module for RO process-based water desalination, the hydrodynamics of feed spacers (pressure drop and mass transfer coefficient) and the associated influences of feed spacer design (the height of the feed spacer, the angle of the filaments, and the porosity) on the removal of pollutants from wastewater have not yet been addressed. The current investigation aims to fill this gap by studying the hydrodynamics and design parameters of the selected parallelogram feed spacer type ultrafiltration (UF−3) for the removal of dimethylphenol from wastewater. Using model-based simulation, the impacts of UF−3 feed spacer design parameters, including the height, angle between the filaments (orientation), and porosity on the pressure drop, friction factor, axial flow fluid velocity, mass transfer coefficient, water flux, dimethylphenol rejection, recovery rate, and specific energy consumption are detailed in this study. The study intends to demonstrate the optimum design features of UF−3 feed spacer that should be considered to assure the highest elimination of dimethylphenol from wastewater in addition to the lowest specific energy consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>A schematic diagram of feed spacer geometry parameters.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Pressure drop and friction factor against the Reynolds number for different heights of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Dimethylphenol rejection and water recovery against the height of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Specific energy consumption against the height of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Influence of angle of flow diversion of UF−3 feed spacer on pressure drop.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Influence of angle of flow diversion of UF−3 feed spacer on axial velocity and mass transfer coefficient.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Axial velocity against mass transfer coefficient of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Dimethylphenol rejection and friction factor variance against the angle of flow diversion of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Water recovery and water flux variances against the angle of flow diversion of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Specific energy consumption against the angle of flow diversion of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Porosity against angle of flow diversion of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Friction factor and pressure drop against porosity of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Axial velocity and mass transfer coefficient against the porosity of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Dimethylphenol rejection and total recovery variance against the porosity of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Specific energy consumption against the porosity of UF−3 feed spacer.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 1846 KiB  
Article
Nitrogen Removal Mechanism and Microbial Community Changes of the MBR Bioaugmented with Two Novel Fungi Pichia kudriavzevii N7 and Candida tropicalis N9
by Minglei Ma, Qiang Gui, Weisheng Zheng, Yingjie Zhang and Kai Wang
Water 2024, 16(5), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16050757 - 2 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1322
Abstract
Ammonia nitrogen wastewater causes dissolved oxygen concentrations to decrease and the content of harmful substances to increase. To characterize the application properties of two novel strains of highly efficient ammonium transforming fungi—Pichia kudriavzevii N7 and Candida tropicalis N9—this study used both as [...] Read more.
Ammonia nitrogen wastewater causes dissolved oxygen concentrations to decrease and the content of harmful substances to increase. To characterize the application properties of two novel strains of highly efficient ammonium transforming fungi—Pichia kudriavzevii N7 and Candida tropicalis N9—this study used both as compound microbial agents to treat nitrogenous wastewater. Here, we investigated the bioaugmentation effect of compound fungi N7 and N9 in the MBR bioreactor and the effect of N7 and N9 on the fungal and bacterial microbial communities in the system. The results revealed that in the first week after inoculation of N7 and N9, the average removal rate of ammonium in the experimental and control groups were 89.43% and 82.86%, respectively, and the NO3−-N accumulation concentrations were 12.56 mg·L−1 and 17.73 mg·L−1, respectively. The average transformation rate of total nitrogen in the experimental and control groups were 46.32% and 30.6%, respectively. ITS sequencing results indicated that N9 could be a dominant fungus in the complex MBR system. The results of 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the dominant bacterial communities in the system were changed by the inoculation of compound fungi. Therefore, the compound fungi can be applied to strengthen the treatment of nitrogenous wastewater due to its compatibility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram of the MBR reactor. (1) Influent tank; (2) submersible pump; (3) aerator; (4) MBR; (5) membrane module; (6) pressure gauge (7) peristaltic pump; (8) effluent tank.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Characteristics of (<b>A</b>) ammonium, (<b>B</b>) nitrate, (<b>C</b>) total nitrogen and (<b>D</b>) COD in the MBR systems.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>PCoA analysis of communities: (<b>a</b>) fungal community; (<b>b</b>) bacterial community.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The fungal communities at the class level (<b>a</b>) and the genus level (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Taxonomic classification of bacterial communities at the phylum (<b>a</b>) and genus (<b>b</b>) level.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 2134 KiB  
Article
The Identification of Selective Pathogenic Microbial Community Biofilms in Different Distribution Pipeline Materials and Their Disinfection Kinetics
by Sanam Bhatti, Tanveer A. Gadhi, Rasool Bux Mahar, Imran Ali, Najeebullah Channa, Junaid Ahmed Kori and Barbara Bonelli
Water 2023, 15(23), 4099; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15234099 - 26 Nov 2023
Viewed by 2444
Abstract
Biofilms in water distribution lines strongly affect water safety as they are the main carriers of pathogens. The current study investigated the biofilm formation and identification of selected pathogens in different distribution pipeline materials and their disinfection method in an annular reactor (AR). [...] Read more.
Biofilms in water distribution lines strongly affect water safety as they are the main carriers of pathogens. The current study investigated the biofilm formation and identification of selected pathogens in different distribution pipeline materials and their disinfection method in an annular reactor (AR). Initially, the quality of the flowing water from each pipeline material was analyzed, i.e., pH, TDS, EC, turbidity, and salinity; then, the biofilm formation was monitored for each material, i.e., ABS, PC, PVC, PP, and HDPE. Further, the disinfection kinetics of biofilm at different chlorine doses, i.e., 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/L, was investigated. The selected pathogens, i.e., E. coli, Pseudomonas, Shigella, Salmonella sp., and Vibrio sp. were identified in biofilms formed in different pipeline materials. The disinfection kinetics results showed that a chlorine dose of 2.0 mg/L was the most effective in disinfecting selected pathogens. Following the disinfection kinetics, it was observed that Salmonella sp. was disinfected within 7 days, whereas other pathogenic biofilms were disinfected within 14 days. The efficacy of chlorine disinfection was affected by the types of pipeline materials. The study outcomes could provide insights into biofilms’ disinfection method and the selection of suitable pipeline materials to ensure drinking water safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Bacterial counts in the inlet and outlet bulk water from different pipe material slides and after different chlorine disinfection doses at (<b>A</b>) 0.5 mg/L, (<b>B</b>) 1.0 mg/L, (<b>C</b>) 1.5 mg/L, and (<b>D</b>) 2.0 mg/L.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p><span class="html-italic">Pseudomonas</span> reduction in biofilm at different chlorine doses of (<b>A</b>) 0.5 mg/L, (<b>B</b>) 1.0 mg/L, (<b>C</b>) 1.5 mg/L, and (<b>D</b>) 2.0 mg/L.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p><span class="html-italic">Salmonella</span> reduction in biofilm at different chlorine doses of (<b>A</b>) 0.5 mg/L, (<b>B</b>) 1.0 mg/L, (<b>C</b>) 1.5 mg/L, and (<b>D</b>) 2.0 mg/L.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p><span class="html-italic">Shigella</span> reduction in biofilm at different chlorine doses of (<b>A</b>) 0.5 mg/L, (<b>B</b>) 1.0 mg/L, (<b>C</b>) 1.5 mg/L, and (<b>D</b>) 2.0 mg/L.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p><span class="html-italic">Vibrio Cholera</span> reduction in biofilm at different chlorine doses of (<b>A</b>) 0.5 mg/L, (<b>B</b>) 1.0 mg/L, (<b>C</b>) 1.5 mg/L, and (<b>D</b>) 2.0 mg/L.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>A</b>) Fluorescence staining images of the samples’ live/dead bacterial colonies from the biofilms grown on different pipe material slides after 21 days of chlorine disinfection and (<b>B</b>) percentage of live/dead stained bacterial colonies at each chlorine dose.</p> Full article ">
10 pages, 575 KiB  
Article
Application of the Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index in Assessing Groundwater Quality: A Case Study of the South Gujarat Region
by Divya D. Patel, Darshan J. Mehta, Hazi M. Azamathulla, Mohdzuned Mohmedraffi Shaikh, Shivendra Jha and Upaka Rathnayake
Water 2023, 15(19), 3512; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193512 - 8 Oct 2023
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4244
Abstract
Groundwater is a natural resource used for drinking, agriculture, and industry, apart from surface water. Its quality should be assessed regularly, and the condition of water resources should be maintained accordingly. The most common analytical method for describing and assessing the general water [...] Read more.
Groundwater is a natural resource used for drinking, agriculture, and industry, apart from surface water. Its quality should be assessed regularly, and the condition of water resources should be maintained accordingly. The most common analytical method for describing and assessing the general water quality is the Water Quality Index (WQI). This study aims to assess the South Gujarat Region’s groundwater quality using the WQI. Various physicochemical parameters like pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, fluorides, and total alkalinity are considered for the present study. The data period from 2018 to 2022 is considered for the same. The Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index Technique is used to evaluate these data. For checking the potability of the parameters within the acceptable limit, the Indian Standard Drinking Water Specification code (IS: 10050-2012) is adopted. According to the study mentioned above, a few wells’ groundwater quality has been found to be higher than the WQI value. It is also observed that four wells were found unsuitable for drinking purposes in 2018. It is noted that if the WQI value of groundwater is above 51, it is considered harmful to human health; therefore, it requires some kind of processing before use. This study will be beneficial to the policymakers for identifying and providing details about groundwater quality in the form of a specific value, i.e., WQI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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<p>Study area map.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 4415 KiB  
Article
Adsorptive Performance of Walnut Shells Modified with Urea and Surfactant for Cationic Dye Removal
by Yuliana Shkliarenko, Vita Halysh and Alla Nesterenko
Water 2023, 15(8), 1536; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081536 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2096
Abstract
Adsorption of cationic dye crystal violet (CV) onto a modified walnut shell (WS) adsorbent was investigated. Combined treatment of WS using urea and sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) was carried out. Surface modification of adsorbents was confirmed by FTIR analysis, pHpzc measurements, and elemental and [...] Read more.
Adsorption of cationic dye crystal violet (CV) onto a modified walnut shell (WS) adsorbent was investigated. Combined treatment of WS using urea and sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) was carried out. Surface modification of adsorbents was confirmed by FTIR analysis, pHpzc measurements, and elemental and SEM-EDX analysis. In order to optimize the adsorption conditions, the effect of solution pH, adsorbent dose and CV concentration was studied by means of central composite face-centered design (CCFD). The highest correlation between experimental and model data was obtained for the pseudo-second-order (PSO) kinetic model, assuming an ion exchange mechanism of adsorption. A satisfactory fit of CV adsorption data was obtained from the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, supporting a single layer adsorption. According to obtained results, modified WS can be considered as a low-cost, efficient and environmentally compatible biosorbent for the removal of cationic pollutants from aqueous solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>FTIR spectra of biosorbents with indicated absorption band/peak frequencies.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Curves of point zero charge determination of biosorbents.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>SEM micrographs and EDX analysis of biosorbents.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Response surfaces at the central point levels for SUWS biosorbent: (<b>a</b>) effect of CV concentration (A) and pH (B), (<b>b</b>) effect of CV concentration (A) and biosorbent dose (C), (<b>c</b>) effect of pH (B) and biosorbent dose (C) on removal efficiency (<span class="html-italic">R</span>).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Kinetic data for the adsorption of CV onto the biosorbents: (<b>a</b>)—WS; (<b>b</b>)—UWS; (<b>c</b>)—SWS; (<b>d</b>)—SUWS. Comparison between the experimental data (points) and predictions (lines) of the PFO, PSO and Elovich models.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Isotherms for the adsorption of CV onto the biosorbents (<b>a</b>) WS, (<b>b</b>) UWS, (<b>c</b>) SWS and (<b>d</b>) SUWS. Comparison between the experimental data (points) and predictions (lines) of the Langmuir and Freundlich models.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Proposed adsorption mechanism of CV onto WS-based biosorbents.</p> Full article ">

Review

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38 pages, 6136 KiB  
Review
Recent Advancements in the Treatment of Petroleum Refinery Wastewater
by Muhammad Shettima Lawan, Rajeev Kumar, Jamshaid Rashid and Mohamed Abou El-Fetouh Barakat
Water 2023, 15(20), 3676; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203676 - 20 Oct 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6477
Abstract
The treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater (PRWW) is of great interest in industrial wastewater management. This wastewater contains a diverse concentration of contaminants such as oil and grease, petroleum hydrocarbons, phenols, ammonia, and sulfides, as well as other organic and inorganic composites. Refinery [...] Read more.
The treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater (PRWW) is of great interest in industrial wastewater management. This wastewater contains a diverse concentration of contaminants such as oil and grease, petroleum hydrocarbons, phenols, ammonia, and sulfides, as well as other organic and inorganic composites. Refinery wastewater treatment has been attempted through various processes, including physical, biological, chemical, and hybrid methods, which combine two or more techniques. This review aims to summarize current research studies involved in the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater using conventional, advanced, and integrated treatment techniques. Furthermore, it critically highlights the efficiencies and major limitations of each technique and the prospects for improvements. Several conventional treatment techniques (basically, the physicochemical and biological processes) are discussed. In this context, advanced oxidation processes (AoPs), especially electrochemical oxidation and photocatalysis, as well as integrated/hybrid processes are found to be effective in removing the recalcitrant fraction of organic pollutants through their various inherent mechanisms. These techniques could effectively remove COD and phenol concentrations with an average removal efficiency exceeding 90%. Hence, the review also presents an elaborate discussion of the photocatalytic process as one of the advanced techniques and highlights some basic concepts to optimize the degradation efficiency of photocatalysts. Finally, a brief recommendation for research prospects is also presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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<p>Number of published review papers on the treatment of petroleum wastewater in the Scopus database from 2013–2023.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Number of research articles on the treatment of petroleum wastewater based on different treatment techniques in the Scopus database from 2013–2023.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Simplified crude oil refining process and generation of the PRWW.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Major environmental pollution from the petroleum refining industry. (<b>b</b>) Major classification of PRWW contaminants.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Composition of petroleum refinery wastewater and major classifications of treatment techniques.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>General overview of the PRWW treatment techniques [<a href="#B8-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">8</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The mechanism of dissolved air flotation [<a href="#B70-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">70</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Illustration of the mechanisms of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation [<a href="#B90-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">90</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The process of adsorption using a nano-porous adsorbent for heavy metals [<a href="#B98-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">98</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Illustration of the mechanism of a membrane process [<a href="#B101-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">101</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Illustration of a chemical precipitation process of lead metal ions [<a href="#B116-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">116</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Electrochemical cells showing the different electrochemical processes [<a href="#B137-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">137</a>]. DC: Direct current. EF: Electro-flotation. EC: Electrocoagulation EO: Electrooxidation. A: Aluminum. EP: Electrophoresis.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Mechanism of electrocoagulation process for oil removal [<a href="#B146-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">146</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Heterogeneous Fenton-like degradation of PRWW pollutants using synthesized Ni<sub>(2−<span class="html-italic">x</span>)</sub>Cu<sub>(x)</sub>Al-LDH layered ternary double hydroxide catalyst [<a href="#B158-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">158</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Summary of the advanced oxidation processes in the treatment of petroleum wastewater [<a href="#B5-water-15-03676" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>The basic considerations in the selection of an appropriate treatment technique.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 781 KiB  
Review
Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review
by Sumra Yousuf, Payam Shafigh, Zakaria Che Muda, Herda Yati Binti Katman and Abid Latif
Water 2023, 15(15), 2828; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828 - 4 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2228
Abstract
Huge amounts of fresh water are used in the concrete industry every day. The quantity and quality of water play important roles in determining the quality, strength, setting time, and durability of cement-based materials (CBMs), such as paste, mortar, and concrete. Freshwater systems [...] Read more.
Huge amounts of fresh water are used in the concrete industry every day. The quantity and quality of water play important roles in determining the quality, strength, setting time, and durability of cement-based materials (CBMs), such as paste, mortar, and concrete. Freshwater systems are under pressure due to climate changes, industrialisation, population growth, urbanisation, and the lack of proper water resource management. The lack of potable water has resulted in the search for possible alternatives, such as seawater, treated industrial wastewater, treated sewage wastewater, carwash service station wastewater, wastewater from ready-mix concrete plants, and wastewater from the stone-cutting industry. All of these water resources can be used in concrete to achieve adequate industry standards for the physical and chemical characteristics of concrete. This study is a comprehensive review of the existing information regarding the effects of alternate water resources on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability properties of CBMs. The review shows that the research on the utilisation of wastewater in CBMs is limited. The development of different procedures and methods is urgently needed to utilise various wastewaters in concrete production. The usage of various wastewaters in concrete construction overcomes their adverse impacts on the environment and human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse)
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<p>Damages to the concrete exposed to seawater.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Steps in wastewater treatment.</p> Full article ">
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