Journal Description
Sports
Sports
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), The European Sport Nutrition Society (ESNS) and The European Network of Sport Education (ENSE) are affiliated with Sports and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Sport Sciences ) / CiteScore - Q2 (Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 20.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
2.2 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.8 (2023)
Latest Articles
Match Injury Incidence for a New Zealand Amateur Domestic Female Soccer Team over Two Consecutive Seasons
Sports 2024, 12(8), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080216 - 9 Aug 2024
Abstract
Objective: To determine the match injury incidence for a New Zealand amateur domestic female soccer team over two consecutive seasons. Methods: A descriptive, epidemiological observational study was conducted to determine match injury incidence for 49 players over two domestic seasons. Match exposure and
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Objective: To determine the match injury incidence for a New Zealand amateur domestic female soccer team over two consecutive seasons. Methods: A descriptive, epidemiological observational study was conducted to determine match injury incidence for 49 players over two domestic seasons. Match exposure and injury burden were calculated. Results: A total of 84 match-related injuries resulted in a match injury incidence of 145.5 (95% confidence interval (CI): 117.4 to 180.1) per 1000 match h. Attackers had a higher incidence of injuries for total (200.0 per 1000 match h) and missed matches (152.4 per 1000 match h). The lower limbs had the highest injury incidence (105.6 per 1000 match h), with ankle injury being the most reported (43.3 per 1000 match h) lower limb injury. Over three quarters (75.3%) of the injuries recorded were missed match injuries. Sprains/strains were the most recorded total (86.6 per 1000 match h) injury type. Fractures were recorded as having the highest mean injury burden (68.7 ± 70.4 days). Discussion: Historically, there was a paucity of injury burden data for female football; however, the data presented within this study can be utilised to support the identification of injury patterns and areas to be included within injury reduction programmes.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Sports: Feature Papers in the Interdisciplinary Papers of Sport Sciences and Public Health)
Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
How to Compare Relative Age Effect in Different Sports? A New Methodological Approach—Example of Youth Olympic Games
by
Drazen Cular, Matej Babic, Darko Katovic, Tea Beslija and Ana Kezic
Sports 2024, 12(8), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080215 - 8 Aug 2024
Abstract
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This research aimed to propose a new methodological approach for analyzing relative age effect (RAE) in different sports or samples named “Relative age effect overall scale” (RAEOS). The sample consisted of 1455 male and female young athletes who competed in four different sports
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This research aimed to propose a new methodological approach for analyzing relative age effect (RAE) in different sports or samples named “Relative age effect overall scale” (RAEOS). The sample consisted of 1455 male and female young athletes who competed in four different sports (basketball, n = 159; handball, n = 215; swimming, n = 981; taekwondo, n = 100) at the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) in Buenos Aires in 2018. To construct the new model, the sample was classified into four unified quartiles of a specific range depending on the sport (swimming: 48-month range, taekwondo: 24-month range, and basketball and handball: 36-month range). Expected and observed frequencies for each sport, the winners/all athletes, and differences between team and individual sports were analyzed using a non-parametric Chi-square test. The obtained results confirm the existence of the RAE in all four analyzed sports (p > 0.01) in a sample of all participants and the sample of gold medalists. Differences between team and individual sports in the analyzed sample have also been found. The proposed methodological approach (RAEOS) is a simple and applicable tool that provides opportunities for comparison and analysis of different sports and competition formats, as well as improvement of the sports talent system in the context of RAE issues. It is suggested to the sports decision-makers to improve the YOG qualification and competition system to enable fairer competition and reduce the influence of RAE on the performance and development of young athletes.
Full article
![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/sports/sports-12-00215/article_deploy/html/images/sports-12-00215-g001-550.jpg?1723087118)
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Open AccessArticle
The Relationship between Functional Movement Quality and Speed, Agility, and Jump Performance in Elite Female Youth Football Players
by
Dan Iulian Alexe, Denis Čaušević, Nedim Čović, Babina Rani, Dragoș Ioan Tohănean, Ensar Abazović, Edi Setiawan and Cristina Ioana Alexe
Sports 2024, 12(8), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080214 - 6 Aug 2024
Abstract
The association between movement screening and physical fitness testing in athletes is conflicting, and therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between Functional Movement Screen (FMS) performance and physical performance in elite female youth football players. Twenty-two players from the national U16
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The association between movement screening and physical fitness testing in athletes is conflicting, and therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between Functional Movement Screen (FMS) performance and physical performance in elite female youth football players. Twenty-two players from the national U16 team of Bosnia and Herzegovina underwent FMS and physical performance tests, including speed, agility, and jump assessments. Jump and speed performance score correlated well with ASLR, while the overall FMS score was not associated with any of the performance variables. These findings suggest that while certain movement patterns may impact athletic performance, the relationship between movement screening and physical performance is delicate. Coaches and practitioners should consider individual variations and sport-specific demands when interpreting FMS results in order to optimize and maximize athlete performance and reduce injury risks.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)
Open AccessArticle
The Impact of Spine Injuries on Amateur Athletes: An Exploratory Analysis of Sport-Related Patient-Reported Outcomes
by
Philipp Raisch, Tabea Hirth, Michael Kreinest, Sven Y. Vetter, Paul A. Grützner and Matthias K. Jung
Sports 2024, 12(8), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080213 - 1 Aug 2024
Abstract
Introduction: There is a lack of information on return to sport and patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) in amateur athletes after isolated spine injuries. Methods: A single-center cohort study in amateur athletes aged 18 to 60 with isolated spine injuries; clinical data collection and
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Introduction: There is a lack of information on return to sport and patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) in amateur athletes after isolated spine injuries. Methods: A single-center cohort study in amateur athletes aged 18 to 60 with isolated spine injuries; clinical data collection and follow-up via telephone interview and standardized PROMs (Short-Form 36, Oswestry and Neck Disability Index, Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Pain Visual Analog Scale). Bivariate analyses of potential influencing factors on PROMs were conducted using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test. p-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results: Out of the 80 included participants, 78% (n = 62) were active in sport at follow-up. PROMs were slightly worse than those described for the age-adjusted general population. There were consistent associations of better PROMs with having reached the subjective preinjury level of performance in sport, while injury severity and surgical or conservative therapy did not show consistent associations with PROMs. Conclusion: Most amateur athletes resume their sports activity after a spine injury. Better outcomes are associated with individuals’ resumption of sport and subjective level of performance, while injury severity and surgical or conservative therapy do not show consistent associations with PROMs, highlighting the importance of patient education, rehabilitation, and encouragement.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport Injuries, Rehabilitation and New Technologies)
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<p>Relative and absolute frequency of different primary sports preinjury and at the time of the interview.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Relative frequency of reported problems during sport in participants who returned to sport after a spine injury.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Patient-reported outcome scores for health-related quality of life (Short-Form-36 Physical Component Score, SF-36 PCS, n = 80), back-pain-specific disability (Oswestry Disability Index, ODI, n = 67), and neck-pain-specific disability (Neck Disability Index, NDI, n = 21) in amateur athletes after a spine injury.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Patient-reported outcome scores for fear of movement and reinjury (Tampa Scale of Kinesiophibia 17 Item Version, TSK-17), symptoms of anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, HADS), and maximum pain in neck or back over the last five days (visual analog scale from 0 to 100) in amateur athletes after spine injury. n = 80.</p> Full article ">
<p>Relative and absolute frequency of different primary sports preinjury and at the time of the interview.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Relative frequency of reported problems during sport in participants who returned to sport after a spine injury.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Patient-reported outcome scores for health-related quality of life (Short-Form-36 Physical Component Score, SF-36 PCS, n = 80), back-pain-specific disability (Oswestry Disability Index, ODI, n = 67), and neck-pain-specific disability (Neck Disability Index, NDI, n = 21) in amateur athletes after a spine injury.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Patient-reported outcome scores for fear of movement and reinjury (Tampa Scale of Kinesiophibia 17 Item Version, TSK-17), symptoms of anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, HADS), and maximum pain in neck or back over the last five days (visual analog scale from 0 to 100) in amateur athletes after spine injury. n = 80.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
The Impact of Match Workload and International Travel on Injuries in Professional Men’s Football
by
Steve den Hollander, Gino Kerkhoffs and Vincent Gouttebarge
Sports 2024, 12(8), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080212 - 1 Aug 2024
Abstract
There are concerns over the impact of the congested international match calendar on professional footballers’ physical and mental well-being, and injury susceptibility. This study aimed to determine whether there were differences in match workload and international travel between injured and non-injured male football
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There are concerns over the impact of the congested international match calendar on professional footballers’ physical and mental well-being, and injury susceptibility. This study aimed to determine whether there were differences in match workload and international travel between injured and non-injured male football players over two elite competition seasons. An observational, retrospective, case–control study was conducted using data from the 2021/2022 and 2022/2023 seasons of five top-tier European men’s football leagues. Student t-tests were used to compare cumulative match workload and international travel data over a 28-day period preceding 1270 injuries and 2540 controls. There were significant differences in match workload and international travel variables between the injured groups (all injuries and hamstring injuries) and the control group. Match workload variables were higher (p < 0.01), recovery variables lower (p < 0.01), and international travel variables higher (p < 0.01). An overload of match workload and international travel contribute to increased injury susceptibility in professional men’s football. This emphasizes the need to address international match calendar concerns, including the number of games per season, the frequency of back-to-back games, and international travel requirements. Additionally, the findings highlight the importance of monitoring player match workloads, and implementing squad rotations and tailored training programs to mitigate injury risks.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Effect of Knee Angle, Contractile Activity, and Intensity of Force Production on Vastus Lateralis Stiffness: A Supersonic Shear Wave Elastography Pilot Study
by
Rute Santos, Maria João Valamatos, Pedro Mil-Homens and Paulo A. S. Armada-da-Silva
Sports 2024, 12(8), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080211 - 31 Jul 2024
Abstract
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Supersonic shear image (SSI) ultrasound elastography provides a quantitative assessment of tissue stiffness using the velocity of shear waves. SSI’s great potential has allowed researchers in fields like biomechanics and muscle physiology to study the function of complex muscle groups in different conditions.
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Supersonic shear image (SSI) ultrasound elastography provides a quantitative assessment of tissue stiffness using the velocity of shear waves. SSI’s great potential has allowed researchers in fields like biomechanics and muscle physiology to study the function of complex muscle groups in different conditions. The aim of this study is to use SSI to investigate changes in the stiffness of the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle as a consequence of passive elongation, isometric contraction, and repeated muscle activity. In a single session, 15 volunteers performed a series of isometric, concentric, and eccentric contractions. SSI images were collected from the VL to assess its stiffness before and after the contractions and at various knee angles. Two-way within-subjects ANOVA was used to test the effects of muscle contraction type and knee angle on VL stiffness. Linear regression analysis was employed to assess the relationship between muscle stiffness and the intensity of isometric contractions. After maximal contractions, VL stiffness increased by approximately 10% compared to baseline values, and following maximal isometric (p < 0.01) and eccentric contractions (p < 0.05). Yet, there was no change in VL shear modulus at the end of concentric contractions. The relaxed VL shear modulus increased with knee flexion both before and after the knee extensor contractions (p < 0.001). A linear relationship between the shear modulus and the degree of isometric contraction was observed, although with notable individual variation (R2 = 0.125). Maximal contractile activity produces modest increases in relaxed muscle stiffness. The SSI-measured shear modulus increases linearly with the degree of isometric contraction.
Full article
![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/sports/sports-12-00211/article_deploy/html/images/sports-12-00211-g001-550.jpg?1722417262)
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<p>Protocol flowchart.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Imaging setting flowchart.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Example of image acquisition in longitudinal view: (<b>A</b>) image of vastus lateralis muscle and subcutaneous adipose tissue with and without the SII ROI (the ROI was reduced to 1.5 cm<sup>2</sup> to avoid the superficial fascia and adipose tissue). (<b>B</b>) MP4 video acquired was converted into JPEG images and changes in color within the ROI were analyzed.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Typical shear wave elastograms during ramp isometric contractions of increasing intensity. MVC, maximal voluntary contraction. During ramp contraction, as the percentage of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) increases, the elastogram color shifts from blue to green, indicating an increase in shear modulus and muscle stiffness with higher contraction intensity.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>A</b>) Values of VL shear modulus at 10°, 50°, and 90° of knee flexion angle at the beginning (Pre) and end (Post) of the series of maximal isometric, Conc, and Ecc contractions. Individual data points are shown, with mean values indicated by the horizontal bars. ANOVA outputs are shown at the top of the plot. (<b>B</b>) Individual VL shear modulus during isometric knee extension at different levels of contraction. The linear regression equation relating VL shear modulus to knee extension torque and associated R<sup>2</sup> value are shown at the top of the plot. VL_ Vastus Lateralis; MCV: Maximal Voluntary Contraction.</p> Full article ">
<p>Protocol flowchart.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Imaging setting flowchart.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Example of image acquisition in longitudinal view: (<b>A</b>) image of vastus lateralis muscle and subcutaneous adipose tissue with and without the SII ROI (the ROI was reduced to 1.5 cm<sup>2</sup> to avoid the superficial fascia and adipose tissue). (<b>B</b>) MP4 video acquired was converted into JPEG images and changes in color within the ROI were analyzed.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Typical shear wave elastograms during ramp isometric contractions of increasing intensity. MVC, maximal voluntary contraction. During ramp contraction, as the percentage of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) increases, the elastogram color shifts from blue to green, indicating an increase in shear modulus and muscle stiffness with higher contraction intensity.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>A</b>) Values of VL shear modulus at 10°, 50°, and 90° of knee flexion angle at the beginning (Pre) and end (Post) of the series of maximal isometric, Conc, and Ecc contractions. Individual data points are shown, with mean values indicated by the horizontal bars. ANOVA outputs are shown at the top of the plot. (<b>B</b>) Individual VL shear modulus during isometric knee extension at different levels of contraction. The linear regression equation relating VL shear modulus to knee extension torque and associated R<sup>2</sup> value are shown at the top of the plot. VL_ Vastus Lateralis; MCV: Maximal Voluntary Contraction.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
Improvement of Motor Task Performance: Effects of Verbal Encouragement and Music—Key Results from a Randomized Crossover Study with Electromyographic Data
by
Filippo Cotellessa, Nicola Luigi Bragazzi, Carlo Trompetto, Lucio Marinelli, Laura Mori, Emanuela Faelli, Cristina Schenone, Halil İbrahim Ceylan, Carlo Biz, Pietro Ruggieri and Luca Puce
Sports 2024, 12(8), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080210 - 30 Jul 2024
Abstract
External motivational stimuli have been shown to improve athletic performance. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this improvement remain poorly understood. This randomized crossover study investigated the effects of music and verbal encouragement on measures of muscle excitation and myoelectric manifestations of fatigue in
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External motivational stimuli have been shown to improve athletic performance. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this improvement remain poorly understood. This randomized crossover study investigated the effects of music and verbal encouragement on measures of muscle excitation and myoelectric manifestations of fatigue in the biceps brachii and brachioradialis muscles during an endurance task. Fifteen untrained (mean age 29.57 ± 2.77 years) and 13 trained individuals (mean age 32.92 ± 2.90 years) were included. The endurance task, performed to exhaustion, consisted of keeping the dominant arm flexed to 90 degrees while holding a dumbbell loaded to 80% of 1RM with a supine grip in three randomized conditions: standard, with self-selected music, and with verbal encouragement. The untrained subjects showed an increase in task duration of 15.26% (p < 0.003) with music and 15.85% (p < 0.002) with verbal encouragement compared to the condition without external stimuli. There were no significant differences in the myoelectric manifestations of fatigue between the different conditions. Regarding the muscle excitation metrics, although the mean amplitude, peak value, and area under the curve remained unchanged across conditions, a significant reduction in the trend coefficient, indicating motor unit recruitment over time, was observed with both music (biceps brachii: −10.39%, p < 0.001; brachioradialis: −9.40%, p < 0.001) and verbal encouragement (biceps brachii: −7.61%, p < 0.001; brachioradialis: −6.51%, p < 0.001) compared to the standard condition. For the trained participants, no significant differences were observed between conditions in terms of task duration and outcome measures related to muscle excitation and myoelectric manifestations of fatigue, suggesting the possible presence of a ceiling effect on motivation. These results highlight the important role of external motivational stimuli, such as music and verbal encouragement, in improving task performance in untrained subjects, probably through more effective and efficient recruitment of motor units.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)
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<p>Position during the task. The task began when the operator released the weight into the subject’s hands. The test was completed when the subject could no longer keep their elbow bent at 90 degrees. 1 = brachioradialis EMG probe; 2 = biceps brachii EMG probe; 3 = triceps brachii EMG probe; 4 = electrogoniometer.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Representation of EMG outcome measures evaluated during a 57.5 s (s) task performed by a participant under verbal encouragement conditions in the biceps brachii (BB) and brachioradialis (BR) muscles. (<b>A</b>) Shows the amplitude of the EMG signal, where the solid line indicates the average amplitude measurements during the task. (<b>B</b>) Displays the area under the curve (AUC) and the point during the task when the EMG signal peak occurs. (<b>C</b>) Depicts the amplitude of the EMG signal, with the solid line indicating the trend coefficient as a measure of muscle recruitment over time. (<b>D</b>) Illustrates the myoelectric manifestations of fatigue, where the solid line represents the trend coefficient as a measure of muscle fatigue manifestations over time.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Task duration in seconds (s) as a function of training state (trained and untrained) and experimental condition (standard, verbal encouragement [VE], and music). ** indicates <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value < 0.01.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Outcome measures of muscle excitation as a function of training state (trained and untrained) and experimental condition (standard, verbal encouragement [VE], and music) in the biceps brachii and brachioradialis muscles. (<b>A</b>) shows the mean amplitude values of the EMG signal. (<b>B</b>) shows the area under the curve. (<b>C</b>) shows the point during the task when the EMG signal peak occurs. (<b>D</b>) shows the slope values of the trend coefficient of the EMG signal, which is an indicator of muscle recruitment over time. *** indicates <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value < 0.001.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Time slope values of the trend coefficient, which is an indicator of myoelectric manifestations of fatigue over time relative to training status (trained and untrained) and experimental condition (standard, verbal encouragement [VE], and music).</p> Full article ">
<p>Position during the task. The task began when the operator released the weight into the subject’s hands. The test was completed when the subject could no longer keep their elbow bent at 90 degrees. 1 = brachioradialis EMG probe; 2 = biceps brachii EMG probe; 3 = triceps brachii EMG probe; 4 = electrogoniometer.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Representation of EMG outcome measures evaluated during a 57.5 s (s) task performed by a participant under verbal encouragement conditions in the biceps brachii (BB) and brachioradialis (BR) muscles. (<b>A</b>) Shows the amplitude of the EMG signal, where the solid line indicates the average amplitude measurements during the task. (<b>B</b>) Displays the area under the curve (AUC) and the point during the task when the EMG signal peak occurs. (<b>C</b>) Depicts the amplitude of the EMG signal, with the solid line indicating the trend coefficient as a measure of muscle recruitment over time. (<b>D</b>) Illustrates the myoelectric manifestations of fatigue, where the solid line represents the trend coefficient as a measure of muscle fatigue manifestations over time.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Task duration in seconds (s) as a function of training state (trained and untrained) and experimental condition (standard, verbal encouragement [VE], and music). ** indicates <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value < 0.01.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Outcome measures of muscle excitation as a function of training state (trained and untrained) and experimental condition (standard, verbal encouragement [VE], and music) in the biceps brachii and brachioradialis muscles. (<b>A</b>) shows the mean amplitude values of the EMG signal. (<b>B</b>) shows the area under the curve. (<b>C</b>) shows the point during the task when the EMG signal peak occurs. (<b>D</b>) shows the slope values of the trend coefficient of the EMG signal, which is an indicator of muscle recruitment over time. *** indicates <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value < 0.001.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Time slope values of the trend coefficient, which is an indicator of myoelectric manifestations of fatigue over time relative to training status (trained and untrained) and experimental condition (standard, verbal encouragement [VE], and music).</p> Full article ">
Open AccessCase Report
It Takes a Team—Enhancing Student-Athlete Health and Well-Being through an Interprofessional Approach
by
Rebecca Steins, Anthony P. Breitbach, Michael Ross, Erica Ciarlo, Elena Melillo and Olivia Brant
Sports 2024, 12(8), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080209 - 30 Jul 2024
Abstract
Student-athlete well-being is a key objective for individuals working with or for university athletic departments. This paper will describe how a university athletic department used a team approach to enhancing student-athlete health and well-being. The Interprofessional Education Collaborative (IPEC) Core Competencies of (1)
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Student-athlete well-being is a key objective for individuals working with or for university athletic departments. This paper will describe how a university athletic department used a team approach to enhancing student-athlete health and well-being. The Interprofessional Education Collaborative (IPEC) Core Competencies of (1) Values and Ethics; (2) Roles and Responsibilities; (3) Communication; and (4) Teams and Teamwork provide a guiding framework for interprofessional collaboration. (IPC; Interprofessional Education Collaborative, 2023). However, significant barriers exist in implementing IPC in university athletic departments and little research exists on how to overcome these barriers in university athletic departments to enhance student-athlete wellness. To address this gap, this paper will first provide a review of the literature on athlete well-being, followed by an applied section that describes the experience of an interprofessional wellness team (IWT) consisting of a clinical sports psychology doctoral student, a licensed mental health professional, an athletic trainer, and a sports dietitian. A case vignette is used to demonstrate how IPEC core competencies are operationalized by the team to address athlete health and well-being through IPC. Recommendations on the further implementation of IPC centered around student-athlete well-being will be provided.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Edition: Sport Psychology Interventions for Athletes' Performance and Well-Being)
Open AccessArticle
The Finishing Space Value for Shooting Decision-Making in High-Performance Football
by
Nelson Caldeira, Rui J. Lopes, Duarte Araujo and Dinis Fernandes
Sports 2024, 12(8), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080208 - 30 Jul 2024
Abstract
Football players’ decision-making behaviours near the scoring target (finishing situations) emerge from the evolving spatiotemporal information directly perceived in the game’s landscape. In finishing situations, the ball carrier’s decision-making about shooting or passing is not an individual decision-making process, but a collective decision
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Football players’ decision-making behaviours near the scoring target (finishing situations) emerge from the evolving spatiotemporal information directly perceived in the game’s landscape. In finishing situations, the ball carrier’s decision-making about shooting or passing is not an individual decision-making process, but a collective decision that is guided by players’ perceptions of match affordances. To sustain this idea, we collected spatiotemporal information and built a model to quantify the “Finishing Space Value” (FSV) that results from players’ perceived affordances about two main questions: (a) is the opponent’s target successfully reachable from a given pitch location?; and (b) from each given pitch location, the opposition context will allow enough space to shoot (low adversaries’ interference)? The FSV was calculated with positional data from high-performance football matches, combining information extracted from Voronoi diagrams (VD) with distances and angles to the goal line. FSV was tested using as a reference the opinion of a “panel of expert” (PE), composed by football coaches, about a questionnaire presenting 50 finishing situations. Results showed a strong association between the subjective perception scale used by the PE to assess how probable a shot made by the ball carrier could result in a goal and FSV calculated for that same situation ( ). Moreover, we demonstrate the accuracy of the FSV quantification model in predicting coaches’ opinions about what should be the “best option” to finish the play. Overall, results indicated that the FSV is a promising model to capture the affordances of the shooting circumstances for the ball carrier’s decision-making in high-performance football. FSV might be useful for more precise match analysis and informing coaches in the design of representative practice tasks.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sport Psychology)
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<p>Illustrative image of a finishing situation presented in the survey to the “panel of expert” football coaches. Player “A” is the ball carrier who shoots and the players marked B, C and D are his colleagues that we consider as possible passing options.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Shots with (blue) and without (red) scoring according to distance and angle to goal.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Player’s VC in four different regions of the EPS. Red circles for “in ball possession” team players and blue circles for the“out of ball possession” team players.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>VDs with different distances to the nearest defender. (<b>a</b>) Larger distance to closest defender; (<b>b</b>) smaller distance to closest defender.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Linear regression between the result of the <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>F</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> and the subjective perception of the PE about the “probability to score from a shot” made by player “A” (the ball carrier) in each finishing situation.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Histogram with the values of the Gwet’s agreement coefficient. It shows the frequency of the situations where the PE did not minimally agree (black: no majority) and the frequency with which the PE produced a tendency in their answers, in the sense that the ”best option” to shoot would be (1) the ball carrier (green: option A); (2) one of his teammates (brown: options B, C or D); or (3) other option (red: E).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Graph for each situation of the survey, according to Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” for the FSV model (approach I). The vertical blue line indicates the random reference’s BS. (from Equation (<a href="#FD10-sports-12-00208" class="html-disp-formula">10</a>)).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Graph with each finishing situation according to the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” of the FSV model (approach II). The vertical blue line indicates the <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>B</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> random reference. (from Equation (<a href="#FD10-sports-12-00208" class="html-disp-formula">10</a>)).</p> Full article ">Figure A1
<p>PL and how the distance to the goal influences scoring probability percentage.</p> Full article ">Figure A2
<p>PL and how the angle to the goal influences scoring probability percentage.</p> Full article ">Figure A3
<p>Heatmap with the probability of scoring calculated by the PL component of our FSV model (see <a href="#sec2dot2dot1-sports-12-00208" class="html-sec">Section 2.2.1</a>).</p> Full article ">Figure A4
<p>Heatmap with the probability of scoring in a shoot made from a given pitch location, calculated by the model of Pollard and colleagues [<a href="#B28-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. They concluded that for each additional yard between the player and the goal, the probability of scoring decreased by 15%, whilst for each angle degree, there was a decrease of 2%.</p> Full article ">Figure A5
<p>Heatmap with the probability of scoring calculated by the "zone" component of the model of Link and colleagues [<a href="#B29-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure A6
<p>Variation in the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the inside (INS) zones of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) INSIDE the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) INSIDE the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A7
<p>Variation of the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the Outside Frontal region (OUT_F) of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) in the Outside Frontal region (OUT_F) of the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) in the Outside Frontal region (OUT_F) of the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A8
<p>Variation in the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the Outside Side regions (OUT_S) of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) in the Outside Side region (OUT_S) of the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) in the Outside Side region (OUT_S) of the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A9
<p>Variation in the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the Outside side–frontal regions (OUT_S_F) of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) in the Outside side–frontal region (OUT_S) of the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) in the Outside side–frontal region (OUT_S_F) of the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A10
<p>Graph with the function of the natural logarithm (LN) that is introduced in the FSV model to capture the shape of the Voronoi cell, through the distance to the nearest opponent (DO).</p> Full article ">Figure A11
<p>Exemplary graph of how the FSV of different players was compared. In this case, the probability that player A (black line) has a higher FSV than B (blue line) or C (red line) is given by the respective shaded zones.</p> Full article ">Figure A12
<p>Histogram with the values of the FSV of each player (A, B, C and D) when each coach chose “E” as the “best option” (continue to play, and not shoot or pass to shoot).</p> Full article ">Figure A13
<p>Histogram with the frequency of the FSV of the ball carrier (player A) when each coach chose him as the “best option”.</p> Full article ">Figure A14
<p>Graph showing, for each situation of the survey, the comparison between the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” that measures the accuracy of probabilistic predictions if the FSV model only has the PL (distance and angle to the opponent’s goal). The vertical blue line indicates a BS random reference.</p> Full article ">Figure A15
<p>Graph showing, for each situation of the survey, the comparison between the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” that measures the accuracy of probabilistic predictions with the model proposed by Pollard and colleagues [<a href="#B28-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. The vertical blue line indicates a BS random reference.</p> Full article ">Figure A16
<p>Graph showing, for each situation of the survey, the comparison between the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” that measures the accuracy of probabilistic predictions with the “Zone” component of the “Dangerousity” model proposed by Link and colleagues [<a href="#B29-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. The vertical blue line indicates a BS random reference.</p> Full article ">
<p>Illustrative image of a finishing situation presented in the survey to the “panel of expert” football coaches. Player “A” is the ball carrier who shoots and the players marked B, C and D are his colleagues that we consider as possible passing options.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Shots with (blue) and without (red) scoring according to distance and angle to goal.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Player’s VC in four different regions of the EPS. Red circles for “in ball possession” team players and blue circles for the“out of ball possession” team players.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>VDs with different distances to the nearest defender. (<b>a</b>) Larger distance to closest defender; (<b>b</b>) smaller distance to closest defender.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Linear regression between the result of the <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>F</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> and the subjective perception of the PE about the “probability to score from a shot” made by player “A” (the ball carrier) in each finishing situation.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Histogram with the values of the Gwet’s agreement coefficient. It shows the frequency of the situations where the PE did not minimally agree (black: no majority) and the frequency with which the PE produced a tendency in their answers, in the sense that the ”best option” to shoot would be (1) the ball carrier (green: option A); (2) one of his teammates (brown: options B, C or D); or (3) other option (red: E).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Graph for each situation of the survey, according to Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” for the FSV model (approach I). The vertical blue line indicates the random reference’s BS. (from Equation (<a href="#FD10-sports-12-00208" class="html-disp-formula">10</a>)).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Graph with each finishing situation according to the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” of the FSV model (approach II). The vertical blue line indicates the <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>B</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> random reference. (from Equation (<a href="#FD10-sports-12-00208" class="html-disp-formula">10</a>)).</p> Full article ">Figure A1
<p>PL and how the distance to the goal influences scoring probability percentage.</p> Full article ">Figure A2
<p>PL and how the angle to the goal influences scoring probability percentage.</p> Full article ">Figure A3
<p>Heatmap with the probability of scoring calculated by the PL component of our FSV model (see <a href="#sec2dot2dot1-sports-12-00208" class="html-sec">Section 2.2.1</a>).</p> Full article ">Figure A4
<p>Heatmap with the probability of scoring in a shoot made from a given pitch location, calculated by the model of Pollard and colleagues [<a href="#B28-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. They concluded that for each additional yard between the player and the goal, the probability of scoring decreased by 15%, whilst for each angle degree, there was a decrease of 2%.</p> Full article ">Figure A5
<p>Heatmap with the probability of scoring calculated by the "zone" component of the model of Link and colleagues [<a href="#B29-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure A6
<p>Variation in the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the inside (INS) zones of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) INSIDE the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) INSIDE the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A7
<p>Variation of the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the Outside Frontal region (OUT_F) of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) in the Outside Frontal region (OUT_F) of the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) in the Outside Frontal region (OUT_F) of the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A8
<p>Variation in the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the Outside Side regions (OUT_S) of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) in the Outside Side region (OUT_S) of the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) in the Outside Side region (OUT_S) of the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A9
<p>Variation in the average values of the VA of players who are with (BC) and without the ball (NB), in the Outside side–frontal regions (OUT_S_F) of the EPS. (<b>a</b>) VAe for the ball carrier (BC) in the Outside side–frontal region (OUT_S) of the EPS; (<b>b</b>) VAe for players without the ball (NB) in the Outside side–frontal region (OUT_S_F) of the EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure A10
<p>Graph with the function of the natural logarithm (LN) that is introduced in the FSV model to capture the shape of the Voronoi cell, through the distance to the nearest opponent (DO).</p> Full article ">Figure A11
<p>Exemplary graph of how the FSV of different players was compared. In this case, the probability that player A (black line) has a higher FSV than B (blue line) or C (red line) is given by the respective shaded zones.</p> Full article ">Figure A12
<p>Histogram with the values of the FSV of each player (A, B, C and D) when each coach chose “E” as the “best option” (continue to play, and not shoot or pass to shoot).</p> Full article ">Figure A13
<p>Histogram with the frequency of the FSV of the ball carrier (player A) when each coach chose him as the “best option”.</p> Full article ">Figure A14
<p>Graph showing, for each situation of the survey, the comparison between the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” that measures the accuracy of probabilistic predictions if the FSV model only has the PL (distance and angle to the opponent’s goal). The vertical blue line indicates a BS random reference.</p> Full article ">Figure A15
<p>Graph showing, for each situation of the survey, the comparison between the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” that measures the accuracy of probabilistic predictions with the model proposed by Pollard and colleagues [<a href="#B28-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. The vertical blue line indicates a BS random reference.</p> Full article ">Figure A16
<p>Graph showing, for each situation of the survey, the comparison between the values of Gwet’s agreement probability and the “multiclass BS” that measures the accuracy of probabilistic predictions with the “Zone” component of the “Dangerousity” model proposed by Link and colleagues [<a href="#B29-sports-12-00208" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. The vertical blue line indicates a BS random reference.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
Prevalence of Lower Back Pain in Portuguese Equestrian Riders
by
Carlota Duarte, Rute Santos, Orlando Fernandes and Armando Raimundo
Sports 2024, 12(8), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080207 - 30 Jul 2024
Abstract
Lower back pain is prevalent in equestrian athletes, but its prevalence and associated factors are unknown in the Portuguese equestrian population. A questionnaire regarding lower back pain and possible associated factors was answered by 347 respondents. Of the respondents, 214 (61.7%) stated having
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Lower back pain is prevalent in equestrian athletes, but its prevalence and associated factors are unknown in the Portuguese equestrian population. A questionnaire regarding lower back pain and possible associated factors was answered by 347 respondents. Of the respondents, 214 (61.7%) stated having experienced lower back pain in the past 12 months and therefore completed the Roland Morris disability questionnaire. Among the latter, 63.1% stated that lower back pain impaired their performance. The probability of suffering from lower back pain was higher in individuals with higher weekly riding workloads, who reported equestrianism as their main occupation, and who performed daily stable duties. Considering a Roland Morris disability score of 4 as the cut-off value for dysfunction, this sample had an average score of 5.39 ± 4.42. Individuals who stated equestrianism was their main occupation showed a significantly higher risk (OR = 1.759, p = 0.041) of exhibiting a score ≥ 4 than those who stated equestrianism as a hobby. Age (p = 0.029), body mass index (p = 0.047), and daily performance of stable duties (p = 0.030) were also associated with a higher Roland Morris disability score. Further research is needed to understand the full impacts of lower back pain in Portuguese equestrian athletes.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Pre-Exercise Caffeine and Sodium Bicarbonate: Their Effects on Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull Performance in a Crossover, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study
by
Celil Kaçoğlu, İzzet Kirkaya, Halil İbrahim Ceylan, Gilmara Gomes de Assis, Paulo Almeida-Neto, Serdar Bayrakdaroğlu, César Chaves Oliveira, Ali Özkan and Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
Sports 2024, 12(8), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080206 - 29 Jul 2024
Abstract
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Caffeine and sodium bicarbonate are extensively researched ergogenic aids known for their potential to enhance exercise performance. The stimulant properties of caffeine on the central nervous system, coupled with the buffering capacity of sodium bicarbonate, have been associated with improved athletic performance. This
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Caffeine and sodium bicarbonate are extensively researched ergogenic aids known for their potential to enhance exercise performance. The stimulant properties of caffeine on the central nervous system, coupled with the buffering capacity of sodium bicarbonate, have been associated with improved athletic performance. This has led to investigations of their combined effects on strength. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of isolated and combined caffeine and sodium bicarbonate consumption on strength using the isometric mid-thigh pull test (IMTP). Nineteen male college students (age 23.6 ± 1.6 years) participated in this crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. They were exposed to the following conditions: control (no supplement), placebo (20 g maltodextrin), caffeine (6 mg/kg), sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g/kg), and a combination of caffeine and sodium bicarbonate. Supplements and placebo were diluted in water and consumed 60 min prior to the IMTP tests. Two 5 s IMTP trials were performed at 40–60% and 60–80% of One Repetition of Maximum (1RM) with a 60 s rest between. Consumption of caffeine or Caf + NaHCO3 did not significantly change peak IMTP strength values at any intensity (p = 0.110). The peak IMTP values did not show significant differences between conditions or from control condition values (1091 ± 100 N) to Caf (1224 ± 92 N), NaHCO3 (1222 ± 74 N), and Caf ± NaHCO3 (1152 ± 109 N). However, the test of the results of the ANOVA analysis of repeated measures of effect within the caffeine condition was significant for the increase in IMTP relative strength compared to control (p < 0.05). Thus, the IMTP force values increased significantly from control to Caf (p = 0.016) and from Pla to Caf (p = 0.008), but not for other comparisons (p > 0.05). In summary, caffeine supplementation alone, taken 60 min before exercise, positively affects submaximal strength performance. In contrast, sodium bicarbonate, whether taken alone or in combination with caffeine, does not enhance submaximal strength in the IMTP tests.
Full article
![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/sports/sports-12-00206/article_deploy/html/images/sports-12-00206-g001-550.jpg?1722424603)
Figure 1
Figure 1
<p>Flowchart of the experimental design of the study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Comparisons of delta variation values (Δ%) in relation to the control condition. (<b>A</b>): Δ% peak in Newtons. (<b>B</b>): Δ% Newtons/kilogram. (N): Newtons. (N/Kg): Newtons per kilogram. Pla: placebo. Caf: caffeine. NaHCO<sub>3</sub>: sodium bicarbonate. Caf + NaHCO<sub>3</sub>: caffeine + sodium bicarbonate.</p> Full article ">
<p>Flowchart of the experimental design of the study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Comparisons of delta variation values (Δ%) in relation to the control condition. (<b>A</b>): Δ% peak in Newtons. (<b>B</b>): Δ% Newtons/kilogram. (N): Newtons. (N/Kg): Newtons per kilogram. Pla: placebo. Caf: caffeine. NaHCO<sub>3</sub>: sodium bicarbonate. Caf + NaHCO<sub>3</sub>: caffeine + sodium bicarbonate.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
Associations between Body Segment Mass and Punch, Front Kick, or Countermovement Jump Performance in Military Cadets
by
Michal Vagner, Jan Malecek, Vladan Olah and Petr Stastny
Sports 2024, 12(8), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080205 - 28 Jul 2024
Abstract
Despite the recognized influence of body mass on combat techniques, the relationship between body segment mass (BSM) and combat moves remains unexplored. This study aimed to examine the relationship between the striking arm mass (SAM), kicking leg mass (KLM), and body mass (BM)
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Despite the recognized influence of body mass on combat techniques, the relationship between body segment mass (BSM) and combat moves remains unexplored. This study aimed to examine the relationship between the striking arm mass (SAM), kicking leg mass (KLM), and body mass (BM) and the dynamic forces of direct punch (DP), palm strike (PS), elbow strike (ES), front kick (FK), and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Sixteen male military cadets (22.3 ± 1.8 years, 181.4 ± 7.0 cm, 82.1 ± 8.5 kg) performed combat techniques, with their performance measured by using a force plate and their body segment mass assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Spearman’s correlation analysis, the Wilcoxon test, and Cohen’s d were applied. The results indicated the relationship between the KLM or BM and the FK impulse (r = 0.64, p = 0.01; r = 0.52, p = 0.04, respectively) and CMJ impact force (r = 0.80, p ≤ 0.01; r = 0.70, p ≤ 0.01, respectively). The FK peak and impact forces were moderately correlated with the CMJ jump height (r = 0.74, p ≤ 0.01; r = 0.77, p ≤ 0.01). Moreover, the FK peak force was significantly higher than that for DP, PS, and ES (p ≤ 0.01, d = 3.32; p ≤ 0.01, d = 1.6; and p = 0.013, d = 1.3, respectively). The highest relationship was found between the KLM and the FK impulse; however, the difference in variability explained by the KLM versus the body mass was only 12%. This suggests that knowledge of the BSM did not provide a significantly better estimate of the dynamic forces of the punches and FKs than the knowledge of the BM.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances)
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![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/sports/sports-12-00205/article_deploy/html/images/sports-12-00205-g001-550.jpg?1722134239)
Figure 1
Figure 1
<p>Testing protocol of this study and execution of the front kick and punches into a vertically positionable force plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Correlation between the impulse of the direct punch and striking leg mass or body mass: (<b>a</b>) striking arm mass and direct punch impulse; (<b>b</b>) body mass and direct punch impulse.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Correlation between the impulse of the front kick and kicking leg mass or body mass: (<b>a</b>) kicking leg mass and front kick impulse; (<b>b</b>) body mass and front kick impulse.</p> Full article ">
<p>Testing protocol of this study and execution of the front kick and punches into a vertically positionable force plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Correlation between the impulse of the direct punch and striking leg mass or body mass: (<b>a</b>) striking arm mass and direct punch impulse; (<b>b</b>) body mass and direct punch impulse.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Correlation between the impulse of the front kick and kicking leg mass or body mass: (<b>a</b>) kicking leg mass and front kick impulse; (<b>b</b>) body mass and front kick impulse.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
Acceptability and Feasibility of Portable Eye-Tracking Technology within a Children’s Dynamic Sport Context: An Exploratory Study with Boys Who Play Grassroots Football
by
Katie Fitton Davies, Theresa Heering, Matt Watts and Michael J. Duncan
Sports 2024, 12(8), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080204 - 26 Jul 2024
Abstract
Teaching practices are moving from decontextualised to more representative curricula. Although this is argued to be a positive step, low motor competence is a continual issue in primary-aged school children. One methodological approach to investigate ways to improve motor competence, eye tracking, is
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Teaching practices are moving from decontextualised to more representative curricula. Although this is argued to be a positive step, low motor competence is a continual issue in primary-aged school children. One methodological approach to investigate ways to improve motor competence, eye tracking, is moving to more representative tasks. So far, eye-tracking research using static activities has demonstrated a positive association between motor competence and earlier fixation and longer duration. However, this research has been constrained to laboratory settings and tasks, or discrete activities (e.g., throw and catch). This study seeks to understand how to conduct more representative eye-tracking research in primary school-aged children. To this end, thirteen 10–11-year-old children were fitted with an eye-tracker during a typical football coaching session. Children were asked acceptability-based questions, and eye-gaze data were captured to illustrate what children attended to under a representative dynamic football-based activity. Based on the voices of children and captured eye-gaze data, six practical implications for research in this population are proposed: (1) conduct eye-tracking research indoors (where possible); (2) ensure long hair or fringes are secured so as not to obscure line of sight; (3) run the same activity to increase comparability across children wearing the eye-tracker; (4) use a properly fitted backpack (if a backpack is to be used); (5) assure children about the capability and hardiness of the eye-tracker, as they do not need to change the way they move; (6) explain there may be some discomfort with the nose clip, head strap, and battery weight and ensure that children wish to continue.
Full article
Open AccessEditorial
Riding the Digital Wave of Exercise, Health, and Sports Training Optimization
by
Rodrigo Zacca, Flávio Antônio de Souza Castro and Rui M. S. Azevedo
Sports 2024, 12(8), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080203 - 25 Jul 2024
Abstract
The digital era is opening countless possibilities in “Sport Sciences”; “Public, Environmental, and Occupational Health”; and “Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy, and Rehabilitation” areas [...]
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Technologies: Applications, Window of Opportunity and Challenges in Exercise, Health and Sports)
Open AccessFeature PaperReview
Effectiveness of Kinesiotherapy in the Treatment of Achilles Tendinopathy—A Narrative Review
by
Robert Trybulski, Jarosław Muracki, Mieszko Podleśny, Andriy Vovkanych and Adrian Kużdżał
Sports 2024, 12(8), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080202 - 25 Jul 2024
Abstract
This narrative review of kinesiotherapy methods in the treatment of Achilles tendinopathy (AT) encompassed a diverse range of studies, including athletes and untrained people, healthy or injured, undergoing kinesiotherapy treatments. Most experimental studies (86%) reported results related to pain perception, 27% to the
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This narrative review of kinesiotherapy methods in the treatment of Achilles tendinopathy (AT) encompassed a diverse range of studies, including athletes and untrained people, healthy or injured, undergoing kinesiotherapy treatments. Most experimental studies (86%) reported results related to pain perception, 27% to the range of motion, and 27% to biomechanical assessment. However, the studies showed notable heterogeneity in the outcomes associated with the interventions, and, in this review of kinesiotherapy protocols for AT, a prominent observation emerged regarding their efficacy, suggesting a more favorable impact on pain and tendon stiffness management when comparing the measured parameters between the trained and untrained groups. The importance of tailoring the treatment approach based on the individual’s athletic background and conditioning status is underscored. There is a need for personalized rehabilitation strategies in athletic populations. The average duration of kinesiotherapy in the treatment of tendinopathy was 15.3 weeks. This observation underscores the potential of kinesiotherapy interventions as a viable treatment option for individuals with Achilles tendon issues. These findings underscore the urgent need for further research to provide stakeholders with more comprehensive directions for future studies. The results may be helpful for doctors, physiotherapists, trainers, and researchers interested in this topic.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Physiotherapy on Sports-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders)
Open AccessArticle
An Assessment of the Ratio between Upper Body Push and Pull Strength in Female and Male Elite Swedish Track and Field Throwers
by
Jesper Augustsson, Ted Gunhamn and Håkan Andersson
Sports 2024, 12(8), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080201 - 24 Jul 2024
Abstract
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Data on the strength ratio between agonist and antagonist muscles are frequently examined in sports testing, given its correlation with athletic performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the agonist-to-antagonist ratio of upper body strength in female and male elite Swedish
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Data on the strength ratio between agonist and antagonist muscles are frequently examined in sports testing, given its correlation with athletic performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the agonist-to-antagonist ratio of upper body strength in female and male elite Swedish track and field throwers using a new push (bench press) and pull (supine bench row) test device, and to determine its reliability. The study involved eight female and nine male athletes, aged 19–29 years, engaging, respectively, in discus, hammer, and shot put competitions at both national and international levels. The athletes’ maximum isometric force was assessed during the bench press (push) and supine bench row (pull) exercises, respectively, using a custom-built test device. The test–retest reliability of the device was also examined. The total push-to-pull strength ratio for the female throwers was 1.15, whereas male throwers demonstrated a ratio of 1.22. Total push and pull force for the female throwers was significantly less than for the male throwers (5511 N vs. 8970 N, p < 0.001). Intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.93 to 0.96 for the bench press and supine bench row exercise, indicating that the push and pull test device was highly reliable. The main findings of this study were that elite female and male discus, hammer, and shot put throwers exhibited 15% and 22% more pushing (bench press) than pulling (supine bench row) strength. Push and pull strength in the female throwers ranged from 47% to 71% of that of the male throwers. The push and pull test device is a reliable tool in establishing the agonist-to-antagonist ratio of upper body strength of athletes. Coaches and athletes may benefit from examining upper body push and pull strength ratios for training planning and prescription.
Full article
![](https://pub.mdpi-res.com/sports/sports-12-00201/article_deploy/html/images/sports-12-00201-g001-550.jpg?1721802170)
Figure 1
Figure 1
<p>A schematic illustration of the apparatus used for measuring push (bench press) and pull (supine bench pull) strength ratios. Dual, bi-directional (tension and compression) load cells were employed to collect the participants’ maximal isometric forces for both the right and left sides. Force data were collected with the barbell at the chest (push only) and at the 25%, 50%, and 75% position of the full range of motion (ROM) for each exercise/motion (bench press–supine bench/push–pull).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Testing set-up. The participant’s position during push (bench press) and pull (supine bench row) testing are illustrated. During supine bench row testing, the upper body was firmly secured to the bench by a heavy-duty Velcro fixation belt.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mean isometric force data at different positions that illustrate the female (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 8) and the male (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 9) elite throwers’ strength curves for the bench press and the supine bench row exercises.</p> Full article ">
<p>A schematic illustration of the apparatus used for measuring push (bench press) and pull (supine bench pull) strength ratios. Dual, bi-directional (tension and compression) load cells were employed to collect the participants’ maximal isometric forces for both the right and left sides. Force data were collected with the barbell at the chest (push only) and at the 25%, 50%, and 75% position of the full range of motion (ROM) for each exercise/motion (bench press–supine bench/push–pull).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Testing set-up. The participant’s position during push (bench press) and pull (supine bench row) testing are illustrated. During supine bench row testing, the upper body was firmly secured to the bench by a heavy-duty Velcro fixation belt.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mean isometric force data at different positions that illustrate the female (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 8) and the male (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 9) elite throwers’ strength curves for the bench press and the supine bench row exercises.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
The Quality of Life of Former Portuguese Football Players
by
Eduardo Teixeira, Carlos Silva, Félix Romero, João Paulo Costa and António Vicente
Sports 2024, 12(8), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080200 - 23 Jul 2024
Abstract
Background: The demands of playing professional football can have an impact on an individual’s quality of life (QoL), which may remain into retirement. Given limited evidence exists regarding the QoL in former football players, this study aimed to assess QoL among Portuguese former
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Background: The demands of playing professional football can have an impact on an individual’s quality of life (QoL), which may remain into retirement. Given limited evidence exists regarding the QoL in former football players, this study aimed to assess QoL among Portuguese former players according to career duration, career end period, competitive level, tactical-positional status, international status, academic qualifications, serious injuries in career, and current professional football connection. Methods: The study included 84 Portuguese former football players (48.8 ± 8.2 years old) who transitioned to retirement between 1988 and 2018. The WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire was used to assess QoL perceptions, and the Portuguese version was validated. Results and Discussion: The former players have positive QoL indicators, both in general and across the four domains, namely in terms of the physical, psychological, and social relationship and environment. There were no statistically significant differences in QoL between the defined categories for career end period, competitive level, tactical-positional status, international status, and current professional football connection. Likewise, there was no significant correlation between QoL and career duration. In contrast, there were significant differences in general QoL (p < 0.023) and in the physical domain (p < 0.001) between former players with different academic qualifications. A significant correlation was found between the number of severe injuries sustained in a career and QoL in the physical domain (R = −0.300, p = 0.006). Conclusions: There are no concerning QoL results presented by former players. However, the number of severe injuries sustained during the career was associated with a lower QoL, while holding higher academic qualifications demonstrated higher general and physical QoL. Studies with larger samples should be conducted to confirm these trends.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Connecting Health and Performance with Sports Sciences)
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Open AccessArticle
Paraspinal Muscle Stiffness during Hamstring Exercise Using Shear-Wave Elastography
by
Eleftherios Kellis, Afxentios Kekelekis and Eleni E. Drakonaki
Sports 2024, 12(8), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080199 - 23 Jul 2024
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Soccer teams integrate specific exercises into their typical workout programs for injury prevention. This study examined the effects of hamstring exercise on paraspinal and hamstring stiffness. These findings can inform training and rehabilitation programs to improve muscle health and prevent injuries. Fifteen young,
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Soccer teams integrate specific exercises into their typical workout programs for injury prevention. This study examined the effects of hamstring exercise on paraspinal and hamstring stiffness. These findings can inform training and rehabilitation programs to improve muscle health and prevent injuries. Fifteen young, healthy males performed passive and active (submaximal) knee flexion efforts from 0°, 45°, to 90° angle of knee flexion from the prone position. Using shear-wave elastography (SWE) and surface electromyography, we measured the elastic modulus and root mean square (RMS) signal of the erector spinae (ES), multifidus (MF), semitendinosus (ST), and semimembranosus (SM) during different knee flexion angles. Passive SWE modulus at 0° was 12.44 ± 4.45 kPa (ES), 13.35 ± 6.12 kPa (MF), 22.01 ± 4.68 kPa (ST), and 21.57 ± 5.22 kPa (SM) and it was greater (p < 0.05) compared to 45° and 90°. The corresponding values during knee flexion contractions at 0° increased to 18.99 ± 6.11 kPa (ES), 20.65 ± 11.31 kPa (MF), 71.21 ± 13.88 kPa (ST), and 70.20 ± 14.29 kPa (SM) and did not differ between angles (p > 0.05). Compared to rest, the relative increase in the SWE modulus during active contraction had a median value (interquartile range) ranging from 68.11 (86.29) to 101.69 (54.33)% for the paraspinal muscles and it was moderately to strongly correlated (r > 0.672) with the corresponding increase of the hamstring muscles [ranging from 225.94 (114.72) to 463.16 (185.16)%]. The RMS signal was greater during active compared to passive conditions, and it was lower at 90° compared to 45° (for SM/ST) and 0° (for all muscles). The association between paraspinal and hamstring passive muscle stiffness indicates a potential transmission of forces through myofascial connections between the lumbar spine and the lower limbs. In this laboratory setting, hamstring exercises affected the stiffness of the paraspinal muscles.
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<p>Illustration of elastography measurements. In the prone position, the ultrasound probe was placed on the semitendinosus at 60% of the distance from the ischial tuberosity to the medial condyle; then, it was shifted more medially to capture the semimembranosus. The erector spinae and the deeper region of multifidus were visualized with a probe 4 cm from the L3 spinous process at the L3–L4 level. Example elastography images are also illustrated. Within each elastogram (which appears as a color-coded box), regions of interest were drawn as circles (illustrated with vertical arrows). The software provided the SWE modulus, which was visualized using a color-coded scale. (The color scale was extracted from the software and enlarged so that the measurement scale was easily visible).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Median value of the relative SWE modulus of erector spinae (ES), multifidus (MF), semitendinosus (ST), and semimembranosus (ST) values during active contractions of the hamstrings at 0, 45, and 90° knee flexion angles. Error bars indicate the interquartile range, and circle dots are individual case values (* indicates a statistically significant difference between angles at <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05; ^ indicates a statistically significant difference with ST and SM values, <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05).</p> Full article ">
<p>Illustration of elastography measurements. In the prone position, the ultrasound probe was placed on the semitendinosus at 60% of the distance from the ischial tuberosity to the medial condyle; then, it was shifted more medially to capture the semimembranosus. The erector spinae and the deeper region of multifidus were visualized with a probe 4 cm from the L3 spinous process at the L3–L4 level. Example elastography images are also illustrated. Within each elastogram (which appears as a color-coded box), regions of interest were drawn as circles (illustrated with vertical arrows). The software provided the SWE modulus, which was visualized using a color-coded scale. (The color scale was extracted from the software and enlarged so that the measurement scale was easily visible).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Median value of the relative SWE modulus of erector spinae (ES), multifidus (MF), semitendinosus (ST), and semimembranosus (ST) values during active contractions of the hamstrings at 0, 45, and 90° knee flexion angles. Error bars indicate the interquartile range, and circle dots are individual case values (* indicates a statistically significant difference between angles at <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05; ^ indicates a statistically significant difference with ST and SM values, <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05).</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
Effect of Different Reduced Training Frequencies after 12 Weeks of Concurrent Resistance and Aerobic Training on Muscle Strength and Morphology
by
Thomas Mpampoulis, Angeliki N. Stasinaki, Spyridon Methenitis, Nikolaos Zaras, Gregory C. Bogdanis and Gerasimos Terzis
Sports 2024, 12(7), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12070198 - 22 Jul 2024
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The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of two long-term reduced concurrent training modalities, in which participants performed one training session every either 7 or 14 days, after 12 weeks of systematic concurrent resistance and aerobic training, on lower extremities’
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The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of two long-term reduced concurrent training modalities, in which participants performed one training session every either 7 or 14 days, after 12 weeks of systematic concurrent resistance and aerobic training, on lower extremities’ muscle strength, power, and morphology in young females. After the 12-week training period, participants were assigned into three groups and performed either one training session every 7 days (G7) or once every 14 days (G14), or detraining (GD), for 12 weeks, followed by 12 additional weeks of detraining. The following were measured before, after the systematic training period, after the end of the reduced training frequency period, and after the end of complete detraining: body composition, leg press 1-RM, countermovement jump, quadriceps cross-sectional area (CSA), vastus lateralis muscle architecture, and maximum aerobic power. Performance and muscle mass increased after the initial 12-week training period. Thereafter, leg press 1-RM, quadriceps CSA, and aerobic power remained unchanged in the G7 group, but decreased in G14 (−4.4 ± 3.5%; −5.9 ± 1.8%; −9.0 ± 7.8%, respectively, p < 0.05), maintaining 95.6 ± 3.5%, 94.1 ± 1.8%, and 91.0 ± 7.8% of the initial training adaptations, respectively. In conclusion, performing one training session every 2 weeks for 3 months may preserve 90 to 95% of the muscle mass/strength and aerobic power adaptations achieved with systematic concurrent training.
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<p>The experimental design of the present study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Leg press 1-RM (<b>a</b>), maximal aerobic power (<b>b</b>), and quadriceps CSA (<b>c</b>) at the start of the training period (T1) and after 12 weeks of systematic training (T2) in the training and the control group. (*) denotes the significant difference after training in each group separately and (§) denotes the differences between the groups at the marked time points. <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Leg press 1-RM percentage changes after 12 weeks of systematic training (T1 to T2), after 6 weeks (T2 to T3) and 12 weeks of reduced frequency training (T2 to T4), and after 12 weeks of detraining (T4 to T5) for the G7, G14, GD, and GC groups. Small letters denote statistically significant differences in the marked group separately (where G7 = 1 training session every 7 days, G14 = 1 training session every 14 days, and GD = exercise cessation) between time periods (T1 to T2, T3 to T4, and T4 to T5). When a comparison between groups (for example GD vs. G7) is presented, it refers to the significant differences between the denoted groups in the marked time points.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Maximal aerobic power percentage change after 12 weeks of systematic training (T1 to T2), 12 weeks of reduced frequency training (T2 to T4), and after 12 weeks of detraining (T4 to T5) for G7, G14, GD, and GC groups. Small letters denote statistically significant differences in the marked group separately (where G7 = 1 training session every 7 days, G14 = 1 training session every 14 days, and GD = exercise cessation) between time periods (T1 to T2, T2 to T4, and T4 to T5). When a comparison between groups (for example GD vs. G7) is presented, it refers to the significant differences between the denoted groups in the marked time points.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Quadriceps CSA percentage change after 12 weeks of systematic training (T1 to T2), 12 weeks of reduced frequency training (T2 to T4), and after 12 weeks of detraining (T4 to T5) for G7, G14, GD, and GC groups. Small letters denote statistically significant differences in the marked group separately (where G7 = 1 training session every 7 days, G14 = 1 training session every 14 days, and GD = exercise cessation) between time periods (T1 to T2, T2 to T4, and T4 to T5). When a comparison between groups (for example GD vs. G7) is presented, it refers to the significant differences between the denoted groups in the marked time points.</p> Full article ">
<p>The experimental design of the present study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Leg press 1-RM (<b>a</b>), maximal aerobic power (<b>b</b>), and quadriceps CSA (<b>c</b>) at the start of the training period (T1) and after 12 weeks of systematic training (T2) in the training and the control group. (*) denotes the significant difference after training in each group separately and (§) denotes the differences between the groups at the marked time points. <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Leg press 1-RM percentage changes after 12 weeks of systematic training (T1 to T2), after 6 weeks (T2 to T3) and 12 weeks of reduced frequency training (T2 to T4), and after 12 weeks of detraining (T4 to T5) for the G7, G14, GD, and GC groups. Small letters denote statistically significant differences in the marked group separately (where G7 = 1 training session every 7 days, G14 = 1 training session every 14 days, and GD = exercise cessation) between time periods (T1 to T2, T3 to T4, and T4 to T5). When a comparison between groups (for example GD vs. G7) is presented, it refers to the significant differences between the denoted groups in the marked time points.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Maximal aerobic power percentage change after 12 weeks of systematic training (T1 to T2), 12 weeks of reduced frequency training (T2 to T4), and after 12 weeks of detraining (T4 to T5) for G7, G14, GD, and GC groups. Small letters denote statistically significant differences in the marked group separately (where G7 = 1 training session every 7 days, G14 = 1 training session every 14 days, and GD = exercise cessation) between time periods (T1 to T2, T2 to T4, and T4 to T5). When a comparison between groups (for example GD vs. G7) is presented, it refers to the significant differences between the denoted groups in the marked time points.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Quadriceps CSA percentage change after 12 weeks of systematic training (T1 to T2), 12 weeks of reduced frequency training (T2 to T4), and after 12 weeks of detraining (T4 to T5) for G7, G14, GD, and GC groups. Small letters denote statistically significant differences in the marked group separately (where G7 = 1 training session every 7 days, G14 = 1 training session every 14 days, and GD = exercise cessation) between time periods (T1 to T2, T2 to T4, and T4 to T5). When a comparison between groups (for example GD vs. G7) is presented, it refers to the significant differences between the denoted groups in the marked time points.</p> Full article ">
Open AccessArticle
Comparing the Anthropometrics, Body Composition, and Strength Performance of Male and Female Italian Breaking Athletes: A Pilot Study
by
Bruno Ruscello, Gabriele Morganti, Antonio De Fano, Flavio Mancina, Laura Lunetta, Giuseppe Di Mauro, Claudio Cogoni, Edilio Pagano, Nicolò Marco Brigati, Andrea Di Castro, Antonio Gianfelici, Raffaella Spada, Elvira Padua and Chiara Ragona
Sports 2024, 12(7), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12070197 - 22 Jul 2024
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Breaking is a performative art that has recently undergone a process of sportification, developing into an aesthetic sport included in the 2024 Paris Olympic Games. Despite its growing worldwide popularity, there is a lack of research on Breaking. Accordingly, this pilot study’s aim
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Breaking is a performative art that has recently undergone a process of sportification, developing into an aesthetic sport included in the 2024 Paris Olympic Games. Despite its growing worldwide popularity, there is a lack of research on Breaking. Accordingly, this pilot study’s aim was twofold: (a) to provide an initial understanding of the anthropometric measures, body composition data, somatotype profiles, and strength performance of male (B-boys) and female (B-girls) Italian Breakers divided into elite (international) and sub-elite (national) levels and (b) to guide further research on the area, providing the methodological approach for future investigations. A total of 24 B-boys (elite n = 5; sub-elite n = 19) and 9 B-girls (elite n = 3; sub-elite n = 6) were included in this study. Descriptive analyses revealed that B-boys and B-girls displayed low height and weight (1.70 m (63.8 kg) and 1.58 m (54.2 kg), respectively), low levels of body fat percentages (10.3% and 17.6%, respectively), and a balanced mesomorph somatotype (2.28–4.64–2.69 and 2.34–5.16–2.38, respectively), revealing a marked development of muscular mass. Due to the small sample size, Welch’s test and correlation analyses did not report any elite vs. sub-elite difference. It was hypothesized that Breakers’ morphological profiles result from the selection procedures and training regimens related to Breaking aesthetic, athletic, and physiological demands.
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