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Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment
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Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 June 2024) | Viewed by 16971

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Rendi Kurniawan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Korea
Interests: manufacturing; metal-cutting; surface-texturing; vibration-assisted cutting; machine-tools; ultrasonic-transducer; optimization; tribology
Dr. Hongchao Ji

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Mechanical Engineering, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan 063210, China; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310030, China
Interests: metal plastic processing theory; technology and equipment; modeling and simulation of the whole process of plastic forming multi-field coupling; lightweight forming manufacturing technology of auto parts; carbon fiber material forming process and equipment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Ireneusz Szachogluchowicz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Military University of Technology, 2 gen. S.Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: mechanical properties; welding; additive manufacturing; composite; laminate; explosive bonding; ballistic resistance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Marek Matejka

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Guest Editor Assistant
Department of Technological Engineering, University of Zilina, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovak
Interests: casting technology; aluminum alloy recycling; microstructure and properties of aluminum alloys; mechanical and casting properties of aluminum alloys; high pressure casting; heat treatment of aluminum alloys; computer simulation of the casting process

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to invite you to publish original work, research articles, review articles, and short memos relating to  “Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming, and Heat Treatment”. The focus of the contributed papers may be either on metal-cutting processing, casting, forming, and heat treatment which are relevant to practical analysis or industrial applications, such as experimental, numerical, optimization, or mathematical approaches. A hybrid approach analysis is encouraged.

In this Special Issue, articles regarding innovation in metal cutting, casting, forming, and heat treatment with various engineering materials are sought, especially those focused on micro-structure evolution, phase structure, changes in mechanical properties, and residual stress, to inform readers about recent research development activities and the latest ongoing research, or the current state of the art. Therefore, original works and unpublished materials which are concerned with the following subjects are requested:

  • Advances in traditional metal cutting (turning, milling, drilling, and boring), non-traditional cutting, hybrid cutting, vibration cutting, non-metallic cutting, and composite cutting.
  • Metallic/nonmetallic materials used in forming processes such as sheet metal forming, powder forming, bulk-forming, micro-forming, plastic deformation due to forming, tribology in the forming process, and innovative forming technology, such as incremental forming, laser forming, and hydroforming.
  • Casting technology, novel molding technology, moldless casting, casting formation, lost foam casting, molding technique, and iced casting forming.
  • Heat treatment (annealing, induction heating, surface hardening, quenching, etc.), laser/electron beams heat treatment, plasma treatment, surface treatment, surface characterization, and digitalized heat treatment, including online monitoring.
  • Rolling, shot peening (shot peening, blast peening, pressure peening, etc.), forging and joining or welding technology.

Dr. Rendi Kurniawan
Dr. Hongchao Ji
Dr. Ireneusz Szachogluchowicz
Guest Editors

Dr. Marek Matejka
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • metal cutting
  • non-traditional cutting
  • composite cutting
  • metal forming
  • micro-forming
  • casting
  • molding technology
  • heat treatment
  • surface characterization
  • microstructure
  • innovative forming technology
  • molding technique
  • mechanical peening
  • pressure peening

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  • External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 11233 KiB  
Article
Enhancing High-Alloy Steel Cutting with Abrasive Water Injection Jet (AWIJ) Technology: An Approach Using the Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
by Andrzej Perec, Elzbieta Kawecka and Frank Pude
Materials 2024, 17(16), 4020; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164020 - 13 Aug 2024
Viewed by 252
Abstract
The common machining technologies for difficult-to-machine materials do not remarkably ensure acceptable efficiency and precision in bulk materials cutting. High-energy abrasive water injection jet (AWIJ) treatment can cut diverse materials, even multi-layer composites characterized by divergent properties, accurately cutting complex profiles and carrying [...] Read more.
The common machining technologies for difficult-to-machine materials do not remarkably ensure acceptable efficiency and precision in bulk materials cutting. High-energy abrasive water injection jet (AWIJ) treatment can cut diverse materials, even multi-layer composites characterized by divergent properties, accurately cutting complex profiles and carrying them out in special circumstances, such as underwater locations or explosion hazard areas. This work reports research on the AWIJ machining quality performance of X22CrMoV12-1 high-alloy steel. The response surface method (RSM) was utilized in modeling. The most influencing process control parameters on cut kerf surface roughness—abrasive flow rate, pressure, and traverse speed—were tested. The result is a mathematical model of the process in the form of a three-variable polynomial. The key control parameter affecting the cut slot roughness turned out to be the traverse speed. In contrast, pressure has a less significant effect, and the abrasive mass flow rate has the slightest impact on the cut slot roughness. Under the optimal conditions determined as a result of the tests, the roughness of the intersection surface Sq does not exceed 2.3 μm. Based on the ANOVA, we confirmed that the model fits over 96% appropriately with the research outcomes. This method reduces the computations and sharply determines the optimum set of control parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>J80A garnet: (<b>a</b>) grain SEM image, (<b>b</b>) light microscope image, (<b>c</b>) particle distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Measurements and observation areas on (<b>a</b>) optical microscope, (<b>b</b>) SEM microscope.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Illustration of the <span class="html-italic">Sq</span> surface roughness factor.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Impact of control factors on <span class="html-italic">Sq</span> surface roughness: (<b>a</b>) traverse speed 50 mm/min, (<b>b</b>) traverse speed 150 mm/min, (<b>c</b>) traverse speed 250 mm/min, (<b>d</b>) pressure 360 MPa, (<b>e</b>) pressure 380 MPa, (<b>f</b>) pressure 400 MPa, (<b>g</b>) abrasive flow 250 g/min, (<b>h</b>) abrasive flow 350 g/min, (<b>i</b>) abrasive flow 450 g/min.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Scattering graph of the modeled and measured <span class="html-italic">Sq</span> surface roughness.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Example view of cut surface roughness of high-alloy steel: (<b>a</b>) top area I, (<b>b</b>) middle area II, (<b>c</b>) bottom area III.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 5953 KiB  
Article
Optimization Design of Quenching and Tempering Parameters for Crankshaft Based on Response Surface Methodology
by Yongkang Wang, Jie Tang, Jianzhi Chen, Zhibin Nie and De Zhao
Materials 2024, 17(15), 3643; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17153643 - 24 Jul 2024
Viewed by 319
Abstract
Existing optimization research on the crankshaft heat treatment process is mostly based on one-sided considerations, and less consideration is given to the matching of multiple process parameters, leading to irrational designs of heat treatment. To address this problem, this work investigates the influence [...] Read more.
Existing optimization research on the crankshaft heat treatment process is mostly based on one-sided considerations, and less consideration is given to the matching of multiple process parameters, leading to irrational designs of heat treatment. To address this problem, this work investigates the influence mechanisms of cooling speed, tempering temperature, and holding time on the performance evaluation indexes of the straightness, residual stress, and martensite content of a crankshaft based on the response surface method. The results showed that the order of influence of these three different process parameters on the performance evaluation index was cooling speed > holding time > tempering temperature, and the order of influence on the performance evaluation indexes under multifactorial process parameters was cooling speed–holding time > cooling speed–tempering temperature > holding time–tempering temperature. The optimal process parameters were a cooling speed of 1.4 times the cooling oil, a tempering temperature of 555 °C, and a holding time of 6 h, with the straightness of the crankshaft reduced by 9.9%, the surface stress increased by 6.7%, and the martensitic content increased by 7.2% after the process optimization. This work can provide new clues for optimizing the heat treatment process parameters of crankshafts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Quenching and tempering heat treatment route of the crankshaft.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic diagrams of the specimens for metallographic characterization and residual stress detection, (<b>b</b>) experimental photo of the metallographic characterization, and (<b>c</b>) experimental photo of the residual stress detection.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Simulated cloud maps of (<b>a</b>) residual stress, (<b>b</b>) residual strain, and (<b>c</b>) martensite content of the crankshaft after the quenching and tempering heat treatment.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Crankshaft straightness deviation measurement chart.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Schematic diagram of radial runout measurement.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Microstructure in the fillet area of the crankshaft and (<b>b</b>) relationship between <span class="html-italic">d</span> and sin<sup>2</sup><span class="html-italic">ψ</span>.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Residual normal distribution diagram. (<b>a</b>) Crankshaft straightness model residual normal distribution. (<b>b</b>) Surface stress model residual normal distribution. (<b>c</b>) Martensite content model residual normal distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Response surface and contour plot of tempering temperature and holding time to crankshaft straightness. (<b>a</b>) Cooling oil with a cooling speed of 1 times. (<b>b</b>) Cooling oil with a cooling speed of 1.2 times. (<b>c</b>) Cooling oil with a cooling speed of 1.4 times.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Response surface and contour plot of cooling speed and holding time to crankshaft straightness. (<b>a</b>) Tempering temperature of 500 °C. (<b>b</b>) Tempering temperature of 550 °C. (<b>c</b>) Tempering temperature of 600 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Response surfaces and contour plots of cooling speed and tempering temperature to crankshaft straightness. (<b>a</b>) Holding time of 4 h. (<b>b</b>) Holding time of 5 h. (<b>c</b>) Holding time of 6 h.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Comparison of solution optimization results.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 5778 KiB  
Article
Optimizing the Heat Treatment Method to Improve the Aging Response of Al-Fe-Ni-Sc-Zr Alloys
by Mingliang Wang, Zeyu Bian, Ailin Zhu, Yulong Cai, Dongdong Zhang, Yanlai Wu, Shuai Cui, Dong Chen and Haowei Wang
Materials 2024, 17(8), 1772; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081772 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 835
Abstract
This work has studied the co-addition of Sc and Zr elements into the Al-1.75wt%Fe-1.25wt%Ni eutectic alloy. The changes in the microstructure, electrical conductivity, and Vickers hardness of the Al-1.75wt%Fe-1.25wt%Ni-0.2wt%Sc-0.2wt%Zr alloy during heat treatment were studied. The results showed that two-step aging can effectively [...] Read more.
This work has studied the co-addition of Sc and Zr elements into the Al-1.75wt%Fe-1.25wt%Ni eutectic alloy. The changes in the microstructure, electrical conductivity, and Vickers hardness of the Al-1.75wt%Fe-1.25wt%Ni-0.2wt%Sc-0.2wt%Zr alloy during heat treatment were studied. The results showed that two-step aging can effectively improve the aging response of the alloy over the single-step aging method. This was ascribed to the minimization of the diffusion difference between Sc and Zr elements. Furthermore, the homogenization treatment can also improve the aging response of the alloy by alleviating the uneven distribution of Sc and Zr. Nevertheless, the micro-alloyed elements exceeded the solid solubility limit in the Al-1.75wt%Fe-1.25wt%Ni-0.2wt%Sc-0.2wt%Zr alloy, and their strengthening effect has ever achieved the best prospect. Finally, both Sc and Zr contents were reduced simultaneously, and the aging response of the Al-1.75wt%Fe-1.25wt%Ni-0.15wt%Sc-0.1wt%Zr alloy was improved by optimized heat treatment. The underlying mechanisms for this alloy design and the corresponding microstructure–mechanical property relationship were analytically discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Microstructure features of the studied alloys including macro-grain structures: (<b>a</b>) AlFeNi; (<b>b</b>) AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr. (<b>c</b>) XRD patterns of both alloys. Microstructures of as-cast alloys: (<b>d</b>) AlFeNi; (<b>e</b>) AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr. (<b>f</b>) Both Sc and Zr contents detected by EDX at different positions in as-cast AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Variation of (<b>a</b>) Vickers hardness and (<b>b</b>) electrical conductivity during single-step aging at 300 °C, 350 °C, and 400 °C for AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Evolution of (<b>a</b>) Vickers hardness and (<b>b</b>) electrical conductivity during the second-step aging treatment (isothermal aging at 400 °C previously aged 0.5 h, 1 h, and 2 h at 300 °C) for as-cast AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>XRD patterns of AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloys with different heat treatment.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Evolution of (<b>a</b>) Vickers hardness and (<b>b</b>) electrical conductivity of experiment alloys during homogenization treatment at 640 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>As-homogenized AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy: (<b>a</b>) microstructures; (<b>b</b>) both Sc and Zr contents detected by EDX at different positions. Both Sc and Zr contents detected by EDX at different positions in as-homogenized AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>EBSD patterns of AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy in (<b>a</b>) as-cast and (<b>b</b>) as-homogenized states. Microstructure of as-homogenized AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy: (<b>c</b>,<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) are primary Al, eutectic phase, and EPFA, respectively; (<b>d</b>) is the enlarged view of the yellow rectangle region in (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>EDX analysis of precipitation in the AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy after 12 h homogenization at 640 °C: (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) are obtained in primary Al; (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>) are obtained around the eutectic phase. (The scale bars are all 1 μm).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Evolution of (<b>a</b>) Vickers hardness and (<b>b</b>) electrical conductivity of as-homogenized AlFeNi-0.2Sc-0.2Zr alloy during aging.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>(<b>a</b>) Electrical Conductivity changes in three alloys in the process of homogenization; (<b>b</b>) peak-aged hardness increment of as-cast and as-homogenized alloys.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 23770 KiB  
Article
Effect of Vanadium Addition on Solidification Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al–4Ni Alloy
by Xu Chen, Ji Chen, Weiguo Xi, Qizhou Cai, Jingfan Cheng and Wenming Jiang
Materials 2024, 17(2), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020332 - 9 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 956
Abstract
The effects of vanadium addition on the solidification microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–4Ni alloy were investigated via thermodynamic computation, thermal analysis, microstructural observations, and mechanical properties testing. The results show that the nucleation temperature of primary α-Al increased with increased vanadium addition. [...] Read more.
The effects of vanadium addition on the solidification microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–4Ni alloy were investigated via thermodynamic computation, thermal analysis, microstructural observations, and mechanical properties testing. The results show that the nucleation temperature of primary α-Al increased with increased vanadium addition. A transition from columnar to equiaxed growth took place when adding vanadium to Al–4Ni alloys, and the average grain size of primary α-Al was reduced from 1105 μm to 252 μm. When the vanadium addition was 0.2 wt%, the eutectic nucleation temperature increased from 636.2 °C for the Al–4Ni alloy to 640.5 °C, and the eutectic solidification time decreased from 310 s to 282 s. The average diameter of the eutectic Al3Ni phases in the Al–4Ni–0.2V alloy reduced to 0.14 μm from 0.26 μm for the Al–4Ni alloy. As the vanadium additions exceeded 0.2 wt%, the eutectic nucleation temperature had no obvious change and the eutectic solidification time increased. The eutectic Al3Ni phases began to coarsen, and the number of lamellar eutectic boundaries increased. The mechanical properties of Al–4Ni alloys gradually increased with vanadium addition (0–0.4 wt%). The Al–4Ni–0.4V alloy obtained the maximum tensile strength and elongation values, which were 136.4 MPa and 23.5%, respectively. As the vanadium addition exceeded 0.4 wt%, the strength and elongation decreased, while the hardness continued to increase. Fracture in the Al–4Ni–0.4V alloy exhibited ductile fracture, while fracture in the Al–4Ni–0.6V alloy was composed of dimples, tear edges, and cleavage planes, demonstrating mixed ductile–brittle fracture. The cleavage planes were caused by the primary Al10V and coarse Al3Ni phases at the boundary of eutectic cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Microstructure and phase composition of the master alloys: (<b>a</b>) Al–10Ni, (<b>b</b>) Al–5V, (<b>c</b>) XRD of Al–5V.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic drawing of (<b>a</b>) permanent mold and sampling positions, (<b>b</b>) thermal analysis cup, (<b>c</b>) tensile sample (in mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Al–4Ni–(0–1)V phase diagram simulated by Thermo-Calc: (<b>a</b>) Al–4Ni–(0–1)V, (<b>b</b>) 0–0.3 wt% V local diagram, (<b>c</b>) 0.3–1 wt% V local diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Cooling curves of Al–4Ni–xV alloys.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Cooling curves of Al–4Ni alloy and differential transformations.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>XRD patterns of Al–4Ni–<span class="html-italic">x</span>V alloys.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Macrostructures of Al–4Ni alloys with different vanadium additions: (<b>a</b>) 0 wt%, (<b>b</b>) 0.1 wt%, (<b>c</b>) 0.2 wt%, (<b>d</b>) 0.3 wt%, (<b>e</b>) 0.4 wt%, (<b>f</b>) 0.6 wt%.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Morphologies of the primary α-Al in Al–4Ni–<span class="html-italic">x</span>V alloys. (<b>a</b>) 0 wt%, (<b>b</b>) 0.1 wt%, (<b>c</b>) 0.2 wt%, (<b>d</b>) 0.3 wt%, (<b>e</b>) 0.4 wt%, (<b>f</b>) 0.6 wt%, (<b>g</b>) rectangular area in (<b>e</b>), (<b>h</b>) rectangular area in (<b>f</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Average grain sizes of Al–4Ni alloys with different vanadium additions.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Al<sub>10</sub>V particle in Al–4Ni–0.6V alloy: (<b>a</b>) particle morphology; (<b>b</b>) EDS analysis of point 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Eutectic morphologies of Al–4Ni alloys with different vanadium additions: (<b>a</b>) 0 wt%, (<b>b</b>) 0.1 wt%, (<b>c</b>) 0.2 wt%, (<b>d</b>) 0.3 wt%, (<b>e</b>) 0.4 wt%, (<b>f</b>) 0.6 wt%.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Three-dimensional morphologies of Al<sub>3</sub>Ni phases with different vanadium additions: (<b>a</b>) 0 wt%; (<b>b</b>) 0.2 wt%; (<b>c</b>) 0.4 wt%; (<b>d</b>) 0.6 wt%.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The Al<sub>3</sub>Ni phases at the boundary of eutectic cells in Al–4Ni–0.2V and Al–4Ni–0.6V alloy: (<b>a</b>) Al–4Ni–0.2V, (<b>b</b>) Al–4Ni–0.6V.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Mechanical properties of Al–4Ni–<span class="html-italic">x</span>V: (<b>a</b>) stress–strain curves, (<b>b</b>) tensile strength and elongation, (<b>c</b>) microhardness.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Fracture morphologies of Al–4Ni–<span class="html-italic">x</span>V alloys: (<b>a</b>) Al–4Ni, (<b>b</b>) Al–4Ni–0.4V, (<b>c</b>) Al–4Ni–0.6V, (<b>d</b>) inside of Al–4Ni–0.4V dimples.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 16169 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Study of Al2219 Powders Deposition on Al2219-T6 Substrate by Cold Spray: Effects of Spray Angle, Traverse Speed, and Standoff Distance
by Zheng Zhang, Tzee Luai Meng, Coryl Jing Jun Lee, Fengxia Wei, Te Ba, Zhi-Qian Zhang and Jisheng Pan
Materials 2023, 16(15), 5240; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155240 - 26 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1044
Abstract
Cold spray (CS) is an emerging technology for repairing and 3D additive manufacturing of a variety of metallic components using deformable metal powders. In CS deposition, gas type, gas pressure, gas temperature, and powder feed rate are the four key process parameters that [...] Read more.
Cold spray (CS) is an emerging technology for repairing and 3D additive manufacturing of a variety of metallic components using deformable metal powders. In CS deposition, gas type, gas pressure, gas temperature, and powder feed rate are the four key process parameters that have been intensively studied. Spray angle, spray gun traverse speed, and standoff distance (SoD) are the other three process parameters that have been less investigated but are also important, especially when depositing on uneven substrates or building up 3D freeform structures. Herein, the effects of spray angle, traverse speed, and SoD during CS deposition have been investigated holistically on a single material system (i.e., Al2219 powders on Al2219-T6 substrate). The coatings’ mass gain, thickness, porosity, and residual stress have been characterized, and the results show that spray angle and traverse speed exercise much more effects than SoD in determining coatings’ buildup. Finite element method (FEM) modeling and computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation have been carried out to understand the effects of these three parameters for implementing CS as repairing and additive manufacturing using aluminum-based alloy powders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Picture of three stainless steel fixtures with seven tilting angles from 90° to 30°. There were 3 cm and 6 cm thick aluminum spacers below the second fixture (F2) and the third fixture (F3), respectively. (<b>b</b>) Picture of 21 pieces of Al2219-T6 coupons clamped in the three fixtures after spraying five passes at a traverse speed of 500 mm/s. The bottoms of three fixtures were aligned while there was about 4 cm gap between each fixture.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) SEM surface morphology as-received Al2219 powders. (<b>b</b>) Powder size distribution (PSD) after sonification in deionized water. (<b>c</b>) SEM image of the cross-section of the Al2219 powder and EDS elemental mapping of copper (Cu) and aluminum (Al) among the powder. (<b>d</b>) XRD analysis of Al2219 powders with Rietveld phase analysis results. (<b>e</b>) Inverse pole figure in z direction of Al2219 powders with inset at the top right corner showing phase map of one single powder with 0.2 µm step size. The scale bars in (<b>c</b>,<b>e</b>) represent 25 µm. (<b>f</b>) Hardness and Young’s modulus profiles vs. displacement depth into surface probed from the cross-section of Al2219 powder.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Pictures of two sets of Al2219 coupons deposited using (<b>a</b>) T1F3 and (<b>b</b>) T3F1 combination of parameters. Each set had seven coupons representing seven spray angles from 90 (far left) to 30° (far right). The respective contours of deposits measured by surface profilers are shown in (<b>a′</b>) and (<b>b′</b>), respectively. The dotted box in (<b>a</b>) represents a small piece cut from each coupon for subsequent tests.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>SEM surface morphology of the seven deposits in (<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>) T1F3 set and (<b>a′</b>–<b>g′</b>) T3F1 set, with each of them representing a spray angle from 90 (far left) to 30° (far right). The scale bar in each figure represents 40 μm.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Optical microscope images of the cross-sections from the seven deposits in (<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>) T1F3 set and (<b>a′</b>–<b>g′</b>) T3F1 set of Al2219 deposits. Each picture represents a spray angle from 90 (far left) to 30° (far right). The scale bar in each figure corresponds to 50 μm. The occasional cracks between the coating and substrate serve as an indication of the interface.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SEM images of the cross-sections from the five deposits representing a spray angle from 90 (far left) to 50° (far right) in (<b>a</b>–<b>e</b>) T1F3 set and (<b>a′</b>–<b>e′</b>) T3F1 set of Al2219 deposits. The scale bar in each figure represents 30 μm, and their lengths differ due to the different magnifications of each image. The images from 40 and 30° were similar to those at 50° and hence were not shown here. The blue arrows represent the Al2219-T9 substrate.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) SEM images overlay with phase maps and (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) inverse pole figures (IPF) in z-direction from electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) analysis of the cross-section of Al2219 deposits sprayed at (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) 90 and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) 70° spray angle in T1F3 set of samples. The white dotted boxes in (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) represented the areas for EBSD analysis in (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) with a step size of 0.1 µm. The scale bars in the four images represent 50 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Mass change, (<b>b</b>) coating thickness, (<b>c</b>) coating porosity, (<b>d</b>) residual stress of nine sets of Al2219 deposits along spray directions with respect to nine spray angles at the combination of three traverse speeds and three standoff distances. Only 15 Al2219 deposits with continuous coatings were selected to measure their thickness in (<b>b</b>) and porosity in (<b>c</b>). In (<b>d</b>), solid symbols represent continuous deposits, while open symbols represent scattered Al2219 deposits or shot-peened Al2219-T6 substrates. (<b>e</b>) shows the schematic decomposition of a powder’s velocity (ν) when it hits the substrate at an angle θ with respect to the surface plane.</p> Full article ">Figure 8 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>) Mass change, (<b>b</b>) coating thickness, (<b>c</b>) coating porosity, (<b>d</b>) residual stress of nine sets of Al2219 deposits along spray directions with respect to nine spray angles at the combination of three traverse speeds and three standoff distances. Only 15 Al2219 deposits with continuous coatings were selected to measure their thickness in (<b>b</b>) and porosity in (<b>c</b>). In (<b>d</b>), solid symbols represent continuous deposits, while open symbols represent scattered Al2219 deposits or shot-peened Al2219-T6 substrates. (<b>e</b>) shows the schematic decomposition of a powder’s velocity (ν) when it hits the substrate at an angle θ with respect to the surface plane.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>FEM simulation of single Al2219 powder’s velocity profile (in m/s) after impacting on Al2219-T6 substrate at an angle from 70 to 65, 60, 55, 50, and 45°.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of multiple particle FEM computational model used for estimation of residual stresses in CS coating. (<b>b</b>) Simulation results of equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) and von Mises stress after the deposition in 90° impact angle. (<b>c</b>) Simulation results of averaged in-plane residual stresses distribution (along spray direction) through the Al2219 coating thickness direction after the Al2219 coatings were deposited on Al2219-T6 substrate at four different spray angles. (<b>d</b>) Comparison of averaged residual stress results from (<b>c</b>) with reference experimental data based on <a href="#materials-16-05240-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>d by X-ray stress measurement.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>CFD simulation of Al2219 powders’ spatial distribution on Al2219-T6 substrate at 3 cm standoff distance with impact angles from 90 to 30°.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>CFD simulation about the effects of three traverse speeds (500, 350, and 200 mm/s represented by blue, red and black dots, respectively) on powder spatial distribution at a SoD of 3 cm.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>CFD simulation about the spot dimension (left vertical axis) and velocity distribution (right vertical axis) at three stand-off distances (SoD) of (<b>a</b>) 3, (<b>b</b>) 6, and (<b>c</b>) 9 cm.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 3973 KiB  
Article
Effect of Temperature and Load on Tribological Behavior in Laser-Cladded FeCrSiNiCoC Coatings
by Haiyang Long, Wei Hao, Rucheng Ma, Yongliang Gui, Chunyan Song, Tieyu Qin and Xuefeng Zhang
Materials 2023, 16(8), 3263; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083263 - 21 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1240
Abstract
The FeCrSiNiCoC coatings with fine macroscopic morphology and uniform microstructure were made on 1Cr11Ni heat resistant steel substrate by a laser-based cladding technique. The coating consists of dendritic γ-Fe and eutectic Fe-Cr intermetallic with an average microhardness of 467 HV0.5 ± 22.6 [...] Read more.
The FeCrSiNiCoC coatings with fine macroscopic morphology and uniform microstructure were made on 1Cr11Ni heat resistant steel substrate by a laser-based cladding technique. The coating consists of dendritic γ-Fe and eutectic Fe-Cr intermetallic with an average microhardness of 467 HV0.5 ± 22.6 HV0.5. At the load of 200 N, the average friction coefficient of the coating dropped as temperature increased, while the wear rate decreased and then increased. The wear mechanism of the coating changed from abrasive wear, adhesive wear and oxidative wear to oxidative wear and three-body wear. Apart from an elevation in wear rate with increasing load, the mean friction coefficient of the coating hardly changed at 500 °C. Due to the coating’s transition from adhesive wear and oxidative wear to three-body wear and abrasive wear, the underlying wear mechanism also shifted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>FeCrSiNiCoC mixed powder: (<b>a</b>) SEM morphology and EDS; (<b>b</b>) particle size distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Laser cladded sample (<b>a</b>), FeCrSiNiCoC coating and substrate cross section morphology (<b>b</b>), and longitudinal element distribution (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>XRD spectrum of the FeCrSiNiCoC coating at different temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Microstructure of the FeCrSiNiCoC coatings at 50 °C: (<b>a</b>) low magnification and (<b>b</b>) high magnification SEM image; (<b>c</b>) EDS mapping.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Microhardness distribution diagram from the top of the FeCrSiNiCoC coatings to the 1Cr11Ni heat resistant steel substrate.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Different temperatures under 200 N: (<b>a</b>) surface of FeCrSiNiCoC samples after wear test; (<b>b</b>) measurements of typical wear surface morphology using sample wear track sections; (<b>c</b>) COF distance curves of samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Different loads under 500 °C: (<b>a</b>) surface of FeCrSiNiCoC samples after wear test; (<b>b</b>) measurements of typical wear surface morphology using sample wear-track sections; and (<b>c</b>) COF distance curves of samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Worn surface morphologies of FeCrSiNiCoC coating at (<b>a</b>) 50 °C, (<b>b</b>) 300 °C, (<b>c</b>) 500 °C, and (<b>d</b>) 700 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Worn surface morphologies of FeCrSiNiCoC coating at (<b>a</b>) 100 N, (<b>b</b>) 200 N, (<b>c</b>) 300 N, and (<b>d</b>) 400 N.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 17293 KiB  
Article
Development of Preliminary Precision Forging Technology and Concept for Tools Used to Reforge 60E1A6 Profile Needle Rails with the Use of Numerical and Physical Modeling
by Marek Hawryluk, Piotr Cygan, Jakub Krawczyk, Artur Barełkowski, Jacek Ziemba, Filip Lewandowski and Igor Wieczorek
Materials 2023, 16(5), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16052103 - 5 Mar 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1786
Abstract
This study examines the possibilities of applying numerical and physical modeling to the elaboration of technology and design of tools used in the hot forging of needle rails for railroad turnouts. First, a numerical model of a three-stage process for forging a needle [...] Read more.
This study examines the possibilities of applying numerical and physical modeling to the elaboration of technology and design of tools used in the hot forging of needle rails for railroad turnouts. First, a numerical model of a three-stage process for forging a needle from lead was built in order to develop a proper geometry of the tools’ working impressions for physical modeling. Based on preliminary results of the force parameters, a decision was made to verify the numerical modeling at 1:4 scale due to forging force values as well as agreement of the numerical and physical modeling results, which was confirmed by the similar courses of forging forces and a comparison of the 3D scan image of the forged lead rail with the CAD model obtained from FEM. The final stage of our research was modeling an industrial forging process in order to determine the preliminary assumptions of this newly developed method of precision forging using a hydraulic press as well as preparing tools to reforge a needle rail from the target material, i.e., 350HT steel with a 60E1A6 profile to the 60E1 profile used in railroad turnouts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>View of (<b>a</b>) a fragment of a railroad turnout with the marked needle rails subjected to forging, (<b>b</b>) a CAD model with the marked surfaces of the cross section necessary for the mechanical treatment, and (<b>c</b>) an image of a mechanically treated reforged needle rail as a result of the previous underdeveloped die forging technologies.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>View of: (<b>a</b>) a set of samples for compression tests, (<b>b</b>) an image of the test station, (<b>c</b>) the flow curves for Pb.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Final versions of CAD models of tools used to reforge needle rails from Pb at 1:4 scale: (<b>a</b>) for operation I, (<b>b</b>) for operation II, (<b>c</b>) for operation III.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>View of: (<b>a</b>) the forging force courses for the particular operations, (<b>b</b>) the forging defects in the form of underfills on the foot and the head of the reforged rail.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Results of contact for forging: (<b>a</b>) after operation I, (<b>b</b>) after operation II, blue colour means full contact between forming material and tool.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Results of the FEM simulation: (<b>a</b>) contact for forging after III, the final forging operation, (<b>b</b>) the mean deformation rate.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Simulation results—plastic deformation distributions: (<b>a</b>) after forging operation I, (<b>b</b>) after forging operation II, (<b>c</b>) after forging operation III.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Selection of the model material Pb for R350HT steel: (<b>a</b>) the flow curves for R350HT steel, (<b>b</b>) a comparison of the flow curves for selected dominating deformation conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Images of: (<b>a</b>) the mold for casting a 60E1A6 needle rail from lead at ¼ scale, (<b>b</b>) a poor-quality needle rail surface after casting, (<b>c</b>) the mold with fixed spacers increasing the forging bay’s volume, (<b>d</b>) the rail after preliminary forming.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Images of: (<b>a</b>) the physical modeling station, (<b>b</b>) the lower tools for three operations of reforging a lead rail, (<b>c</b>) the formed rails placed in the lower dies.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Results: (<b>a</b>) a photograph of the lead rail after the last forming operation, (<b>b</b>) a comparison of the shape and dimensions from FEM with the experiment, with a map of deviations (green color is best fit).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Comparison of the forging forces for each of the 3 operations of physical modeling with the FEM results: (<b>a</b>) operation I, (<b>b</b>) operation II, (<b>c</b>) operation III.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>View of: (<b>a</b>) a screen from the program with the Spittel equation and the determined coefficients, (<b>b</b>) the CAD model of the particular tools fixed in the anvils, (<b>c</b>) a photo of the lower holder for reforging needle rails before modernization.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>General view of the numerical model before and after: (<b>a</b>) operation I of reforging a 60E1A6 rail, (<b>b</b>) operation II, (<b>c</b>) forging operation III.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Contact distribution after: (<b>a</b>) operation I, (<b>b</b>) operation II, (<b>c</b>) operation III (top view), (<b>d</b>) operation III (bottom view); the contact area is marked in dark blue.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Deformation intensity distribution after the consecutive forging operations: (<b>a</b>) after operation I, (<b>b</b>) after operation II, (<b>c</b>) after operation III.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The temperature distribution after the consecutive forging operations: (<b>a</b>) after operation I, (<b>b</b>) after operation II, (<b>c</b>) after operation III; the lower results are for the cross sections of the reforged rails.</p> Full article ">Figure 17 Cont.
<p>The temperature distribution after the consecutive forging operations: (<b>a</b>) after operation I, (<b>b</b>) after operation II, (<b>c</b>) after operation III; the lower results are for the cross sections of the reforged rails.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Distribution of deviations of the shape calculated from FEM from the nominal shape and dimensions from the CAD model.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Courses of forging forces in operations I, II and II of forming a 60E1A6 rail.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Photos of: (<b>a</b>) selected tools used to forge a 60E1A6 profile, (<b>b</b>) the hydraulic press of 5000 tons pressure.</p> Full article ">
10 pages, 3321 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Micro-Ball Sockets in C17200 Beryllium Copper Alloy by Micro-Electrical Discharge Machining Milling
by Shuliang Dong, Hongchao Ji, Jian Zhou, Xianzhun Li, Lan Ding and Zhenlong Wang
Materials 2023, 16(1), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010323 - 29 Dec 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1200
Abstract
Micro-liquid floated gyroscopes are widely used in nuclear submarines, intercontinental missiles, and strategic bombers. The machining accuracy of micro-ball sockets determined the motion accuracy of the rotor. However, it was not easily fabricated by micro-cutting because of the excellent physical and chemical properties [...] Read more.
Micro-liquid floated gyroscopes are widely used in nuclear submarines, intercontinental missiles, and strategic bombers. The machining accuracy of micro-ball sockets determined the motion accuracy of the rotor. However, it was not easily fabricated by micro-cutting because of the excellent physical and chemical properties of beryllium copper alloy. Here, we presented a linear compensation of tool electrode and a proportional variable thickness method for milling micro-ball sockets in C17200 beryllium copper alloy by micro-electrical discharge machining. The machining parameters were systematically investigated and optimized to achieve high-precision micro-ball sockets when the k value was 0.98 and the initial layer thickness was 0.024 mm. Our method provided a new way to fabricate micro-ball sockets in C17200 with high efficiency for micro-liquid floated gyroscopes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>Micro-ball socket milled by micro-EDM. (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of micro-ball socket milled by micro-EDM (<b>b</b>) Schematic diagram of electrode linear compensation.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram of changing thickness proportionally.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Photograph of experimental set-up.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The error of milling with different layered strategies (<b>a</b>) constant thickness, (<b>b</b>) proportional variable thickness.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Simulation of the errors with different initial layer thicknesses. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.020 mm; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.024 mm; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.030 mm; (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.040 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Machining time of ball sockets under different initial layer thicknesses.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Morphology of ball sockets under different initial layer thicknesses. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.020 mm; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.024 mm; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.030 mm; (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.040 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Section and partial enlargement of ball socket under different initial layer thicknesses. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.020 mm; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.024 mm; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.030 mm; (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">l</span> = 0.040 mm; (<b>b1</b>,<b>b2</b>) are the local magnification of (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 13649 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties and Fracture Behavior of a TC4 Titanium Alloy Sheet
by Zeling Zhao, Hongchao Ji, Yingzhuo Zhong, Chun Han and Xuefeng Tang
Materials 2022, 15(23), 8589; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238589 - 1 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2519
Abstract
TC4 titanium alloy has excellent comprehensive properties. Due to its light weight, high specific strength, and good corrosion resistance, it is widely used in aerospace, military defense, and other fields. Given that titanium alloy components are often fractured by impact loads during service, [...] Read more.
TC4 titanium alloy has excellent comprehensive properties. Due to its light weight, high specific strength, and good corrosion resistance, it is widely used in aerospace, military defense, and other fields. Given that titanium alloy components are often fractured by impact loads during service, studying the fracture behavior and damage mechanism of TC4 titanium alloy is of great significance. In this study, the Johnson–Cook failure model parameters of TC4 titanium alloy were obtained via tensile tests at room temperature. The mechanical behavior of TC4 titanium alloy during the tensile process was determined by simulating the sheet tensile process with the finite element software ABAQUS. The macroscopic and microscopic morphologies of tensile fracture were analyzed to study the deformation mechanism of the TC4 titanium alloy sheet. The results provide a theoretical basis for predicting the fracture behavior of TC4 titanium alloy under tensile stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>Tensile test specimen (unit/mm in figure).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Universal material testing machine.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Split hopkinson tensile bar (unit/mm in figure).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Smooth sample test data: (<b>a</b>) force–displacement curve; (<b>b</b>) stress–strain curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Dynamic tensile stress–strain curve of the smooth specimen: (<b>a</b>) experimental data; (<b>b</b>) smoothed experimental data.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>True stress–true strain curve of the smooth specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Relationship between experimental data and the Johnson–Cook model under different strain rates.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison of the load–displacement curves of smooth specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Johnson–Cook fracture model fitting curves: (<b>a</b>) fitting parameters <span class="html-italic">D</span><sub>1</sub>–<span class="html-italic">D</span><sub>3</sub>; (<b>b</b>) fitting parameter <span class="html-italic">D</span><sub>4</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>ABAQUS simulation model’s boundary conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Comparison of tensile test and ABAQUS simulation fracture morphology: (<b>a</b>) smooth specimen; (<b>b</b>) notch 1 specimen (R = 2.5 mm); (<b>c</b>) notch 2 specimen (R = 5 mm); (<b>d</b>) notch 3 specimen (R = 10 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Force–displacement curve comparison diagram: (<b>a</b>) smooth specimen; (<b>b</b>) notch 1 specimen (R = 2.5 mm); (<b>c</b>) notch 2 specimen (R = 5 mm); (<b>d</b>) notch 3 specimen (R = 10 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>ABAQUS simulation of crack behavior.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Comparison of stress–strain curves from the test and simulation.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Notch specimen 1 (R = 2.5 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Notch specimen 2 (R = 5 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Notch specimen 3 (R = 10 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Tensile fracture morphology of a smooth specimen: (<b>a</b>) tensile fracture morphology at a test strain rate of 0.001 s<sup>−1</sup>; (<b>b</b>) tensile fracture morphology at a test strain rate of 0.01 s<sup>−1</sup>.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Fracture morphology of smooth specimens at 1000 and 4000 magnification: (<b>a</b>) strain rate 0.001 s<sup>−1</sup>; (<b>b</b>) local magnification; (<b>c</b>) strain rate 0.01 s<sup>−1</sup>; (<b>d</b>) local magnification.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 7078 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimization of Process Parameters in 6016 Aluminum Alloy Hot Stamping Using Taguchi-Grey Relational Analysis
by Binghe Jiang, Jianghua Huang, Hongping Ma, Huijun Zhao and Hongchao Ji
Materials 2022, 15(23), 8350; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238350 - 24 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1619
Abstract
The hot stamping technology of aluminum alloy is of great significance for realizing the light weight of the automobile body, and the proper process parameters are important conditions to obtain excellent aluminum alloy parts. In this paper, the thermal deformation behavior of 6016 [...] Read more.
The hot stamping technology of aluminum alloy is of great significance for realizing the light weight of the automobile body, and the proper process parameters are important conditions to obtain excellent aluminum alloy parts. In this paper, the thermal deformation behavior of 6016 aluminum alloy at a high temperature is experimentally studied to provide a theoretical basis for a finite element model. With the help of blank stamping finite element software, a numerical model of a 6016 aluminum alloy automobile windshield beam during hot stamping was established. The finite element model was verified by a forming experiment. Then, the effect of the process parameters, including blank holder force, die gap, forming temperature, friction coefficient, and stamping speed on aluminum alloy formability were investigated using Taguchi design, grey relational analysis (GRA), and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Stamping tests were arranged at temperatures between 480 and 570 °C, blank holder force between 20 and 50 kN, stamping speed between 50 and 200 mm/s, die gap between 1.05 t and 1.20 t (t is the thickness of the sheet), and friction coefficient between 0.15 and 0.60. It was found that the significant factors affecting the forming quality of the hot-stamped parts were blank holder force and stamping speed, with influence significance of 28.64% and 34.09%, respectively. The optimal parameters for hot stamping of the automobile windshield beam by the above analysis are that the die gap is 1.05 t, the blank temperature is 540 °C, the coefficient of friction is 0.15, stamping speed is 200 mm/s, and blank holder force is 50 kN. The optimized maximum thickening rate is 4.87% and the maximum thinning rate is 9.00%. The optimization method used in this paper and the results of the process parameter optimization provide reference values for the optimization of hot stamping forming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>The shape and size of the sample.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Temperature and deformation processes of the specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The stress–strain curve of 6016 aluminum alloy under different conditions. (<b>a</b>) The deformation temperature is 500 °C; (<b>b</b>) the strain rate is 1 s<sup>−1</sup>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The finite element model for tests.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The toolset used for hot stamping tests. (<b>a</b>) 3D model. (<b>b</b>) Actual model.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The experimental program.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Distribution of simulation results: (<b>a</b>) Thickness distribution, (<b>b</b>) Stress distribution, (<b>c</b>) Strain distribution, and (<b>d</b>) Temperature distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison of experimental and simulated data: (<b>a</b>) Temperature variation, (<b>b</b>) Thickness distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Flowchart of the optimal method.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Main effects of factor level.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Optimization simulation results.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 5572 KiB  
Article
Solid Particle Erosion Studies of Varying Tow-Scale Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites
by Suresh Kumar Shanmugam, Thirumalai Kumaran Sundaresan, Temel Varol and Rendi Kurniawan
Materials 2022, 15(21), 7534; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217534 - 27 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1518
Abstract
Solid particle erosion inevitably occurs if a gas–solid or liquid–solid mixture is in contact with a surface, e.g., in pneumatic conveyors. Nowadays, an erosive failure of the component after the usage of a long period has been gaining the interest of the researchers. [...] Read more.
Solid particle erosion inevitably occurs if a gas–solid or liquid–solid mixture is in contact with a surface, e.g., in pneumatic conveyors. Nowadays, an erosive failure of the component after the usage of a long period has been gaining the interest of the researchers. In this research work, carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are prepared by varying the tow sizes of fibres, such as 5k, 10k, and 15k. The prepared composites are subjected to erosion studies by varying the process parameters, such as the impact angle (30, 60, and 90 degrees) and velocity (72, 100, and 129 m/s). The Taguchi orthogonal array design has been employed for the experimental plan and the erosion rate and surface roughness are observed for each run. The changes in the responses are reported for varying process parameters. The higher erodent velocity of 129m/s leads to higher erosion rates and forms poor surface quality. The minimum impact angle of 30 degrees provides higher erosion rates and higher surface roughness than the other impingement angles. Finally, the eroded surface of each sample is examined through microscopic and 3D profilometer images and the erosion mechanism is analysed at different conditions. The eroded particles supplied at lower speeds do not penetrate the composite surface. However, it is well-known that the lower the collision force, the harder the traces on the surface, yet no sign of fibre breaking or pull-out is observed. The passage of erodent particles on the composite caused surface waviness (flow trace), which prevents the surface from degrading. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>Representation diagram of 2 × 2 twill weave pattern.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Erosion test facility.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Interaction plot for erosion rate.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Main effect plot of the S/N ratio for erosion rate.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Interaction plot for R<sub>a</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Main effect plot of S/N ratio for R<sub>a</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Surface of the eroded sample (Tow = 10k, Angle = 90 degrees, Velocity = 129 m/s), surface topography: (<b>a</b>) microscopic view, (<b>b</b>) 3D surface profilometer image, and (<b>c</b>) surface profile.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Eroded surface view for 5k samples: (<b>a</b>) microscopic view and (<b>b</b>) 3D surface profilometer image.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Eroded surface view for 10k samples: (<b>a</b>) microscopic view and (<b>b</b>) 3D surface profilometer image.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Eroded surface view for 15k samples: (<b>a</b>) microscopic view and (<b>b</b>) 3D surface profilometer image.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 5552 KiB  
Article
Research on the Corrosion Behavior of Q235 Pipeline Steel in an Atmospheric Environment through Experiment
by Shuo Cai, Hongchao Ji, Fengyun Zhu, Weichi Pei, Wenchao Xiao and Xuefeng Tang
Materials 2022, 15(18), 6502; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186502 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2188
Abstract
Low-carbon steel pipelines are frequently used as transport pipelines for various media. As the pipeline transport industry continues to develop in extreme directions, such as high efficiency, long life, and large pipe diameters, the issue of pipeline reliability is becoming increasingly prominent. This [...] Read more.
Low-carbon steel pipelines are frequently used as transport pipelines for various media. As the pipeline transport industry continues to develop in extreme directions, such as high efficiency, long life, and large pipe diameters, the issue of pipeline reliability is becoming increasingly prominent. This study selected Q235 steel, a typical material for low-carbon steel pipelines, as the research object. In accordance with the pipeline service environment and the accelerated corrosion environment test spectrum, cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion tests that simulated the effects of the marine atmosphere were designed and implemented. Corrosion properties, such as corrosion weight loss, morphology, and product composition of samples with different cycles, were characterized through appearance inspection, scanning electron microscopy analysis, and energy spectrum analysis. The corrosion behavior and mechanism of Q235 low-carbon steel in the enhanced corrosion environment were studied, and the corrosion weight loss kinetics of Q235 steel was verified to conform to the power function law. During the corrosion process, the passivation film on the surface of the low-carbon steel and the dense and stable α-FeOOH layer formed after the passivation film was peeled off played a role in corrosion resistance. The passivation effect, service life, and service limit of Q235 steel were studied and determined, and an evaluation model for quick evaluation of the corrosion life of Q235 low-carbon steel was established. This work provides technical support to improve the life and reliability of low-carbon steel pipelines. It also offers a theoretical basis for further research on the similitude and relevance of cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion testing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Cutting, Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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<p>Salt spray tester with air compressor.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Several corrosion product morphologies of Q235 low-carbon steel under atmospheric conditions: (<b>a</b>) membranous, (<b>b</b>) needlelike, (<b>c</b>) needle enlargement, (<b>d</b>) crystal cluster, (<b>e</b>) crystal-like, and (<b>f</b>) crystal enlargement.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Comparison of samples before and after passivation: (<b>a</b>) before passivation and (<b>b</b>) after passivation.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Comparison of passivation effects on different regions of the sample surface: (<b>a</b>) flat passivated layer and (<b>b</b>) passivated layer at fracture.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of Q235 low-carbon steel after 4 days of exposure in the cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion test: (<b>a</b>) macroscopic appearance, (<b>b</b>) rupture area, (<b>c</b>) precipitation of crystals, (<b>d</b>) weak area, and (<b>e</b>) deep rupture.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of Q235 low-carbon steel after 8 days of exposure in the cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion test: (<b>a</b>) macroscopic appearance, (<b>b</b>) ruptured bulge, (<b>c</b>) enlarged drawing, (<b>d</b>) cracked edge, and (<b>e</b>) enlarged drawing.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of Q235 low-carbon steel after 12 days of exposure in the cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion test: (<b>a</b>) macroscopic appearance, (<b>b</b>) overall appearance, (<b>c</b>) flat rust layer, (<b>d</b>) rust cracked protrusion, and (<b>e</b>) internal corrosion growth.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of Q235 low-carbon steel after 16 days of exposure in the cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion test: (<b>a</b>) macroscopic appearance, (<b>b</b>) corrosion layer folds, (<b>c</b>) enlarged drawing, (<b>d</b>) corrosion product stacking up, and (<b>e</b>) enlarged drawing.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of Q235 low-carbon steel after 20 days of exposure in the cyclic salt spray accelerated corrosion test: (<b>a</b>) macroscopic appearance, (<b>b</b>) overall appearance, (<b>c</b>) loose corrosion products, (<b>d</b>) corrosion layer crack, and (<b>e</b>) corrosion intensifies.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>EDS spectra of the corrosion products of Q235 low-carbon steel after exposure to accelerated corrosive environments at different times.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Changes in the elemental content of the corrosion products of Q235 low-carbon steel after different exposure times in accelerated corrosion environments.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Corrosion kinetic analysis of Q235 low-carbon steel samples in an accelerated corrosive environment.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Corrosion weight loss fitting curves of Q235 low-carbon steel samples in accelerated corrosive environments.</p> Full article ">
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