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Horticulturae
Special Issues
Horticultural Production under Drought Stress
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Horticultural Production under Drought Stress

A special issue of Horticulturae (ISSN 2311-7524). This special issue belongs to the section "Biotic and Abiotic Stress".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 November 2024 | Viewed by 5476

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Snežana M. Milošević

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Guest Editor
Department for Plant Physiology, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Despota Stefana 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: plant biotechnology; tissue and organ culture; plant physiology; plant responses to abiotic and biotic stress; oxidative stress; genetic transformation
Dr. Marija Đurić

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department for Plant Physiology, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Despota Stefana 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: plant responses to abiotic stress factors; drought stress; oxidative stress; reactive oxygen species; antioxidative system defence; molecular biology of plants; gene expression.
Dr. Angelina R. Subotic

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department for Plant Physiology, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”—National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Despota Stefana 142, 11108 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: plant physiology; plant biotechnology; plant cell, tissue and organ culture; Agrobacterium mediated plant transformation; abiotic stress tolerance; plant molecular biology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to present this Special Issue, titled “Horticultural Production under Drought Stress”. Drought stress is one of the most severe abiotic stress factors, and its negative impact on horticultural production worldwide is enormous. Due to the threat of global climate change, drought is leading to a reduction in the growth, yield, and quality of many important horticultural plants (ornamentals, fruits, vegetables, medicinal plants). Despite the visible morphological changes in plant growth and development under drought, it is crucial to understand the physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of plants in order to obtain a comprehensive and clear picture and identify alternative strategies to improve drought tolerance. Depending on the genotype (less or more tolerant), plants use different strategies to cope with drought stress by modulating the shoot–root ratio, osmotic adjustment, biosynthesis of stress proteins, protection by the antioxidant system, and the signaling pathways involved in the stress response.

This Special Issue aims to present novel research papers on horticultural production under drought, along with methods and strategies for enhancing plant drought tolerance. Research papers on various horticultural plants exposed to drought under controlled conditions or in the field can be submitted to this Special Issue. Studies could address the responses of horticultural plants to drought at different levels: morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular. In addition, this Special Issue aims to highlight the importance and benefits of research using different approaches to improve the drought tolerance of horticultural plants. We look forward to receiving research articles and reviews dealing with horticultural production and improvement under drought stress.

Dr. Snežana M. Milošević
Dr. Marija Đurić
Dr. Angelina R. Subotic
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Horticulturae is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • soil water irrigation
  • oxidative stress
  • antioxidants
  • osmotic adjustment
  • photosynthesis
  • gene expression
  • transcriptomic
  • secondary metabolism
  • drought-tolerance improvement

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

15 pages, 299 KiB  
Article
The Mitigating Effects of Biostimulant Amendments on the Response of Purslane Plants Grown under Drought Stress Conditions
by Mostafa H. M. Mohamed, Maha Mohamed Elsayed Ali, Reda M. Y. Zewail, Vasiliki Liava and Spyridon A. Petropoulos
Horticulturae 2024, 10(8), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10080858 - 14 Aug 2024
Viewed by 496
Abstract
Portulaca oleracea L. is a wild edible plant with high potential for exploitation in commercial cropping systems due to its nutritional value and great adaptability to abiotic stress conditions. The present study aimed to investigate the response of purslane plants grown under drought [...] Read more.
Portulaca oleracea L. is a wild edible plant with high potential for exploitation in commercial cropping systems due to its nutritional value and great adaptability to abiotic stress conditions. The present study aimed to investigate the response of purslane plants grown under drought stress conditions (100%, 80%, and 60% of field capacity (FC)) and the implementation of biostimulant amendments (control without amendment, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), mycorrhiza, and effective microorganisms (EMs)) for two consecutive years. In the two-year experiment, the greatest height was recorded in plants grown under no-stress conditions and inoculated with PGPR. The highest branch number, and fresh and dry weight of aboveground and underground parts were observed under no-stress conditions at the mycorrhiza treatment. Moreover, mycorrhiza application in plants growing under 100% FC resulted in the highest N, P, total carbohydrates, and vitamin C and the lowest nitrate and proline contents in leaves. Purslane plants grown under 100% FC and inoculated with PGPR treatment resulted in the highest K and total chlorophyll leaf contents. Additionally, growing plants under mild drought stress (80% FC) combined with biostimulant application (e.g., inoculation with mycorrhiza, PGPR, and EM) may improve plant growth characteristics and mitigate negative stress effects. In general, the applied biostimulant amendments alleviated the adverse effects of drought on plant growth and leaf chemical composition indicating the importance of sustainable strategies to achieve high yield and sufficient quality within the climate change scenario. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production under Drought Stress)
13 pages, 1595 KiB  
Article
Identifying Bioactive Compounds in Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Plants under Water Deficit Conditions
by María José Gómez-Bellot, Lilisbet Guerrero, José Enrique Yuste, Fernando Vallejo and María Jesús Sánchez-Blanco
Horticulturae 2024, 10(7), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10070663 - 22 Jun 2024
Viewed by 980
Abstract
Deficit irrigation (DI) strategies are becoming increasingly common in areas where water resources are limited. The application of moderate levels of DI can result in water savings with a small reduction in yield but with a higher quality of the product. The aim [...] Read more.
Deficit irrigation (DI) strategies are becoming increasingly common in areas where water resources are limited. The application of moderate levels of DI can result in water savings with a small reduction in yield but with a higher quality of the product. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of applying a certain level of water deficit (40% water holding capacity) on the yield and quality of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), specifically the cultivar ‘Triunfo-70’. Bioactive compounds were investigated by applying an LC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics approach as an analytical tool for identifying novel markers associated with a water deficit in beans. The results showed that beans harvested 30 days after DI application experienced water stress, as indicated by the decrease in the leaf water potential and gas exchange values (stomatal conductance and photosynthesis). In addition, the number of pods per plant was significantly reduced by the DI treatment. The water deficit induced significant alterations in various bioactive compounds (including organic acids, polyphenols, hydroxybenzoic acids, lipids, and phospholipids) when compared to the control treatment. Additionally, twelve new biomarkers were identified in this study for the first time in the common bean under DI. These findings suggested that DI acted as an elicitor, increasing phenylpropanoid metabolism, while concurrently reducing the production of compounds associated with fatty acid metabolism. Additionally, new metabolites were tentatively identified in common beans. This study represents the successful application of the untargeted metabolomics approach to finding bioactive secondary metabolites in beans under different irrigation conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production under Drought Stress)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Leaf water potential (Ψ<sub>leaf</sub>) in bean plants submitted through control and deficit irrigation treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments according to the Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Net photosynthetic rate (P<sub>n</sub>) (<b>A</b>) and stomatal conductance (g<sub>s</sub>) (<b>B</b>) of bean plants irrigated through control and deficit irrigation treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments according to the Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Dry weight of pods per plant (<b>A</b>), number of pods per plant (<b>B</b>), and number of seeds per pod (<b>C</b>) in bean plants irrigated through control and deficit irrigation treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments according to the Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>PLS-DA model of full dataset. (i) Red dot: control samples; (ii) yellow dot: samples under irrigation condition (DI).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Volcano Plot of the metabolites upregulated and downregulated in the control and DI irrigation groups.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 5117 KiB  
Article
Combined Pretreatment with Bioequivalent Doses of Plant Growth Regulators Alleviates Dehydration Stress in Lactuca sativa
by Irina I. Vaseva, Iskren Sergiev, Dessislava Todorova, Martynas Urbutis, Giedrė Samuolienė and Lyudmila Simova-Stoilova
Horticulturae 2024, 10(6), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10060544 - 23 May 2024
Viewed by 891
Abstract
Plant hormones regulate adaptive responses to various biotic and abiotic stress factors. Applied exogenously, they trigger the natural plant defense mechanisms, a feature that could be implemented in strategies for supporting crop resilience. The potential of the exogenous cytokinin-like acting compound (kinetin), the [...] Read more.
Plant hormones regulate adaptive responses to various biotic and abiotic stress factors. Applied exogenously, they trigger the natural plant defense mechanisms, a feature that could be implemented in strategies for supporting crop resilience. The potential of the exogenous cytokinin-like acting compound (kinetin), the auxin analogue 1-naphtyl acetic acid (NAA), abscisic acid (ABA) and the ethyleneprecursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) to mitigate dehydration was tested on Lactuca sativa (lettuce) grown on 12% polyethylene glycol (PEG). Priming with different blends containing these plant growth regulators (PGRs) applied in bioequivalent concentrations was evaluated through biometric measurements and biochemical analyses. The combined treatment with the four compounds exhibited the best dehydration protective effect. The antioxidative enzyme profiling of the PGR-primed individuals revealed increased superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and peroxidase activity in the leaves. Immunodetection of higher levels of the rate-limiting enzyme for proline biosynthesis (delta-pyroline-5-carboxylate synthase) in the primed plants coincided with a significantly higher content of the amino acid measured in the leaves. These plants also accumulated particular dehydrin types, which may have contributed to the observed stress-relieving effect. The four-component mix applied by spraying or through the roots exerted similar stress-mitigating properties on soil-grown lettuce subjected to moderate drought. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production under Drought Stress)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Representative phenotype (<b>a</b>), shoot area (<b>b</b>), and fresh (<b>c</b>) and dry weight (<b>d</b>) of the aboveground part of <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span> plants subjected to different PGR pretreatments and subsequent 10-day dehydration stress provoked by 12% PEG. The graphs show the absolute values of the parameters and the error bars indicate the standard error (SE, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 20). The asterisk marks statistically significant differences with the PEG-affected “Mock”-treated group (one-way ANOVA with Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Malondialdehyde (MDA); (<b>b</b>) free sulfhydryl groups (SH-groups); (<b>c</b>) total phenolic compounds in differently pretreated <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span> plants grown on nutrient media −/+12% PEG for 10 days. The graphs show the absolute values of the parameters and the error bars indicate the standard error (SE, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 6). The lowercase letters designate statistically different results (one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s multiple range test at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mix 7’s priming effect on antioxidant enzymes in the second true leaf of <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span> plants grown on nutrient media −/+ 12% PEG for 10 days. (<b>a</b>) Hydrogen peroxide level in the second true leaves of the differently treated plants; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">Cu/Zn-SOD</span>, <span class="html-italic">Fe-SOD</span> and <span class="html-italic">Mn-SOD</span> transcript accumulation and total SOD activity; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">CAT</span> transcript accumulation and total CAT activity; (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">POX N1</span>, <span class="html-italic">POX5</span> and <span class="html-italic">APX</span> transcript accumulation and total guaiacol POX activity. The error bars indicate the standard error (SE, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). The lowercase letters designate statistically different results (one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s multiple range test at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Mix 7 priming effect on L-Proline biosynthesis in <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span> grown on nutrient media −/+ 12% PEG for 10 days. (<b>a</b>) Immunodetection of P5CS signal (marked with arrow) in leaves of control and PEG-stressed plants that have received “Mock” or “Mix 7” pretreatments. Ponceao-S staining of membrane is shown below the immunoblot. (<b>b</b>) Leaf L-Pro content measured in samples derived from the same individuals analyzed in the immunoblot. Error bars indicate standard error (SE, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 6). Lowercase letters designate statistically different results (one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s multiple range test at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Mix 7 priming effect on dehydrin profiles in <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span> grown on nutrient media −/+ 12% PEG for 10 days. Immunodetection with K-, Y- and S primary antibodies is presented. Mix 7-induced “KYS” signals are marked with “&lt;”, and “KS” with “*”. Ponceao-S staining of the same membranes is shown below the immunoblots to visualize equal protein loading.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Representative phenotype, fresh weight, dry weight and shoot area of <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span> plants pretreated with Mix 7 by spraying (<b>a</b>) or through the roots (<b>b</b>) and subjected to moderate soil drought. The error bars indicate the standard deviation (SD, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 10). The lowercase letters designate statistically different results (one-way ANOVA with Duncan’s multiple range test at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 1196 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Deficit Irrigation on the Agronomic Performance and Chemical Composition of Scolymus hispanicus L.
by Nikolaos Polyzos, Beatriz H. Paschoalinotto, Tânia C. S. P. Pires, Mikel Añibarro-Ortega, Ricardo Calhelha, Isabel C. F. R. Ferreira, Maria Inês Dias, Lillian Barros and Spyridon A. Petropoulos
Horticulturae 2024, 10(5), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10050479 - 7 May 2024
Viewed by 945
Abstract
In the current study, the effects of drought stress on the growth and phytochemical profile of Scolymus hispanicus L. (a.k.a. golden thistle) were evaluated. Plants were treated with three irrigation regimes, e.g., plants that received only rainwater (Control; C), deficit irrigation (I1; 50% [...] Read more.
In the current study, the effects of drought stress on the growth and phytochemical profile of Scolymus hispanicus L. (a.k.a. golden thistle) were evaluated. Plants were treated with three irrigation regimes, e.g., plants that received only rainwater (Control; C), deficit irrigation (I1; 50% of field capacity (FC)), and full irrigation (Ι2; 100% of FC). The fresh weight of the rosette of leaves was not negatively impacted by deficit irrigation, whereas root development was severely restrained compared to control and I2 treatments. Drought stress conditions had a positive effect on the nutritional properties of the golden thistle since the treatments of control and deficit irrigation showed the highest content of macronutrients and energy. Oxalic acid was the richest organic acid, especially under the I1 regime. Similarly, α-tocopherol was the only identified vitamin E isoform, whose content was also doubled in I1 treatment. Raffinose, glucose, and sucrose were the most abundant free sugars in amounts that varied among the irrigation treatments, while the total and distinct free sugar content was the highest for the I1 treatment. The most abundant detected fatty acid compounds were α-linolenic acid, followed by palmitic and linoleic acid, with the highest amount being detected in C, I1, and I2 treatments, respectively. Flavonoids were the only class of polyphenols detected in golden thistle leaves, including mostly kaempferol and quercetin derivatives. The greatest antioxidant potency was shown for the control and I1 treatments (for OxHLIA and TBARS methods, respectively). The evaluated leaf samples recorded a varied antimicrobial effect for the different bacterial strains and fungi, whereas no cytotoxic, hepatotoxic, and anti-inflammatory effects against the tested cell lines were recorded. Finally, the mineral content of leaves was significantly affected by the irrigation regime, with Ca, Mg, Cu, and Zn being the highest for the I1 treatment, while the I2 treatment had the highest content of K, Fe, and Mn and the lowest Na content. In conclusion, deficit irrigation showed promising results since it improved the phytochemical content without compromising the fresh weight of leaves, and thus it could be suggested as a sustainable agronomic practice for producing high-added value products without significant constraints in growth development and yield parameters of golden thistle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production under Drought Stress)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Plants of <span class="html-italic">S. hispanicus</span> after crop establishment (left photo) and at full growth (right photo; photos are from the personal record of Spyridon A. Petropoulos).</p> Full article ">

Review

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26 pages, 4308 KiB  
Review
Drought Stress Effects and Ways for Improving Drought Tolerance in Impatiens walleriana Hook.f.—A Review
by Marija Milovančević, Milana Trifunović-Momčilov, Olga Radulović, Snežana Milošević and Angelina Subotić
Horticulturae 2024, 10(9), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090903 - 26 Aug 2024
Viewed by 667
Abstract
Drought is one of the main abiotic stresses affecting plant growth and development. Reduced plant yield and quality are primarily caused by the reductions in photosynthesis, mineral uptake, metabolic disorders, damages from the increased production of reactive oxygen species, and many other disruptions. [...] Read more.
Drought is one of the main abiotic stresses affecting plant growth and development. Reduced plant yield and quality are primarily caused by the reductions in photosynthesis, mineral uptake, metabolic disorders, damages from the increased production of reactive oxygen species, and many other disruptions. Plants utilize drought resistance mechanisms as a defense strategy, and the systems’ activation is dependent upon several factors, including plant genotype, onthogenesis phase, drought intensity and duration, and the season in which the drought occurs. Impatiens walleriana is a worldwide popular flowering plant recognized for its vibrant flower colors, and is an indispensable plant in pots, gardens and other public areas. It prefers well-draining, moisturized soil, and does not perform well in overly dry or waterlogged conditions. Consequently, inadequate water supply is a common problem for this plant during production, transportation, and market placement, which has a substantial impact on plant performance overall. This review article outlines certain features of morphological, physiological, and molecular alterations induced by drought in ornamental, drought-sensitive plant species I. walleriana, as well as research carried out to date with the aim to improve the drought tolerance. Stress proteins aquaporins and dehydrins, whose molecular structure was described for the first time in this plant species, are highlighted specifically for their role in drought stress. Furthermore, the effective improvement of drought tolerance in I. walleriana by exogenous application of Plant Growth Regulators and Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria is discussed in detail. Finally, this review can provide valuable insights for improving plant resilience and productivity in the face of water scarcity, which is critical for sustainable agriculture and horticulture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production under Drought Stress)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Drought effects on plant growth and development (<b>left</b> side), and plant resistance mechanisms to drought (<b>right</b> side).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p><span class="html-italic">I. walleriana</span> with different color of flowers.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Morphological differences between well-watered and drought-stressed <span class="html-italic">I. walleriana</span>. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) well-watered shoots and roots; (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) drought-stressed shoots and roots.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>3D structures of <span class="html-italic">I. walleriana</span> aquaporins (IwPIP1;4, IwPIP2;2, IwPIP2;7 and IwTIP4;1), and dehydrins (IwDhn1, IwDhn2.1 and IwDhn2.2), obtained by using the software SWISS-MODEL (<a href="https://swissmodel.expasy.org/" target="_blank">https://swissmodel.expasy.org/</a>) and PHYRE2 (<a href="http://www.sbg.bio.ic.ac.uk/phyre2/html/page.cgi?id=index" target="_blank">http://www.sbg.bio.ic.ac.uk/phyre2/html/page.cgi?id=index</a>).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Summarized effects of exogenously applied elicitors on <span class="html-italic">I. walleriana</span> drought-tolerance improvement.</p> Full article ">

Other

Jump to: Research, Review

10 pages, 2336 KiB  
Brief Report
Precision Phenotyping of Wild Rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) to Determine Morpho-Physiological Responses under Increasing Drought Stress Levels Using the PlantEye Multispectral 3D System
by Pasquale Tripodi, Cono Vincenzo, Accursio Venezia, Annalisa Cocozza and Catello Pane
Horticulturae 2024, 10(5), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10050496 - 11 May 2024
Viewed by 943
Abstract
The PlantEye multispectral scanner is an optoelectrical sensor automatically applied to a mechatronic platform that allows the non-destructive, accurate, and high-throughput detection of morphological and physiological plant parameters. In this study, we describe how the advanced phenotyping platform precisely assesses changes in plant [...] Read more.
The PlantEye multispectral scanner is an optoelectrical sensor automatically applied to a mechatronic platform that allows the non-destructive, accurate, and high-throughput detection of morphological and physiological plant parameters. In this study, we describe how the advanced phenotyping platform precisely assesses changes in plant architecture and growth parameters of wild rocket salad (Diplotaxis tenuifolia L. [DC.]) under drought stress conditions. Four different irrigation supply levels from moderate to severe, required to keep 100, 70, 50, and 30% of the water-holding capacity, were adopted. Growth rate and plant architecture were recorded through the digital measure of biomass, leaf area, Canopy Light Penetration Depth, five convex hull traits, plant height, Surface Angle Average, and Voxel Volume Total. Vegetation color assessments included hue, lightness, and saturation. Vegetation and senescence indices were calculated from canopy reflectance in the red (620–645 nm), green (530–540 nm), blue (peak wavelength 460–485 nm), near-infrared (820–850 nm), and 3D laser (940 nm) ranges. The temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation of the environment were also recorded. Overall, morphological parameters, color, multispectral data, and vegetation indices provided over 7200 data points through daily scans over three weeks of cultivation. Although a general decrease in growth parameters with increasing stress severity was observed, plants were able to maintain the same morpho-physiological performances as the control during the early growth stages, keeping both 70% and 50% of the total water-holding capacity. Among indices, the Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) contributed the most to the differentiation between different stress levels during the cultivation cycle. Across the 3 weeks of growth, statistically significant differences were observed for all traits except for the Saturation Average. Comparisons with respect to the control highlighted the strong impact of drought stress on morphological plant traits. This study provided meaningful insights into the health status of wild rocket salad under increasing drought stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Horticultural Production under Drought Stress)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The Phenospex phenotyping platform of CREA—Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (Pontecagnano, Italy). On the left, the overview of the pot experiment is shown; vertical bars carry the coordinates (barcodes), allowing the 3D scanner to recognize the position of plants on the bench. On the right, details (front–bottom) of the PlantEye F500 dual scanner are shown.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Boxplots showing median values and quartiles for the different treatments (100 = control; 70 = 30% less water than the control; 50 = 50% less water than the control; 30 = 70% less water than the control) across three weeks. Trait acronyms: LA3D: Three-Dimensional Leaf Area; CLPD: Canopy Light Penetration Depth; CHAC: Convex Hull Area Coverage; CHA: Convex Hull Area; CHAR: Convex Hull Aspect Ratio; CHC: Convex Hull Circumference; CHMW: Convex Hull Maximum Width; DB: Digital Biomass; PHA: Plant Height Averaged; PHM: Plant Height Max PLA: Projected Leaf Area; SAA: Surface Angle Average; VVT: Voxel Volume Total; HUE: Hue Average; LA: Lightness Average; SA: Saturation Average; NDVI: NDVI Average; NPCI: NPCI Average; PSRI: PSRI Average; GLI: GLI Average.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Correlations between morphological parameters, color measures, and vegetative indices for the different treatments. (<b>a</b>) Control = 100% water; (<b>b</b>) 70 = 30% less water than the control; (<b>c</b>) 50 = 50% less water than the control; (<b>d</b>) 30 = 70% less water than the control. The Pearson coefficient with a significance threshold of <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 was considered. Color intensity and dots size are both directly proportional to the coefficients. According to the scale on the right, blue and red colors correspond to positive and negative correlations, respectively. The full name of each trait abbreviation can be found in <a href="#horticulturae-10-00496-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Principal component analyses. Loading plot of the first (PC1) and second (PC2) principal components showing the variation for 20 traits scored across three weeks for the different drought stress treatments. (<b>a</b>) Week 1; (<b>b</b>) week 2; (<b>c</b>) week 3. Colored ellipses group measures for each treatment with a 95% confidence interval. The legend indicates different treatments: 100 = control; 70 = 30% less water than the control; 50 = 50% less water than the control; 30 = 70% less water than the control. On the bottom, a distribution of the traits scored on the PCA biplot is displayed. The direction and distance from the center of the biplot indicate how each OTU contributes to the first two components.</p> Full article ">
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