<p>Key components of biosensors. Biosensors function by identifying biologically significant entities like rare cells, nucleic acids, and mechanical forces, among others. They detect these targets using methods such as affinity interactions and use a transducer to convert these interactions into a detectable signal. These transducers typically operate on optical, electrochemical, or mechanical modalities. The transducer emits a signal that needs to be analyzed and presented through a signal processing and readout system. Ultimately, biosensors are utilized to gather and analyze critical biological data, such as the detection of infectious diseases, cancer biomarkers, or glucose levels [<a href="#B1-dna-04-00020" class="html-bibr">1</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Advanced DNA-based Biosensor Technologies: From Nanoengineering to Practical Applications—This diagram provides an in-depth look at the latest innovations in DNA biosensor technology, illustrating the synthesis of nanomaterials, diverse sensor types, molecular detection mechanisms, and the application of nanoengineered surfaces to enhance sensor functionality and reliability. (<b>A</b>) DNA Biosensor Platform: Overview of a DNA biosensor system integrating biomaterials with sensor components for biomolecular detection. The system consists of bio-recognition elements that capture specific targets and a device to convert this interaction into a measurable, digital output. (<b>B</b>) Biosensor Types and Fabrication: Depiction of various biosensor forms including portable, implantable, and wearable devices, highlighting the use of microfluidics and printed circuit boards for compact design. It also shows an electrochemical setup in a laboratory environment for the development and testing of biosensors, with emphasis on data collection and processing (refer to <a href="#app1-dna-04-00020" class="html-app">Supplementary Materials S1</a>). (<b>C</b>) DNA Detection Mechanism: Schematic representation of the DNA detection process using a DNA biosensor. This includes the targeting and binding of specific DNA sequences by complementary DNA probes, followed by signal amplification using metallic nanoparticles and electrochemical methods to quantify the presence of target DNA. (<b>D</b>) Surface Enhancements for Biosensors: Innovations in biosensor technology showcasing nanoengineered surfaces to increase interaction efficiency, antifouling layers to prevent biomolecular contamination, and the use of hydrogels and membranes to stabilize and protect the sensor elements in a bio-mimicking environment [<a href="#B6-dna-04-00020" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The Diversity and Performance of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs): This diagram categorizes various MOF structures and composites, emphasizing their roles in enhancing the sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and accuracy of sensor applications. Highlighted are Nano-MOFs, Meso-MOFs, 2D MOFs, Hybrid MOFs, MOF Films, and several composites, each contributing uniquely to the field of advanced sensing technology [<a href="#B7-dna-04-00020" class="html-bibr">7</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow chart of the study selection process.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>This figure provides an overview of the application areas for DNA-based detection technologies, segmented by their primary usage in various fields. The review focused on, “Electrochemical, detection” indicates the primary detection method, surrounded by three main application layers. The innermost layer, “Medical,” accounts for the majority at 85.95%, showcasing the broad utilization of DNA-based detection in medical diagnostics. This includes a substantial focus on “Diseases” (55.37%), with significant portions dedicated to “Cancer” (21.49%) and smaller segments for “Cardiovascular” and “Neurological” conditions. The middle layer highlights “Environment” and “Research,” with environmental applications capturing 14.05% and research-related uses, particularly in “Genetic Mutation” and “Genetic Therapy,” at substantial rates. The outermost layer reflects applications in detecting specific agents like “Bacteria” and “HMF” (Hazardous Material Forms), emphasizing the versatility and broad scope of DNA-based electrochemical detection technologies.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>This figure displays the distribution of DNA-based biomolecules detection across various categories, depicted in a pie chart format. The largest segment, “Genetic and molecular biomarker” detection, constitutes 50% of the applications, indicating its predominant role in DNA-based detection technologies. The “Pathogens and Infectious Agents” category accounts for 24.1% of the detection focus, reflecting significant usage in identifying disease-causing organisms. “Proteins and Enzymes” represent 18.5% of the applications, highlighting their importance in diverse biochemical and diagnostic processes. Lastly, “Environmental pathogens” make up 7.4% of the distribution, underscoring the application of DNA-based detection in environmental monitoring and safety. This chart effectively illustrates the broad scope and varied applications of DNA-based technologies in biomolecules detection.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>This figure presents a pie chart depicting the distribution of materials used in DNA detection technologies. Gold leads as the most prevalent material, constituting 47.9% of usage due to its effective properties in sensor applications. Carbon and Platinum each makeup 13.8%, reflecting their significance in creating sensitive and stable detection environments. Graphene, known for its high conductivity and surface area, accounts for 24.5%. The “Other” category, which includes less common materials, represents 10.6% of the total, with a detailed segment showing that 3.2% of this category involves unspecified materials, highlighting the diversity of materials employed in the field of DNA detection.</p> Full article ">