[go: up one dir, main page]

Next Issue
Volume 3, June
Previous Issue
Volume 2, December
 
 

J. Fungi, Volume 3, Issue 1 (March 2017) – 16 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The ability of Candida albicans to form biofilms is a virulence factor, allowing tissue attachment and infection of host tissues. Using a novel flow-system, we are able to monitor the growth and development of C. albicans cells, grown under flow and in real time, starting from initial cell adhesion. This system has led to several interesting discoveries, including the likely presence of a previously unknown flow mechanosensory response that initiates hyphal formation, and the observation that the process of cell dispersion occurs throughout microcolony growth and development. View this paper
  • Issues are regarded as officially published after their release is announced to the table of contents alert mailing list.
  • You may sign up for e-mail alerts to receive table of contents of newly released issues.
  • PDF is the official format for papers published in both, html and pdf forms. To view the papers in pdf format, click on the "PDF Full-text" link, and use the free Adobe Reader to open them.
Order results
Result details
Section
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
1069 KiB  
Article
Activity of Amphotericin B and Anidulafungin Combined with Rifampicin, Clarithromycin, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid, N-Acetylcysteine, and Farnesol against Candida tropicalis Biofilms
by Marcelo Ernesto Fernández-Rivero, José L. Del Pozo, Amparo Valentín, Araceli Molina De Diego, Javier Pemán and Emilia Cantón
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010016 - 22 Mar 2017
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4928
Abstract
We evaluated the activity of (1) amphotericin-B (AMB), combined with rifampicin (RIF), clarithromycin (CLA), N-acetylcysteine (NAC), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), and farnesol (FAR) (1000, 1000, 1000, 4000, and 30,000 mg/L, and 300 µM, respectively), against Candida tropicalis biofilms formed on polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and [...] Read more.
We evaluated the activity of (1) amphotericin-B (AMB), combined with rifampicin (RIF), clarithromycin (CLA), N-acetylcysteine (NAC), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), and farnesol (FAR) (1000, 1000, 1000, 4000, and 30,000 mg/L, and 300 µM, respectively), against Candida tropicalis biofilms formed on polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and (2) anidulafungin (ANF) combined with the same compounds at 8, 10, 5, 40, and 30 mg/L, and 30 µM, respectively, against biofilms formed on titanium. Biofilm growth kinetics were performed in a CDC Biofilm Reactor (CBR). PTFE or titanium disks were removed from the CBR at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h to determine the Log10CFU/cm2. Killing kinetics were performed by adding the drugs to 24-h-mature biofilms (time 0). Disks were removed after 24, 48, and 72 h of drug exposure to determine Log10CFU/cm2. Viable cells in biofilms were 4.73 and 4.29 Log10CFU/cm2 on PTFE and titanium, respectively. Maximum Log10 decreases in CFU/cm2 depend on the combination and were: 3.53 (AMB + EDTA), 2.65 (AMB + RIF), 3.07 (AMB + NAC), 2.52 (AMB + CLA), 1.49 (AMB + FAR), 2.26 (ANF + EDTA), 2.45 (ANF + RIF), 2.47 (ANF + NAC), 1.52 (ANF + CLA), and 0.44 (ANF + FAR). In conclusion, EDTA, NAC, RIF, and CLA improve the activity of AMB and ANF against biofilms developed on both surfaces, which could be an effective strategy against C. tropicalis biofilm-related infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic representation of the CDC Biofilm Reactor. Obtained from BioSurface Technologies Corporation (<a href="http://biofilms.biz/" target="_blank">http://biofilms.biz/</a>).</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Effect of AMB (1000 mg/L) combined with RIF (1000 mg/L), CLA (1000 mg/L), EDTA (30,000 mg/L), NAC (4000 mg/L) and FAR (300 µM) against <span class="html-italic">C. tropicalis</span> biofilm formed on PTFE. Results (Δ Log<sub>10</sub> CFU/cm<sup>2</sup>) indicate the difference in viable cells at 24 h (black column), 48 h (striped column), and 72 h (white column) of drug exposure with respect to biofilm control at the same time point. Each data point represents the mean and standard deviation for two independent experiments carried out with three replicates. The asterisks indicate that the difference is significant at <span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05 compared to AMB alone at the same time point. RIF, CLA, EDTA, NAC, and FAR assayed alone, at the same concentrations used when combined, have no anti-biofilm activity (data not shown).</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Effect of ANF (8 mg/L) combined with RIF (10 mg/L), CLA (5 mg/L), EDTA (30 mg/L), NAC (40 mg/L) and FAR (3 µM) against <span class="html-italic">C. tropicalis</span> biofilm developed on titanium. Results (Δ Log<sub>10</sub>CFU/cm<sup>2</sup>) indicate the difference in viable cells at 24 h (black column), 48 h (striped column), and 72 h (white column) of drug exposure with respect to biofilm control at the same time point. Each data point represents the mean and standard deviation for two independent experiments carried out with three replicates. The asterisks indicate that the difference is significant at <span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05 compared to AND alone at the same time point. RIF, CLA, EDTA, NAC, and FAR assayed alone, at the same concentrations used when combined, have no anti-biofilm activity (data not shown).</p>
Full article ">
21407 KiB  
Article
Microscopic Analysis of Pigments Extracted from Spalting Fungi
by Sarath M. Vega Gutierrez and Sara C. Robinson
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010015 - 14 Mar 2017
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8380
Abstract
Pigments that are currently available in the market usually come from synthetic sources, or, if natural, often need mordants to bind to the target substrate. Recent research on the fungal pigment extracts from Scytalidium cuboideum, Scytalidium ganodermophthorum, Chlorociboria aeruginosa, and [...] Read more.
Pigments that are currently available in the market usually come from synthetic sources, or, if natural, often need mordants to bind to the target substrate. Recent research on the fungal pigment extracts from Scytalidium cuboideum, Scytalidium ganodermophthorum, Chlorociboria aeruginosa, and Chlorociboria aeruginascens have been shown to successfully dye materials, like wood, bamboo, and textiles, however, there is no information about their binding mechanisms. Due to this, a microscopic study was performed to provide information to future manufacturers interested in these pigments. The results of this study show that S. ganodermophthorum and C. aeruginosa form an amorphous layer on substrates, while S. cuboideum forms crystal-like structures. The attachment and morphology indicate that there might be different chemical and physical interactions between the extracted pigments and the materials. This possibility can explain the high resistance of the pigments to UV light and color fastness that makes them competitive against synthetic pigments. These properties make these pigments a viable option for an industry that demands natural pigments with the properties of the synthetic ones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Vessel cell from cottonwood with extracted pigments of <span class="html-italic">S. cuboideum</span> between the helical thickenings, pointed to with arrows. Picture taken with a Nikon Eclipse Ni-U at a magnification of 20×.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>A</b>) Vessel cell wall of cottonwood covered with extracted pigment, pointed to with arrows, from <span class="html-italic">C. aeruginosa</span> taken at a 20× magnification; (<b>B</b>) Detail of the vessel cell wall showing concentration of the pigment in the vessel pits at a 40× magnification. Picture taken with a Nikon Eclipse Ni-U.</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>A</b>) Vessels of cottonwood with extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. ganodermophthorum</span> accumulating on the cell walls; (<b>B</b>) Pigments of <span class="html-italic">S. ganodermophthorum</span> between the helical thickenings, pointed to with arrows. Picture taken with a Nikon Eclipse Ni-U at 20× magnification.</p>
Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Crystal like structures from the extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. cuboideum</span>. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">C. aeruginosa</span> showing two reflective electron areas, pointed to with arrows. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. ganodermophthorum</span> showing texture. Different electron reflectance is indicated with arrows. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Flower-like structures formed by the extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. cuboideum</span> on the fiber cells of cottonwood. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Amorphous layer formed by the extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">C. aeruginosa</span>. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. cuboideum</span> wrapping around polyester fibers. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. cuboideum</span> accumulating on top of a cotton fiber. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 600 F.</p>
Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Cross-section of a crystal-like structure produced by <span class="html-italic">S. cuboideum</span> on cottonwood, showing void spaces between the attachment area of the pigment with the wood cell wall. Picture taken with an FEI QUANTA 3D dual beam SEM/FIB.</p>
Full article ">Figure 12
<p>FIB cross-section of the extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">C. aeruginosa</span> with cottonwood, showing large void spaces between the wood cell wall and the pigment, pointed to with an arrow. FEI QUANTA 3D dual beam SEM/FIB.</p>
Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Cross-section of the area between the extracted pigment of <span class="html-italic">S. ganodermophthorum</span> and cottonwood. The left arrow shows an even attachment layer while the right arrow shows a sponge-like surface between the pigment and the wood. FEI QUANTA 3D dual beam SEM/FIB.</p>
Full article ">
901 KiB  
Review
The Candida albicans Biofilm Matrix: Composition, Structure and Function
by Christopher G. Pierce, Taissa Vila, Jesus A. Romo, Daniel Montelongo-Jauregui, Gina Wall, Anand Ramasubramanian and Jose L. Lopez-Ribot
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010014 - 8 Mar 2017
Cited by 108 | Viewed by 11236
Abstract
A majority of infections caused by Candida albicans—the most frequent fungal pathogen—are associated with biofilm formation. A salient feature of C. albicans biofilms is the presence of the biofilm matrix. This matrix is composed of exopolymeric materials secreted by sessile cells within [...] Read more.
A majority of infections caused by Candida albicans—the most frequent fungal pathogen—are associated with biofilm formation. A salient feature of C. albicans biofilms is the presence of the biofilm matrix. This matrix is composed of exopolymeric materials secreted by sessile cells within the biofilm, in which all classes of macromolecules are represented, and provides protection against environmental challenges. In this review, we summarize the knowledge accumulated during the last two decades on the composition, structure, and function of the C. albicans biofilm matrix. Knowledge of the matrix components, its structure, and function will help pave the way to novel strategies to combat C. albicans biofilm infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images showing the presence of extracellular matrix in <span class="html-italic">Candida albicans</span> biofilms. (<b>a</b>) Biofilm samples were fixed and dehydrated for processing for SEM; (<b>b</b>) biofilm samples were air-dried and not fixed to maximize the preservation of exopolymeric material. The matrix material in <b>Panel a</b> has been pseudocolored. Bars are 10 µm.</p>
Full article ">
1631 KiB  
Article
Real-Time Approach to Flow Cell Imaging of Candida albicans Biofilm Development
by Andrew McCall and Mira Edgerton
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010013 - 6 Mar 2017
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5609
Abstract
The ability of Candida albicans to form biofilms is a virulence factor that allows tissue attachment and subsequent infection of host tissues. Fungal biofilms have been particularly well studied, however the vast majority of these studies have been conducted under static conditions. Oral [...] Read more.
The ability of Candida albicans to form biofilms is a virulence factor that allows tissue attachment and subsequent infection of host tissues. Fungal biofilms have been particularly well studied, however the vast majority of these studies have been conducted under static conditions. Oral biofilms form in the presence of salivary flow, therefore we developed a novel flow system used for real-time imaging of fungal biofilm development. C. albicans wild-type (WT) cells readily attached to the substrate surface during the 2 h attachment phase, then formed heterogeneous biofilms after 18 h flow. Quantitative values for biomass, rates of attachment and detachment, and cell–cell adhesion events were obtained for C. albicans WT cells and for a hyperfilamentous mutant Δhog1. Attachment rates of C. albicans WT cells were nearly 2-fold higher than C. albicans Δhog1 cells, although Δhog1 cells formed 4-fold higher biomass. The reduced normalized detachment rate was the primary factor responsible for the increased biomass of Δhog1 biofilm, showing that cell detachment rates are an important predictor for ultimate biofilm mass under flow. Unlike static biofilms, C. albicans cells under constant laminar flow undergo continuous detachment and seeding that may be more representative of the development of in vivo biofilms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Schematic of Flow System. Cell-seeded media circulates from the attachment flask for the first 2 h, during which time both valves to and from the growth flask are closed. After 2 h, the valves to and from the attachment flask are closed and those of the growth flask are opened, allowing circulation of cell-free media for the remainder of the experiment (additional 16 h). Media is maintained as cell-free using four sequential filters. Arrows indicate direction of flow. PD: Pulsation Damper, used to reduce pulsation of slide surface caused by pump.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Biofilm Formation under Flow: (<b>A</b>) Representative darkfield images of biofilm formation under flow are shown for wild-type cells at room temperature (top, black) and 37 °C (middle, green) at 2, 8 and 18 h of growth. Scale bars indicate 50 µm. Arrow indicates direction of media flow for every image; (<b>B</b>) The total biomass within the imaging region (determined by densitometry analysis), the rate of cell attachment, and the detachment rate normalized to the biomass over time are shown. Data are means of <span class="html-italic">n</span> ≥3 experiments.</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Formation of Microcolonies under Flow at 37 °C: (<b>A</b>) Representative image of a microcolony from a single hyphae, showing extensive hyphal branching, is shown (top left, scale bar indicates 50 µm); (<b>B</b>) Biomass comparisons between slides at 37 °C (full flow at 0.8 dynes/cm<sup>2</sup>, and half flow at 0.4 dynes/cm<sup>2</sup>) and room temperature were done through densitometry analysis at 28 h of growth using a flatbed scanner (the heterogeneity of the 37 °C slides prevents traditional microscope analysis); (<b>C</b>) Images of scanned biofilms after 28 h of growth are shown. Scale bars indicate 2 mm.</p>
Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Biofilm Formation of the Hyperfilamentous mutant Δ<span class="html-italic">hog1</span> under flow: (<b>A</b>) Representative darkfield images of biofilm formation under flow are shown for wild-type (<b>top</b>) and Δ<span class="html-italic">hog1</span> (<b>bottom</b>) cells grown at room temperature at 2, 8 and 18 h of growth. Scale bars indicate 50 µm. Arrow indicates direction of media flow for every image; (<b>B</b>) The total biomass within the imaging region (determined by densitometry analysis), the rate of cell attachment, and the detachment rate normalized to the biomass over time are shown for Δ<span class="html-italic">hog1</span> biofilms (red) and wild-type at room temperature biofilms (black). Data are means of <span class="html-italic">n</span> ≥3 experiments.</p>
Full article ">
418 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Blue Mold Penicillium Species Isolated from Stored Fruits Using Multiple Highly Conserved Loci
by Guohua Yin, Yuliang Zhang, Kayla K. Pennerman, Guangxi Wu, Sui Sheng T. Hua, Jiujiang Yu, Wayne M. Jurick II, Anping Guo and Joan W. Bennett
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010012 - 1 Mar 2017
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 6778
Abstract
Penicillium is a large genus of common molds with over 400 described species; however, identification of individual species is difficult, including for those species that cause postharvest rots. In this study, blue rot fungi from stored apples and pears were isolated from a [...] Read more.
Penicillium is a large genus of common molds with over 400 described species; however, identification of individual species is difficult, including for those species that cause postharvest rots. In this study, blue rot fungi from stored apples and pears were isolated from a variety of hosts, locations, and years. Based on morphological and cultural characteristics and partial amplification of the β-tubulin locus, the isolates were provisionally identified as several different species of Penicillium. These isolates were investigated further using a suite of molecular DNA markers and compared to sequences of the ex-type for cognate species in GenBank, and were identified as P. expansum (3 isolates), P. solitum (3 isolates), P. carneum (1 isolate), and P. paneum (1 isolate). Three of the markers we used (ITS, internal transcribed spacer rDNA sequence; benA, β-tubulin; CaM, calmodulin) were suitable for distinguishing most of our isolates from one another at the species level. In contrast, we were unable to amplify RPB2 sequences from four of the isolates. Comparison of our sequences with cognate sequences in GenBank from isolates with the same species names did not always give coherent data, reinforcing earlier studies that have shown large intraspecific variability in many Penicillium species, as well as possible errors in some sequence data deposited in GenBank. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p><span class="html-italic">Penicillium</span> spp. phylogenetic trees constructed using markers (<b>A</b>) ITS; (<b>B</b>) <span class="html-italic">benA</span>; (<b>C</b>) <span class="html-italic">CaM</span>; and (<b>D</b>) combinations of the two or three genes. Nine of our isolates and nine ex-types from NCBI GenBank were phylogenetically arranged using available marker sequences. The nine strains obtained from NCBI were <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">expansum</span> ATCC7861 = <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">expansum</span> CBS32548, <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">carneum</span> CBS112297, <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">paneum</span> CBS101032, <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">sclerotiorum</span> NRRL2074, <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">solitum</span> CBS42489 = <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">solitum</span> FRR937, <span class="html-italic">A. flavus</span> NRRL1957, and <span class="html-italic">A. niger</span> NRRL326. All the <span class="html-italic">Penicillium</span> species from GenBank are shown in red; the two <span class="html-italic">Aspergillus</span> species are shown in blue; our own sequenced <span class="html-italic">Penicillium</span> species are shown in black. Three genes were used to perform sequences analysis in <a href="#jof-03-00012-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>D, except only two genes (ITS and <span class="html-italic">CaM</span>) were used in <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">expansum</span> R21 and <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">solitum</span> SA analysis.</p>
Full article ">
3220 KiB  
Review
Candida glabrata Biofilms: How Far Have We Come?
by Célia F. Rodrigues, Maria Elisa Rodrigues, Sónia Silva and Mariana Henriques
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010011 - 1 Mar 2017
Cited by 82 | Viewed by 12697
Abstract
Infections caused by Candida species have been increasing in the last decades and can result in local or systemic infections, with high morbidity and mortality. After Candida albicans, Candida glabrata is one of the most prevalent pathogenic fungi in humans. In addition [...] Read more.
Infections caused by Candida species have been increasing in the last decades and can result in local or systemic infections, with high morbidity and mortality. After Candida albicans, Candida glabrata is one of the most prevalent pathogenic fungi in humans. In addition to the high antifungal drugs resistance and inability to form hyphae or secret hydrolases, C. glabrata retain many virulence factors that contribute to its extreme aggressiveness and result in a low therapeutic response and serious recurrent candidiasis, particularly biofilm formation ability. For their extraordinary organization, especially regarding the complex structure of the matrix, biofilms are very resistant to antifungal treatments. Thus, new approaches to the treatment of C. glabrata’s biofilms are emerging. In this article, the knowledge available on C. glabrata’s resistance will be highlighted, with a special focus on biofilms, as well as new therapeutic alternatives to control them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p><span class="html-italic">Candida glabrata</span> cells: (<b>A</b>) microscopy structure; (<b>B</b>) on CHROMagar<sup>TM</sup> <span class="html-italic">Candida</span>; (<b>C</b>) on Sabouraud dextrose agar (adapted from [<a href="#B4-jof-03-00011" class="html-bibr">4</a>]). The scale corresponds to 50 μm with a magnification of 200×.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Mechanisms of antifungal resistance and alternatives therapies associated to <span class="html-italic">C. glabrata</span> biofilms.</p>
Full article ">
1341 KiB  
Review
The Crucial Role of Biofilms in Cryptococcus neoformans Survival within Macrophages and Colonization of the Central Nervous System
by Lilit Aslanyan, David A. Sanchez, Silvana Valdebenito, Eliseo A. Eugenin, Raddy L. Ramos and Luis R. Martinez
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010010 - 24 Feb 2017
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7765
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast-like fungus capable of causing life threatening meningoencephalitis in patients with impaired immunity. This microbe primarily infects the host via inhalation but has the ability to disseminate to the central nervous system (CNS) either as a single cell [...] Read more.
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast-like fungus capable of causing life threatening meningoencephalitis in patients with impaired immunity. This microbe primarily infects the host via inhalation but has the ability to disseminate to the central nervous system (CNS) either as a single cell or inside of macrophages. Upon traversing the blood brain barrier, C. neoformans has the capacity to form biofilm-like structures known as cryptococcomas. Hence, we will discuss the C. neoformans elements contributing to biofilm formation including the fungus’ ability to survive in the acidic environment of a macrophage phagosome and inside of the CNS. The purpose of this mini-review is to instill fresh interest in understanding the importance of biofilms on fungal pathogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Biofilm-like cryptococcomas (brain lesions) in hippocampal tissue sections 14 days after intratracheal inoculation of <span class="html-italic">C. neoformans</span> strain H99 in a C57BL/6J mouse. (<b>A</b>) Confocal microscopy of the hippocampus in the brain of an infected animal with <span class="html-italic">cap59</span> (acapsular mutant). Capsule deficient mutants are cleared by phagocytic cells in the lungs of infected animals and are unable to reach the central nervous system; (<b>B</b>) Immunofluorescent image of a hippocampal tissue section of a mouse infected with wild-type <span class="html-italic">C. neoformans</span> H99 displaying large cryptococcomas (yellow arrows) filled with yeasts cells and abundant amounts of capsular polysaccharide released (white arrow heads) in the area; (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) Cryptococcomas are characterized by significant neuronal loss due to biofilm-like colonization of brain tissue; (<b>E</b>,<b>F</b>) High magnification images show a substantial number of yeast cells attached to neuronal tissue. For panels <b>A</b>–<b>F</b>, capsular-specific monoclonal antibody 18B7 (monoclonal antibody 18B7; green) was used to label fungal cells and capsular polysaccharide released. GFAP (red) and DAPI (blue) staining were used to label the cell bodies and nuclei of astrocytes, respectively. Scale bars: A,B = 230 µm; <b>C</b> = 87 µm; <b>D</b> = 35 µm; <b>E</b> = 21 µm; <b>F</b> = 17 µm.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Cryptococoma formation in the gray and white matter of the midbrain and hindbrain 14 days after intratracheal inoculation of <span class="html-italic">C. neoformans</span> strain H99 in a C57BL/6J mouse. (<b>A</b>) Nissl-stained sagittal section indicating location of cyptococomas observed in the superior colliculus (SC; black arrow), inferior colliculus (IC; black asterisk), and cerebellum (Crb; red arrowhead); (<b>B</b>) Low- and high-magnification of a white matter cryptococoma (left and right panels) in the anterior cerebellum; (<b>C</b>) Low- and high-magnification of a white matter cryptococoma (left and right panels) in the inferior colliculus showing loss of parenchymal neurons and few macrophages except along the borders of the lesion (arrows); (<b>D</b>) Low- and high-magnification of a white matter cryptococoma (left and right panels) in the dorsal superior colliculus with marked presence of Nissl-stained microglia/macrophages. Panel A was adapted from the Allen Brain Mouse Reference Atlas (<a href="http://atlas.brain-map.org" target="_blank">http://atlas.brain-map.org</a>). Black arrows in right panels indicate cryptococcal cells. Scale bars: <b>A</b> = 1047 µm; <b>B</b>–<b>D</b> left panels = 200 μm; <b>B</b>–<b>D</b> right panels = 50 μm.</p>
Full article ">
2966 KiB  
Article
Combinatorial Biosynthesis of Novel Multi-Hydroxy Carotenoids in the Red Yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous
by Hendrik Pollmann, Jürgen Breitenbach, Hendrik Wolff, Helge B. Bode and Gerhard Sandmann
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010009 - 22 Feb 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5627
Abstract
The red yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is an established platform for the synthesis of carotenoids. It was used for the generation of novel multi oxygenated carotenoid structures. This was achieved by a combinatorial approach starting with the selection of a β-carotene accumulating mutant, stepwise [...] Read more.
The red yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is an established platform for the synthesis of carotenoids. It was used for the generation of novel multi oxygenated carotenoid structures. This was achieved by a combinatorial approach starting with the selection of a β-carotene accumulating mutant, stepwise pathway engineering by integration of three microbial genes into the genome and finally the chemical reduction of the resulting 4,4’-diketo-nostoxanthin (2,3,2’,3’-tetrahydroxy-4,4’-diketo-β-carotene) and 4-keto-nostoxanthin (2,3,2’,3’-tetrahydroxy-4-monoketo-β-carotene). Both keto carotenoids and the resulting 4,4’-dihydroxy-nostoxanthin (2,3,4,2’,3’,4’-hexahydroxy-β-carotene) and 4-hydroxy-nostoxanthin (2,3,4,2’3’-pentahydroxy-β-carotene) were separated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analyzed by mass spectrometry. Their molecular masses and fragmentation patterns allowed the unequivocal identification of all four carotenoids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Pathway construction by genetic engineering of <span class="html-italic">Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous</span> for the synthesis of multi-oxygenated β-carotene derivatives. Open arrows indicate chemical reduction. Novel carotenoid structures are boxed.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>HPLC separation of hydroxy and keto carotenoids from <span class="html-italic">Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous</span> lines obtained by consecutive transformation with different <span class="html-italic">trans</span> genes. Traces <b>A</b>–<b>D</b> separated in HPLC system I, <b>E</b>–<b>H</b> in system II. Standards are shown in traces <b>D</b>, <b>F</b>–<b>H</b>. Abbreviations (and assignment of corresponding peaks): β-Car β-carotene (7), Zeax zeaxanthin, Cryp β-cryptoxanthin, Nostox nostoxanthin (3), Calox caloxanthin, Canth canthaxanthin (5), Ech echinenone (6), 4KZ 4-keto-zeaxanthin (4).</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Absorbance spectra of hydroxy-keto carotenoids before (compounds <b>1</b> and <b>2</b> with <span class="html-italic">cis</span> isomers <b>1’, 1’’</b> and <b>2’</b>) and after reduction (compounds <b>8</b> and <b>9</b> with <span class="html-italic">cis</span> isomer <b>9’</b>).</p>
Full article ">Figure 4
<p>HPLC separation of hydroxy carotenoids after reduction (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>) and isolated peaks 1 and 2 from <a href="#jof-03-00009-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a> and their reduction products in system II. Standards are shown in traces <b>B</b>–<b>D</b>. Abbreviations (and assignment of corresponding peaks): β-Car, β-carotene; Ech, echinenone; 4-HO-4’-K-βcar, 4-hydroxy-4’-keto-β-carotene (11); 4,4’-diHO-βCar, 4,4’-dihydroxy-β-carotene (10); 4-HO-β-Car, 4-hydroxy-β-carotene (12).</p>
Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>) MS-MS analysis of de-novo generated hydroxyl and keto-hydroxy β-carotene derivatives before and after reduction. The structures are indicated including the fragmentation pattern exemplified for 4-keto-nostoxanthin.</p>
Full article ">
583 KiB  
Review
Candida Species Biofilms’ Antifungal Resistance
by Sónia Silva, Célia F. Rodrigues, Daniela Araújo, Maria Elisa Rodrigues and Mariana Henriques
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010008 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 187 | Viewed by 13174
Abstract
Candida infections (candidiasis) are the most prevalent opportunistic fungal infection on humans and, as such, a major public health problem. In recent decades, candidiasis has been associated to Candida species other than Candida albicans. Moreover, biofilms have been considered the most prevalent [...] Read more.
Candida infections (candidiasis) are the most prevalent opportunistic fungal infection on humans and, as such, a major public health problem. In recent decades, candidiasis has been associated to Candida species other than Candida albicans. Moreover, biofilms have been considered the most prevalent growth form of Candida cells and a strong causative agent of the intensification of antifungal resistance. As yet, no specific resistance factor has been identified as the sole responsible for the increased recalcitrance to antifungal agents exhibited by biofilms. Instead, biofilm antifungal resistance is a complex multifactorial phenomenon, which still remains to be fully elucidated and understood. The different mechanisms, which may be responsible for the intrinsic resistance of Candida species biofilms, include the high density of cells within the biofilm, the growth and nutrient limitation, the effects of the biofilm matrix, the presence of persister cells, the antifungal resistance gene expression and the increase of sterols on the membrane of biofilm cells. Thus, this review intends to provide information on the recent advances about Candida species biofilm antifungal resistance and its implication on intensification of the candidiasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>General scheme of the mechanisms described as involved on <span class="html-italic">Candida species</span> biofilm resistance.</p>
Full article ">
1840 KiB  
Article
Comparative Efficacies of Antimicrobial Catheter Lock Solutions for Fungal Biofilm Eradication in an in Vitro Model of Catheter-Related Fungemia
by Joel Rosenblatt, Ruth A. Reitzel, Nylev Vargas-Cruz, Anne-Marie Chaftari, Ray Hachem and Issam I. Raad
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010007 - 10 Feb 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4925
Abstract
Fungal catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSIs)—primarily due to Candida species—account for over 12% of all CRBSIs, and have been progressively increasing in prevalence. They present significant health and economic burdens, and high mortality rates. Antimicrobial catheter lock solutions are an important prophylactic option for [...] Read more.
Fungal catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSIs)—primarily due to Candida species—account for over 12% of all CRBSIs, and have been progressively increasing in prevalence. They present significant health and economic burdens, and high mortality rates. Antimicrobial catheter lock solutions are an important prophylactic option for preventing fungal CRBSIs. In this study, we compared the effectiveness of two FDA-approved catheter lock solutions (heparin and saline) and three experimental antimicrobial catheter lock solutions—30% citrate, taurolidine-citrate-heparin (TCH), and nitroglycerin-citrate-ethanol (NiCE)—in an in vitro model of catheters colonized by fungi. The fungi tested were five different strains of Candida clinical isolates from cancer patients who contracted CRBSIs. Time-to-biofilm-eradication was assessed in the model with 15, 30, and 60 min exposures to the lock solutions. Only the NiCE lock solution was able to fully eradicate all fungal biofilms within 60 min. Neither 30% citrate nor TCH was able to fully eradicate any of the Candida biofilms in this time frame. The NiCE lock solution was significantly superior to TCH in eradicating biofilms of five different Candida species (p = 0.002 for all). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biofilms)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Time-to-kill eradication of <span class="html-italic">Candida albicans</span> (CA) biofilm—NiCE (0.003% nitroglycerin + 4% citrate + 22% ethanol) lock solution eradicated CA biofilm within 30 min to 60 min. None of the other lock solutions tested fully eradicated biofilm by the 60 min timepoint. A significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> = 0.002) is denoted with *** between 0.003% NiCE when compared to both TCH (1.35% taurolidine + 3.5% citrate + 1000 U/mL heparin) and 0.9% saline control. Graph Key: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#C00000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.9% saline; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#ED7D31"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 200 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#4472C4"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 30% citrate; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#FFC000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 1.35% taurolidine + 3.5% citrate + 1000 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#70AD47"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.003% nitroglycerin + 4% citrate + 22% ethanol.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Time-to-kill eradication of <span class="html-italic">Candida kruseii</span> (CK) biofilm—NiCE lock solution eradicated CK biofilm within 30 min. None of the other lock solutions tested fully eradicated biofilm by the 60 min timepoint. A significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> = 0.002) is denoted with *** between 0.003% NiCE when compared to both TCH and 0.9% saline control. Graph Key: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#C00000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.9% saline; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#ED7D31"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 200 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#4472C4"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 30% citrate; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#FFC000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 1.35% taurolidine + 3.5% citrate + 1000 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#70AD47"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.003% nitroglycerin + 4% citrate + 22% ethanol.</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Time-to-kill eradication of <span class="html-italic">Candida tropicalis</span> (CT) biofilm—NiCE lock solution eradicated CT biofilm within 1 h. None of the other lock solutions tested fully eradicated biofilm by the 60 min timepoint. A significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> = 0.002) is denoted with *** between 0.003% NiCE when compared to both TCH and 0.9% saline control. Graph Key: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#C00000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.9% saline; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#ED7D31"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 200 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#4472C4"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 30% citrate; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#FFC000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 1.35% taurolidine + 3.5% citrate + 1000 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#70AD47"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.003% nitroglycerin + 4% citrate + 22% ethanol.</p>
Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Time-to-kill eradication of <span class="html-italic">Candida glabrata</span> (CG) biofilm—NiCE lock solution eradicated CG biofilm within 1 h. None of the other lock solutions tested fully eradicated biofilm by the 60 min timepoint. A significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> = 0.002) is denoted with *** between 0.003% NiCE when compared to both TCH and 0.9% saline control. Graph Key: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#C00000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.9% saline; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#ED7D31"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 200 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#4472C4"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 30% citrate; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#FFC000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 1.35% taurolidine + 3.5% citrate + 1000 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#70AD47"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.003% nitroglycerin + 4% citrate + 22% ethanol.</p>
Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Time-to-kill eradication of <span class="html-italic">Candida parapsilosis</span> (CP) biofilm—NiCE lock solution eradicated CP biofilm within 15 min to 30 min. None of the other lock solutions tested fully eradicated biofilm by the 60 min timepoint. A significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> = 0.002) is denoted with *** between 0.003% NiCE when compared to both TCH and 0.9% saline control. Graph Key: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#C00000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.9% saline; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#ED7D31"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 200 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#4472C4"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 30% citrate; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#FFC000"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 1.35% taurolidine + 3.5% citrate + 1000 U heparin; <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle mathcolor="#70AD47"> <mo>•</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics> </math> 0.003% nitroglycerin + 4% citrate + 22% ethanol.</p>
Full article ">
1474 KiB  
Review
Cutaneous Disseminated and Extracutaneous Sporotrichosis: Current Status of a Complex Disease
by Alexandro Bonifaz and Andrés Tirado-Sánchez
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010006 - 10 Feb 2017
Cited by 79 | Viewed by 24149
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is an implantation or inoculation mycosis caused by species of Sporothrix schenckii complex; its main manifestations are limited to skin; however, cutaneous-disseminated, disseminated (visceral) and extracutaneous variants of sporotrichosis can be associated with immunosuppression, including HIV-AIDS, chronic alcoholism or more virulent strains. [...] Read more.
Sporotrichosis is an implantation or inoculation mycosis caused by species of Sporothrix schenckii complex; its main manifestations are limited to skin; however, cutaneous-disseminated, disseminated (visceral) and extracutaneous variants of sporotrichosis can be associated with immunosuppression, including HIV-AIDS, chronic alcoholism or more virulent strains. The most common extracutaneous form of sporotrichosis includes pulmonary, osteoarticular and meningeal. The laboratory diagnosis requires observing yeast forms and isolating the fungus; the two main causative agents are Sporothrix schenckii (ss) and Sporothrix brasiliensis. Antibody levels and species recognition by Polimerase Chain Reaction using biological samples or cultures are also useful. The treatment of choice for most cases is amphotericin B and subsequent itraconazole for maintenance therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Infections in the Developing World)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Extensive cutaneous disseminated sporotrichosis associated to chronic alcoholism.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Biopsy of disseminated sporotrichosis. Renal biopsy with multiple clusters of lengthened yeast forms “cigar-shaped” (Grocott, 40×).</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Culture of <span class="html-italic">Sporothrix schenckii</span> (Sabouraud media, 28 °C) Filamentous state with thin hyphae and denticle microconidia like “daisy flowers” (Erythrosine, 40×).</p>
Full article ">
363 KiB  
Review
Global Aspects of Triazole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus with Focus on Latin American Countries
by Sarah Santos Gonçalves
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010005 - 10 Feb 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4580
Abstract
Azole resistance in Aspergillus has emerged as an escalating problem in health care, and it has been detected in patients exposed, or not, to these drugs. It is known that azole antifungals are widely applied not only in clinical treatments for fungal infections, [...] Read more.
Azole resistance in Aspergillus has emerged as an escalating problem in health care, and it has been detected in patients exposed, or not, to these drugs. It is known that azole antifungals are widely applied not only in clinical treatments for fungal infections, but also as agricultural fungicides, resulting in a significant threat for human health. Although the number of cases of azole-resistant aspergillosis is still limited, various resistance mechanisms are described from clinical and environmental isolates. These mechanisms consist mainly of alterations in the target of azole action (CYP51A gene)—specifically on TR34/L98H and TR46/Y121F/T289A, which are responsible for over 90% of resistance cases. This review summarizes the epidemiology, management, and extension of azole resistance in A. fumigatus worldwide and its potential impact in Latin American countries, emphasizing its relevance to clinical practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Infections in the Developing World)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Epidemiology of azole resistance in Latin American Countries and the main resistance mechanisms.</p>
Full article ">
1461 KiB  
Review
Entomopathogenicity and Biological Attributes of Himalayan Treasured Fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Yarsagumba)
by Bikash Baral
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010004 - 5 Feb 2017
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 15697
Abstract
Members of the entomophagous fungi are considered very crucial in the fungal domain relative to their natural phenomenon and economic perspectives; however, inadequate knowledge of their mechanisms of interaction keeps them lagging behind in parallel studies of fungi associated with agro-ecology, forest pathology [...] Read more.
Members of the entomophagous fungi are considered very crucial in the fungal domain relative to their natural phenomenon and economic perspectives; however, inadequate knowledge of their mechanisms of interaction keeps them lagging behind in parallel studies of fungi associated with agro-ecology, forest pathology and medical biology. Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn. Cordyceps sinensis), an intricate fungus-caterpillar complex after it parasitizes the larva of the moth, is a highly prized medicinal fungus known widely for ages due to its peculiar biochemical assets. Recent technological innovations have significantly contributed a great deal to profiling the variable clinical importance of this fungus and other related fungi with similar medicinal potential. However, a detailed mechanism behind fungal pathogenicity and fungal-insect interactions seems rather ambiguous and is poorly justified, demanding special attention. The goal of the present review is to divulge an update on the published data and provides promising insights on different biological events that have remained underemphasized in previous reviews on fungal biology with relation to life-history trade-offs, host specialization and selection pressures. The infection of larvae by a fungus is not a unique event in Cordyceps; hence, other fungal species are also reviewed for effective comparison. Conceivably, the rationale and approaches behind the inheritance of pharmacological abilities acquired and stored within the insect framework at a time when they are completely hijacked and consumed by fungal parasites, and the molecular mechanisms involved therein, are clearly documented. Full article
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Morphology of <span class="html-italic">OS</span> (polished sample immediately after harvesting).</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Fungal assault on insect larvae. (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) Spore landing and attachment: Sticky conidia are attached to larval cuticle by adhesins; (<b>C</b>) Infection and formation of germ tube: germination of conidia and extension of germ tube inside larval body; (<b>D</b>) Proliferation of mycelium: within larval body, hyphae extend continuously, giving rise to an extensive mycelial mass; (<b>E</b>) Extension of fungal mycelium: mycelium extends throughout larval body, colonizing every organ; (<b>F</b>) Eruption of fruiting body (ascocarp): soon after body gets colonized by fungal mycelium, it proliferates out from frontal cortex just between the eyes; (<b>G</b>) Mature <span class="html-italic">Cordyceps</span>: <span class="html-italic">Cordyceps</span> after erupting from larval head (larvae of Himalayan bat moth <span class="html-italic">Hepialus armonicanus).</span> * This entry-route of infection in <span class="html-italic">Cordyceps</span> is still unclear and thus requires further justification.</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Defensive munitions observed during fungus-insect interactions (molecular interplay between two organisms).</p>
Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Detailed mechanism of fungal assault to insect larvae. Unlike in mammals, fungal cell-wall is endowed with several glycans, glycolipids and proteins. PAMPs trigger upregulation of immunity via several pathogen-recognition receptors (PRRs), such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs). CLRs such as N-linked mannans, galactomannans, β-1,3 glucans, α-mannals and α-mannosyl residues are detected by MR, DC-SIGN, Dectin 1, Dectin 2 and MINCLE, respectively. RPW8: Atypical resistance protein. DC-SIGN: Dendritic cell-specific ICAM3-grabbing non-integrin, MAMP: Microbes-associated molecular pattern, MINCLE: Macrophage-inducible C-type lectin, MR: Mannose receptor, NB-LRR: Nucleotide binding leucine-rich repeat domain, NOD: Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein, PAMP: Pathogen-associated molecular pattern, PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyls, SA: Salicylic Acid [<a href="#B36-jof-03-00004" class="html-bibr">36</a>,<a href="#B56-jof-03-00004" class="html-bibr">56</a>,<a href="#B80-jof-03-00004" class="html-bibr">80</a>]. Solid and dotted arrows represent detail molecular mechanism in most entomopathogens and <span class="html-italic">Cordyceps</span> sp. respectively, while T-arrows represent resistance mechanism of the insects against the invading pathogens.</p>
Full article ">
149 KiB  
Editorial
Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Journal of Fungi in 2016
by Journal of Fungi Editorial Office
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010003 - 11 Jan 2017
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3236
Abstract
The editors of Journal of Fungi would like to express their sincere gratitude to the following reviewers for assessing manuscripts in 2016.[...] Full article
3125 KiB  
Review
Biocontrol Properties of Basidiomycetes: An Overview
by Subramaniyan Sivanandhan, Ameer Khusro, Michael Gabriel Paulraj, Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu and Naif Abdullah AL-Dhabi
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010002 - 10 Jan 2017
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 10119
Abstract
In agriculture, there is an urgent need for alternate ecofriendly products to control plant diseases. These alternate products must possess preferable characteristics such as new modes of action, cost effectiveness, biodegradability, and target specificity. In the current scenario, studies on macrofungi have been [...] Read more.
In agriculture, there is an urgent need for alternate ecofriendly products to control plant diseases. These alternate products must possess preferable characteristics such as new modes of action, cost effectiveness, biodegradability, and target specificity. In the current scenario, studies on macrofungi have been an area of importance for scientists. Macrofungi grow prolifically and are found in many parts of the world. Basidiomycetes (mushrooms) flourish ubiquitously under warm and humid climates. Basidiomycetes are rich sources of natural antibiotics. The secondary metabolites produced by them possess antimicrobial, antitumor, and antioxidant properties. The present review discusses the potential role of Basidiomycetes as anti-phytofungal, anti-phytobacterial, anti-phytoviral, mosquito larvicidal, and nematicidal agents. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Some of the biocontrol properties of Basidiomycetes compounds.</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Strobilurin A (<b>a</b>); Strobilurin B (<b>b</b>); Strobilurin C (<b>c</b>); Oudemansin B (<b>d</b>); Strobilurin E (<b>e</b>); Strobilurin D (<b>f</b>); Strobilurin F (<b>g</b>); (<b>h</b>); Strobilurin H (<b>i</b>).</p>
Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Coprinol.</p>
Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan (GXM).</p>
Full article ">Figure 5
<p>p-anisaldehyde (<b>a</b>); Linoleic acid (<b>b</b>); 5-pentyl-2-furaldehyde (<b>c</b>); 5(4-penteny)-2-furaldehyde (<b>d</b>); Omphalotin (<b>e</b>); 1-Hydroxypyrene (<b>f</b>).</p>
Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(Oxiran-2-yl) methylpentanoate (<b>a</b>); 4-(2-hydroxyethyl) phenol (<b>b</b>); 3-methoxy-5-methyl-1,2-benzenediol (<b>c</b>).</p>
Full article ">
3867 KiB  
Review
New Trends in Paracoccidioidomycosis Epidemiology
by Roberto Martinez
J. Fungi 2017, 3(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3010001 - 3 Jan 2017
Cited by 192 | Viewed by 11611
Abstract
Paracoccidioidomycosis is a systemic fungal disease occurring in Latin America and more prevalent in South America. The disease is caused by the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides spp. whose major hosts are humans and armadillos. The fungus grows in soil and its infection is associated [...] Read more.
Paracoccidioidomycosis is a systemic fungal disease occurring in Latin America and more prevalent in South America. The disease is caused by the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides spp. whose major hosts are humans and armadillos. The fungus grows in soil and its infection is associated with exposure to the rural environment and to agricultural activities, with a higher risk in coffee and tobacco plantations. Population studies assessing the reactivity to Paracoccidioides spp. antigens by intradermal reaction or serological tests have detected previous subclinical infections in a significant proportion of healthy individuals living in various endemic countries. Paracoccidioidomycosis-disease is manifested by a small minority of infected individuals. The risk of developing the disease and its type of clinical form are related to the personal and life style characteristics of infected individuals, including genetic background, age, sex, ethnicity, smoking habit, alcohol drinking, and eventual cellular immunosuppression. Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Ecuador have endemic areas that had already been defined in the 20th century. The incidence of paracoccidioidomycosis can be altered by climate phenomena and mainly by human migration and occupation of poorly explored territories. In Brazil, the endemy tends to expand towards the North and Center-West around the Amazon Region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Infections in the Developing World)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Rate of the <span class="html-italic">Paracoccidioides</span> spp. infection determined by intradermal test in general populations according to geographic area [<a href="#B7-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B31-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B38-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">38</a>,<a href="#B56-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">56</a>,<a href="#B57-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">57</a>,<a href="#B59-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">59</a>,<a href="#B60-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">60</a>,<a href="#B61-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">61</a>,<a href="#B62-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">62</a>,<a href="#B63-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. Comparatively, the marks show the places where this fungus was isolated form soil [<a href="#B4-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">4</a>] or where captured animals has paracoccidioidomycosis: armadillos [<a href="#B8-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">9</a>], two-toed sloth [<a href="#B73-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">73</a>], squirrel monkey [<a href="#B72-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">72</a>], and domestic dogs [<a href="#B70-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">70</a>,<a href="#B71-jof-03-00001" class="html-bibr">71</a>].</p>
Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Geographic areas of paracoccidioidomycosis endemicity in Latin America: ( <span class="html-fig-inline" id="jof-03-00001-i001"> <img alt="Jof 03 00001 i001" src="/jof/jof-03-00001/article_deploy/html/images/jof-03-00001-i001.png"/></span>) First recognized areas of high endemicity; ( <span class="html-fig-inline" id="jof-03-00001-i002"> <img alt="Jof 03 00001 i002" src="/jof/jof-03-00001/article_deploy/html/images/jof-03-00001-i002.png"/></span>) high endemicity observed since the last decades of the 20th century; ( <span class="html-fig-inline" id="jof-03-00001-i003"> <img alt="Jof 03 00001 i003" src="/jof/jof-03-00001/article_deploy/html/images/jof-03-00001-i003.png"/></span>) area with some recent evidence of increasing endemicity; ( <span class="html-fig-inline" id="jof-03-00001-i004"> <img alt="Jof 03 00001 i004" src="/jof/jof-03-00001/article_deploy/html/images/jof-03-00001-i004.png"/></span>) areas of moderate endemicity; ( <span class="html-fig-inline" id="jof-03-00001-i005"> <img alt="Jof 03 00001 i005" src="/jof/jof-03-00001/article_deploy/html/images/jof-03-00001-i005.png"/></span>) low endemicity; ( <span class="html-fig-inline" id="jof-03-00001-i006"> <img alt="Jof 03 00001 i006" src="/jof/jof-03-00001/article_deploy/html/images/jof-03-00001-i006.png"/></span>) no areas or rare cases of paracoccidioidomycosis reported in these countries or regions.</p>
Full article ">
Previous Issue
Next Issue
Back to TopTop