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Brain Sciences
Volume 9
Issue 6
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Brain Sci., Volume 9, Issue 6 (June 2019) – 26 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): In the last 15 years, increasing numbers of individuals have self-referred to research laboratories in the belief that they experience severe everyday difficulties with face recognition. The current study assessed 165 adults who believe they experience DP, and 38% of the sample were impaired on at least two of the tests outlined above. While statistical dissociations between face perception and face memory were only observed in four cases, a further 25% of the sample displayed dissociations between impaired famous face recognition and intact short-term unfamiliar face memory and face perception. We discuss whether this pattern of findings reflects (a) limitations within dominant diagnostic tests and protocols, (b) a less severe form of DP, or (c) a currently unrecognized but prevalent form of the condition that affects long-term face memory, familiar face recognition or semantic processing. View this [...] Read more.
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32 pages, 2442 KiB  
Article
The Limiting Case of Amodal Completion: The Phenomenal Salience and the Role of Contrast Polarity
by Baingio Pinna and Livio Conti
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060149 - 24 Jun 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5213
Abstract
In this work, we demonstrated unique and relevant visual properties imparted by contrast polarity in perceptual organization and in eliciting amodal completion, which is the vivid completion of a single continuous object of the visible parts of an occluded shape despite portions of [...] Read more.
In this work, we demonstrated unique and relevant visual properties imparted by contrast polarity in perceptual organization and in eliciting amodal completion, which is the vivid completion of a single continuous object of the visible parts of an occluded shape despite portions of its boundary contours not actually being seen. T-junction, good continuation, and closure are considered the main principles involved according to relevant explanations of amodal completion based on the simplicity–Prägnanz principle, Helmholtz’s likelihood, and Bayesian inference. The main interest of these approaches is to explain how the occluded object is completed, what is the amodal shape, and how contours of partially visible fragments are relatable behind an occluder. Different from these perspectives, amodal completion was considered here as a visual phenomenon and not as a process, i.e., the final outcome of perceptual processes and grouping principles. Therefore, the main question we addressed through our stimuli was “What is the role of shape formation and perceptual organization in inducing amodal completion?” To answer this question, novel stimuli, similar to limiting cases and instantiae crucis, were studied through Gestalt experimental phenomenology. The results demonstrated the domination of the contrast polarity against good continuation, T-junctions, and regularity. Moreover, the limiting conditions explored revealed a new kind of junction next to the T- and Y-junctions, respectively responsible for amodal completion and tessellation. We called them I-junctions. The results were theoretically discussed in relation to the previous approaches and in the light of the phenomenal salience imparted by contrast polarity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vividness, Consciousness, and Mental Imagery: Making the Missing Links across Disciplines and Methods)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Amodal completion: the full and vivid completion of the visible portions of geometrical shapes behind other shapes.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The visible portions of the amodal shapes perceived in <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The invisible geometrical full and transparent overlapping shapes of <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>When the contrast polarity plays synergistically with other factors (T-junctions and good continuation), amodal completion and depth segregation are more salient than those perceived in <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The results of <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a> are now partially and slightly disrupted, parceled, and camouflaged due to the contrast polarity pitted against T-junctions and good continuation.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>A cross geometrically composed of five adjacent squares or a cross made up of two-centered and intersected orthogonal rectangles of equal size?</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Conditions demonstrating the dominance of the contrast polarity over good continuation, T-junctions, and regularity.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The dominance of the contrast polarity over good continuation, T-junctions, and regularity is also demonstrated within a classical example of amodal completion.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Petter’s effect: the larger surface (<b>a</b>) and the region with straight boundaries (<b>b</b>) appear in front of the smaller one and of the region with undulated boundaries.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The same set of stimuli of <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a> has been redrawn by introducing Petter’s effect according to which the larger rectangle is expected to be seen in front of the thinner one.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>The same set of stimuli of <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a> has been redrawn by introducing Petter’s effect according to which the vertical rectangle with straight boundaries is expected to be perceived in front of the one with undulated contours.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Phenomenal hexagonal tessellation.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Different kinds of amodal completion induced by contrast polarity within hexagonal tessellations.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Two different kinds of amodal completion within hexagonal tessellations.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Two polygonal white shapes are perceived as joined together in some kind of annulus or, alternately, two overlapping shapes with the larger behind the smaller one.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>White hexagons partially occluding an amodal texture, different from the surrounding black hexagons.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The figures, partially occluded by the square, complete amodally as asymmetrical shapes.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>The contrast polarity reverses the amodal completion of <a href="#brainsci-09-00149-f017" class="html-fig">Figure 17</a>: The square is now perceived as partially occluded by the asymmetrical objects.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>From four stars to a cross partially occluded by a white square-like shape.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Contrast polarity breaks the unitariness of the stars and elicits amodal completion without junctions (cfr. (<b>a</b>) and (<b>b</b>) rows).</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Contrast polarity breaks the unitariness of the stars and induces amodal completion without junctions.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Octagons apparently different due to the accentuation imparted by the contrast polarity.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 1927 KiB  
Article
ERP Evidence for Co-Activation of English Words during Recognition of American Sign Language Signs
by Brittany Lee, Gabriela Meade, Katherine J. Midgley, Phillip J. Holcomb and Karen Emmorey
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060148 - 21 Jun 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6189
Abstract
Event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to investigate co-activation of English words during recognition of American Sign Language (ASL) signs. Deaf and hearing signers viewed pairs of ASL signs and judged their semantic relatedness. Half of the semantically unrelated signs had English translations that [...] Read more.
Event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to investigate co-activation of English words during recognition of American Sign Language (ASL) signs. Deaf and hearing signers viewed pairs of ASL signs and judged their semantic relatedness. Half of the semantically unrelated signs had English translations that shared an orthographic and phonological rime (e.g., BAR–STAR) and half did not (e.g., NURSE–STAR). Classic N400 and behavioral semantic priming effects were observed in both groups. For hearing signers, targets in sign pairs with English rime translations elicited a smaller N400 compared to targets in pairs with unrelated English translations. In contrast, a reversed N400 effect was observed for deaf signers: target signs in English rime translation pairs elicited a larger N400 compared to targets in pairs with unrelated English translations. This reversed effect was overtaken by a later, more typical ERP priming effect for deaf signers who were aware of the manipulation. These findings provide evidence that implicit language co-activation in bimodal bilinguals is bidirectional. However, the distinct pattern of effects in deaf and hearing signers suggests that it may be modulated by differences in language proficiency and dominance as well as by asymmetric reliance on orthographic versus phonological representations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Neuroscience of Cross-Language Interaction in Bilinguals)
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Figure 1
<p>Example stimuli. A prime-target pair consisting of American Sign Language (ASL) signs with English rime translation (<span class="html-italic">bar–star</span>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Electrode montage with gray channels included in event-related potential (ERP) analyses. Fifteen analyzed channels were distributed across five levels of Anterior/Posterior (Prefrontal, Frontal, Central, Parietal, Occipital) and three levels of Laterality (Left, Midline, Right).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Semantic priming effects in hearing and deaf signers. Grand average ERP waveforms elicited by targets in semantically unrelated (black) and semantically related (blue) pairs at 15 sites. Each vertical tick marks 100 ms and negative is plotted up. The calibration bar marks 2 µV. Scalp voltage maps showing the semantic priming effect on mean N400 amplitude (unrelated–related) from 325–625 ms.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>English translation rime priming effects in hearing and deaf signers. Grand average ERP waveforms elicited by targets in non-rime translation (black) and rime translation (red) pairs at 15 sites. Each vertical tick marks 100 ms and negative is plotted up. The calibration bar marks 2 µV. Scalp voltage maps showing the English translation priming effect on mean N400 amplitude (unrelated–related).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>English translation rime effects in implicit and explicit subgroups of deaf signers at representative site F4. Scalp voltage maps showing the difference in mean amplitude between non-rime and rime translation trials for each of the analyzed time windows.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 3824 KiB  
Article
Activation of Membrane Estrogen Receptors Attenuates NOP-Mediated Tactile Antihypersensitivity in a Rodent Model of Neuropathic Pain
by Danyeal M. Wright, Keri M. Small, Subodh Nag and Sukhbir S. Mokha
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060147 - 21 Jun 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4183
Abstract
Women manifest a higher prevalence of several chronic pain disorders compared to men. We demonstrated earlier that estrogen rapidly attenuates nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) peptide receptor (NOP)-mediated thermal antinociception through the activation of membrane estrogen receptors (mERs). However, the effect of mER activation on [...] Read more.
Women manifest a higher prevalence of several chronic pain disorders compared to men. We demonstrated earlier that estrogen rapidly attenuates nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) peptide receptor (NOP)-mediated thermal antinociception through the activation of membrane estrogen receptors (mERs). However, the effect of mER activation on NOP-mediated attenuation of tactile hypersensitivity in a neuropathic model of pain and the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Following spared nerve injury (SNI), male and ovariectomized (OVX) female rats were intrathecally (i.t.) injected with a selective mER agonist and nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ), the endogenous ligand for NOP, and their effects on paw withdrawal thresholds (PWTs) were tested. In addition, spinal cord tissue was used to measure changes in phosphorylated extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK), protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC), and protein kinase B (Akt) levels. SNI significantly reduced PWTs in males and OVX females, indicating tactile hypersensitivity. N/OFQ restored PWTs, indicating an antihypersensitive effect. Selective mER activation attenuated the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. SNI led to a robust increase in the phosphorylation of ERK, PKA, PKC, and Akt. However, mER activation did not further affect it. Thus, we conclude that activation of mERs rapidly abolishes NOP-mediated tactile antihypersensitivity following SNI via an ERK-, PKA-, PKC-, and Akt-independent mechanism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sex Differences in the Brain: The Estrogen Quandary)
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Figure 1
<p>Intrathecally administered (β-estradiol 6-(<span class="html-italic">O</span>-carboxymethyl) oxime/bovine serum albumin (BSA)) (E<sub>2</sub>BSA) rapidly attenuated nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) peptide receptor (NOP)-mediated antihypersensitivity in ovariectomized (OVX) rats: (<b>a</b>) Spared nerve injury (SNI) significantly reduced paw withdrawal thresholds (PWTs) compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. Co-administration with E<sub>2</sub>BSA (0.5 mM) abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with membrane estrogen receptor (mER) antagonist (ICI 182,780 and G-15 cocktail) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) the area under the curve (AUC) analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI group, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and E<sub>2</sub>BSA attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to E<sub>2</sub>BSA + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Intrathecally administered E<sub>2</sub>BSA rapidly attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity in male rats. (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. Co-administration of E<sub>2</sub>BSA (0.5 mM) abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780 and G-15 cocktail) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and E<sub>2</sub>BSA attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to E<sub>2</sub>BSA + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Selective activation of ERα attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity in OVX rats: (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. Intrathecal administration of N/OFQ (10 nM) significantly increased paw withdrawal thresholds, whereas propylpyrazoletriol (PPT) (100 nM), the selective ERα agonist, attenuated the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and PPT attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to PPT + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Selective activation of ERα in male rats rapidly attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity: (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. PPT (100 nM) abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and PPT attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to PPT + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Selective activation of ERβ attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity in OVX female rats: (<b>a</b>) SNI of the sciatic nerve significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. Intrathecal administration of N/OFQ (10 nM) significantly increased paw withdrawal thresholds, and diarylpropionitrile (DPN) (100 nM), the selective ERβ agonist, attenuated the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780) restored the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and DPN attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to DPN + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Selective activation of ERβ in male rats rapidly attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity: (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. DPN (100 nM) abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and DPN attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; #, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to DPN + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Selective activation of GPR30 attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity in OVX female rats: (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. Co-administration of N/OFQ with G-1 (0.25 nM), the selective agonist for GPR30, abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with GPR30 antagonist (G-15) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and G-1 attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; #, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to G-1 + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Selective activation of GPR30 attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity in male animals: (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. G-1 (0.25 nM) abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with GPR30 antagonist (G-15) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and G-1 attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; #, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to G-1 + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Selective activation of Gq-mER attenuated NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity in OVX rats: (<b>a</b>) SNI of the sciatic nerve significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. Intrathecal administration of N/OFQ (10 nM) significantly increased PWTs, whereas STX (10 nM), the selective agonist for Gq-mER, attenuated the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and STX attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; #, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to STX + N/OFQ.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p><b>Figure 10</b>. NOP-mediated antihypersensitivity was rapidly attenuated by Gq-mER activation in male rats: (<b>a</b>) SNI significantly reduced PWTs compared to the sham group. N/OFQ (10 nM) increased PWTs in both the sham and SNI groups. STX (10 nM) abolished the N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. Pretreatment with mER antagonist (ICI 182,780) restored an N/OFQ-induced increase in PWTs. (<b>b</b>) AUC analysis confirmed these effects, with a significantly reduced AUC in the SNI groups, N/OFQ significantly increasing it, and STX attenuating the effect of N/OFQ in an antagonist-reversible manner. Here, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + veh; # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to veh + N/OFQ; <span>$</span>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 compared to STX + N/OFQ. Taken together, these behavioral data suggest that simultaneous or selective activation of any spinal mER rapidly attenuated spinal NOP-mediated antinociception in the sham groups and tactile antihypersensitivity in the nerve-injured OVX female and male rats.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 291 KiB  
Article
Genetic and Environmental Predictors of Adolescent PTSD Symptom Trajectories Following a Natural Disaster
by Christina M. Sheerin, Laurel V. Kovalchick, Cassie Overstreet, Lance M. Rappaport, Vernell Williamson, Vladimir Vladimirov, Kenneth J. Ruggiero and Ananda B. Amstadter
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060146 - 20 Jun 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5487
Abstract
Genes, environmental factors, and their interplay affect posttrauma symptoms. Although environmental predictors of the longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are documented, there remains a need to incorporate genetic risk into these models, especially in youth who are underrepresented in genetic [...] Read more.
Genes, environmental factors, and their interplay affect posttrauma symptoms. Although environmental predictors of the longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are documented, there remains a need to incorporate genetic risk into these models, especially in youth who are underrepresented in genetic studies. In an epidemiologic sample tornado-exposed adolescents (n = 707, 51% female, Mage = 14.54 years), trajectories of PTSD symptoms were examined at baseline and at 4-months and 12-months following baseline. This study aimed to determine if rare genetic variation in genes previously found in the sample to be related to PTSD diagnosis at baseline (MPHOSPH9, LGALS13, SLC2A2), environmental factors (disaster severity, social support), or their interplay were associated with symptom trajectories. A series of mixed effects models were conducted. Symptoms decreased over the three time points. Elevated tornado severity was associated with elevated baseline symptoms. Elevated recreational support was associated with lower baseline symptoms and attenuated improvement over time. Greater LGLAS13 variants attenuated symptom improvement over time. An interaction between MPHOSPH9 variants and tornado severity was associated with elevated baseline symptoms, but not change over time. Findings suggest the importance of rare genetic variation and environmental factors on the longitudinal course of PTSD symptoms following natural disaster trauma exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurobiological Trajectories of Psychological Trauma—Implications for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD))
11 pages, 363 KiB  
Perspective
The Counteracting Effects of Exercise on High-Fat Diet-Induced Memory Impairment: A Systematic Review
by Paul D. Loprinzi, Pamela Ponce, Liye Zou and Hong Li
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060145 - 20 Jun 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5312
Abstract
The objective of the present review was to evaluate whether exercise can counteract a potential high-fat diet-induced memory impairment effect. The evaluated databases included: Google Scholar, Sports Discus, Embase/PubMed, Web of Science, and PsychInfo. Studies were included if: (1) an experimental/intervention study was [...] Read more.
The objective of the present review was to evaluate whether exercise can counteract a potential high-fat diet-induced memory impairment effect. The evaluated databases included: Google Scholar, Sports Discus, Embase/PubMed, Web of Science, and PsychInfo. Studies were included if: (1) an experimental/intervention study was conducted, (2) the experiment/intervention included both a high-fat diet and exercise group, and evaluated whether exercise could counteract the negative effects of a high-fat diet on memory, and (3) evaluated memory function (any type) as the outcome measure. In total, 17 articles met the inclusionary criteria. All 17 studies (conducted in rodents) demonstrated that the high-fat diet protocol impaired memory function and all 17 studies demonstrated a counteracting effect with chronic exercise engagement. Mechanisms of these robust effects are discussed herein. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet in Brain Health and Neurological Disorders: Risk Factors and Treatments)
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<p>Schematic illustrating the mechanistic role through which exercise may counteract a high-fat diet-induced impairment of memory function.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 484 KiB  
Article
Uncovering Dynamic Brain Reconfiguration in MEG Working Memory n-Back Task Using Topological Data Analysis
by Ali Nabi Duman, Ahmet Emin Tatar and Harun Pirim
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060144 - 19 Jun 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5521
Abstract
The increasing availability of high temporal resolution neuroimaging data has increased the efforts to understand the dynamics of neural functions. Until recently, there are few studies on generative models supporting classification and prediction of neural systems compared to the description of the architecture. [...] Read more.
The increasing availability of high temporal resolution neuroimaging data has increased the efforts to understand the dynamics of neural functions. Until recently, there are few studies on generative models supporting classification and prediction of neural systems compared to the description of the architecture. However, the requirement of collapsing data spatially and temporally in the state-of-the art methods to analyze functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalogram (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) data cause loss of important information. In this study, we addressed this issue using a topological data analysis (TDA) method, called Mapper, which visualizes evolving patterns of brain activity as a mathematical graph. Accordingly, we analyzed preprocessed MEG data of 83 subjects from Human Connectome Project (HCP) collected during working memory n-back task. We examined variation in the dynamics of the brain states with the Mapper graphs, and to determine how this variation relates to measures such as response time and performance. The application of the Mapper method to MEG data detected a novel neuroimaging marker that explained the performance of the participants along with the ground truth of response time. In addition, TDA enabled us to distinguish two task-positive brain activations during 0-back and 2-back tasks, which is hard to detect with the other pipelines that require collapsing the data in the spatial and temporal domain. Further, the Mapper graphs of the individuals also revealed one large group in the middle of the stimulus detecting the high engagement in the brain with fine temporal resolution, which could contribute to increase spatiotemporal resolution by merging different imaging modalities. Hence, our work provides another evidence to the effectiveness of the TDA methods for extracting subtle dynamic properties of high temporal resolution MEG data without the temporal and spatial collapse. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neurotechnology and Neuroimaging)
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Figure 1
<p>Flowchart illustrating the steps used to construct the Mapper graph from magnetoencephalography (MEG) dataset.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The Mapper graph of subject No.156334 illustrating the clusters of the 91 time-points during the 0-back memory test. The size of the nodes are directly proportional to the number of time-points they contain.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Unconventional Mapper graph of subject No. 156334 with <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>97</mn> <mo>%</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> accuracy in 0-back memory test. The graph shows the members (i.e., time-points) of the each node in the Mapper graph. The black straight line indicates the first time-point <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>63</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> during the stimulus that returns to the beginning of the stimulus.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Mapper graphs of subject No. 175237 during the 0-back memory test. The graph on the left was obtained using parameters <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>10</mn> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> and the one on the right with the parameters <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mn>7</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>70</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The return to the beginning of the stimulus was at the time-point <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>79</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> for the graph on the left and at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>83</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> for the graph on the right.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Subjects No. 353740 (left) and No. 917255 (right) without a return-point.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The blue lines represent the regression lines for the return point in the mapper graph 0-Back vs. accuracy in 0-back(upper left), the return point in the mapper graph 2-Back vs. accuracy in 2-back (lower left), accuracy in 0-back vs reaction-time in 0-back (upper right) and accuracy in 0-back vs reaction-time in 0-back (lower right). They all have negative slopes, meaning that both return-time points and median reaction times are negatively correlated with the accuracy.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>A snapshot of the cleaned dataset showing the first 10 subjects.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The box plots of the return-points obtained from 0-back and 2-back mapper graphs. 0-back values are significantly lower than 2-back values. These box plots were obtained using the return-points from the parameters <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mn>7</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>70</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>10</mn> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> as it had the most significant correlation score of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0.20065</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> (see <a href="#brainsci-09-00144-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The table shows correlation scores between accuracy scores of each test and the points in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="script">G</mi> </semantics></math>. We also recorded the column wise mean of the correlation scores as we selected the coefficient when we compared the two types of the memory test based on this mean. It is also worth noting that the scores on the table are consistent with the scatter plots in <a href="#brainsci-09-00144-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Mapper graph of subject No. 1125525 (left) during the 2-back memory test on the left. Mapper graph of subject No. 149741 (right) during the 0-back memory test on the right. The big clusters in the middle of stimulation where subjects were highly engaged indicate the higher consistency between brain activity patterns. The smaller clusters at the beginning and the end of the stimulus where the subjects’ engagement was lower indicate low consistency.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 934 KiB  
Article
Imagery-Mediated Verbal Learning Depends on Vividness–Familiarity Interactions: The Possible Role of Dualistic Resting State Network Activity Interference
by Etienne Lefebvre and Amedeo D’Angiulli
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060143 - 18 Jun 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5178
Abstract
Using secondary database analysis, we tested whether the (implicit) familiarity of eliciting noun-cues and the (explicit) vividness of corresponding imagery exerted additive or interactive influences on verbal learning, as measured by the probability of incidental noun recall and image latency times (RTs). Noun-cues [...] Read more.
Using secondary database analysis, we tested whether the (implicit) familiarity of eliciting noun-cues and the (explicit) vividness of corresponding imagery exerted additive or interactive influences on verbal learning, as measured by the probability of incidental noun recall and image latency times (RTs). Noun-cues with incongruent levels of vividness and familiarity (high/low; low/high, respectively) at encoding were subsequently associated at retrieval with the lowest recall probabilities, while noun-cues related with congruent levels (high/high; low/low) were associated with higher recall probabilities. RTs in the high vividness and high familiarity grouping were significantly faster than all other subsets (low/low, low/high, high/low) which did not significantly differ among each other. The findings contradict: (1) associative theories predicting positive monotonic relationships between memory strength and learning; and (2) non-monotonic plasticity hypothesis (NMPH), aiming at generalizing the non-monotonic relationship between a neuron’s excitation level and its synaptic strength to broad neural networks. We propose a dualistic neuropsychological model of memory consolidation that mimics the global activity in two large resting-state networks (RSNs), the default mode network (DMN) and the task-positive-network (TPN). Based on this model, we suggest that incongruence and congruence between vividness and familiarity reflect, respectively, competition and synergy between DMN and TPN activity. We argue that competition or synergy between these RSNs at the time of stimulus encoding disproportionately influences long term semantic memory consolidation in healthy controls. These findings could assist in developing neurophenomenological markers of core memory deficits currently hypothesized to be shared across multiple psychopathological conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vividness, Consciousness, and Mental Imagery: Making the Missing Links across Disciplines and Methods)
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<p>Schematic depicting the dualistic resting-state networks (RSN) neuropsychological model of memory consolidation. The model depicts its predicted memory consolidation score in relation to the three possible combinations of variable strength at the time of encoding. The width of the arrows indicates the strength of the variables at encoding.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic depicting the overall design of the imagery-generation incidental recall task. (<b>A</b>) Participants pressed the right mouse button to begin each trial (1). Upon clicking the mouse, an alerting beep was sounded, followed 250 ms later by the display of a noun-cue at the center of the screen (2). Participants were instructed to read the cue silently and as quickly as possible. They were immediately asked to generate an image that corresponded to the noun-cue (3). When participants felt that their mental image generation was at its most vivid state, they pressed the right mouse button (4). Upon pressing the button, another alerting beep was sounded, followed 250 ms later by a horizontal array of seven choices appearing near the bottom of the screen (5). From left to right, each button was labeled with one of seven vividness level descriptions in a seven-point scale format: ((1), “no image”; (2), “very vague/dim”; (3), “vague/dim”; (4), “not vivid”; (5), “moderately vivid”; (6), “very vivid”; and (7), “perfectly vivid”). Following the vividness response during the rating procedure, the array of buttons disappeared, and the display reverted back to a screen instructing the participant to click the mouse when they were ready to begin the next trial (6). A minimum of 5 s was needed between vividness response and the start of the next trial. (<b>B</b>) After completing the image generation phase, participants were told to take a break and fill out paperwork, including a debriefing session. (<b>C</b>) Exactly 30 min from their last trial, participants were asked to recall as many of the noun cues as possible on a blank excel spreadsheet (7).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Percentage of words recalled in relation to the dominant resting state network activation pattern.</p> Full article ">Figure A1
<p>Schematic depicting the three contrasting models of memory consolidation. Each model depicts its predicted memory consolidation scores in relation to the three possible combinations of variable strength at the time of encoding. The width of the arrows signifies the strength of the variables at encoding.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 2283 KiB  
Article
Electrophysiological Responses to Emotional Facial Expressions Following a Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
by Joanie Drapeau, Nathalie Gosselin, Isabelle Peretz and Michelle McKerral
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060142 - 18 Jun 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5559
Abstract
The present study aimed to measure neural information processing underlying emotional recognition from facial expressions in adults having sustained a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) as compared to healthy individuals. We thus measured early (N1, N170) and later (N2) event-related potential (ERP) components [...] Read more.
The present study aimed to measure neural information processing underlying emotional recognition from facial expressions in adults having sustained a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) as compared to healthy individuals. We thus measured early (N1, N170) and later (N2) event-related potential (ERP) components during presentation of fearful, neutral, and happy facial expressions in 10 adults with mTBI and 11 control participants. Findings indicated significant differences between groups, irrespective of emotional expression, in the early attentional stage (N1), which was altered in mTBI. The two groups showed similar perceptual integration of facial features (N170), with greater amplitude for fearful facial expressions in the right hemisphere. At a higher-level emotional discrimination stage (N2), both groups demonstrated preferential processing for fear as compared to happiness and neutrality. These findings suggest a reduced early selective attentional processing following mTBI, but no impact on the perceptual and higher-level cognitive processes stages. This study contributes to further improving our comprehension of attentional versus emotional recognition following a mild TBI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perceptual and Affective Mechanisms in Facial Expression Recognition)
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<p>Examples of visual stimuli; (<b>1</b>) fearful facial expression, (<b>2</b>) neutral facial expression, (<b>3</b>) happy facial expression, (<b>4</b>) butterfly.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Example of the task.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>N1 responses at FCz electrode site, (<b>a</b>) within-subjects and (<b>b</b>) between-subjects, according to emotional expressions (fear, neutrality, happiness).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>N170 responses at P9 electrode site (left hemisphere) and P10 electrode site (right hemisphere), (<b>a</b>) within-subjects and (<b>b</b>) between-subjects, according to emotional expressions (fear, neutrality, happiness).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>N2 responses at Fz electrodes site, (<b>a</b>) within-subjects and (<b>b</b>) between-subjects, according to emotional expressions (fear, neutrality, happiness).</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 1877 KiB  
Article
Multiple Levels of Control Processes for Wisconsin Card Sorts: An Observational Study
by Bruno Kopp, Alexander Steinke, Malte Bertram, Thomas Skripuletz and Florian Lange
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060141 - 17 Jun 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6068
Abstract
We explored short-term behavioral plasticity on the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) by deriving novel error metrics by stratifying traditional set loss and perseverative errors. Separating the rule set and the response set allowed for the measurement of performance across four trial [...] Read more.
We explored short-term behavioral plasticity on the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) by deriving novel error metrics by stratifying traditional set loss and perseverative errors. Separating the rule set and the response set allowed for the measurement of performance across four trial types, crossing rule set (i.e., maintain vs. switch) and response demand (i.e., repeat vs. alternate). Critically, these four trial types can be grouped based on trial-wise feedback on t − 1 trials. Rewarded (correct) maintain t − 1 trials should lead to error enhancement when the response demands shift from repeat to alternate. In contrast, punished (incorrect) t − 1 trials should lead to error suppression when the response demands shift from repeat to alternate. The results supported the error suppression prediction: An error suppression effect (ESE) was observed across numerous patient samples. Exploratory analyses show that the ESE did not share substantial portions of variance with traditional neuropsychological measures of executive functioning. They further point into the direction that striatal or limbic circuit neuropathology may be associated with enhanced ESE. These data suggest that punishment of the recently executed response induces behavioral avoidance, which is detectable as the ESE on the WCST. The assessment of the ESE might provide an index of response-related avoidance learning on the WCST. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collection on Cognitive Neuroscience)
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<p>Exemplary sequences of two consecutive trials (i.e., <span class="html-italic">t</span> − 1, <span class="html-italic">t</span>), separately for requested rule maintenance and rule switch sequences (as indicated via positive and negative feedback on trial <span class="html-italic">t</span> − 1, respectively), and for requested response repetition/alternation sequences. Note that ‘odd’ errors on trial t were excluded from consideration (see <a href="#sec2-brainsci-09-00141" class="html-sec">Section 2</a>. Materials and Methods for definition). (<b>a</b>). Left panels. ‘Correct’ feedback in response to sorts according to the Shape rule, which occur on trial <span class="html-italic">t</span> − 1, signal that the currently applied rule should be maintained on the upcoming trial; subsequent rule switches on trial <span class="html-italic">t</span> are hence erroneous because they obey either to the Number rule or to the Color rule. Note that these types of errors are traditionally considered as set-loss errors. Right panels. ‘Incorrect’ feedback in response to sorts according to the Number rule, which occur on trial <span class="html-italic">t</span> − 1, signal that a rule switch is requested on the upcoming trial (to obey either to the Shape rule or to the Color rule); maintenance of the currently applied rule on trial <span class="html-italic">t</span> would hence be erroneous. Note that these types of errors are traditionally considered as perseveration errors. The black symbols (arrows, cul-de-sac signs) illustrate potential response-specific carry-over from trial <span class="html-italic">t</span> − 1 to trial <span class="html-italic">t</span>, i.e., reward in case of ‘Correct’ feedback, or punishment, in case of ‘Incorrect’ feedback. (<b>b</b>). Further clarification of the response-level analysis of performance on the WCST (see <a href="#sec1-brainsci-09-00141" class="html-sec">Section 1</a>. Introduction for details). Conditional Error Probability: Probability of an error given feedback type (‘correct’, ‘incorrect’) and response demand (repetition, alternation).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Mean conditional error probabilities, categorized into set-loss errors and perseveration errors, and separately for the four distinguishable rule/response sequences. See text for details. Error bars depict plus/minus one standard error of the mean. Conditional Error Probability: Probability of an error given feedback type (‘correct’, ‘incorrect’) and response demand (repetition, alternation).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mean conditional (perseveration) error probabilities in response to a requested rule switch (i.e., following negative feedback, which had been received on the previous trial), separately for the two types of response sequence (requested response repetition/alternation) and as a function of diagnostic entities (atypical Parkinson’s disease (progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), cortico-basal degeneration (CBD), multi-system atrophy-Parkinsonian subtype (MSA-P)), (early) Alzheimer’s disease/mild cognitive impairment, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, vascular encephalopathy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, normal pressure hydrocephalus, depression, neuropathy, no neurological (or psychiatric) disease). For this analysis, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 115 patients had sufficient data, but three patients who suffered from idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, a patient who suffered from dystonia, and a patient who suffered from multi-system atrophy-cerebellar subtype (MSA-C) were excluded from this analysis. An error-suppression effect was observed within each diagnostic entity. Error bars depict plus/minus one standard error of the mean. Conditional Error Probability: Probability of an error given negative feedback and response demand (repetition, alternation).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Summary of the factors that contribute to WCST performance. The traditional view of WCST performance considers a uni-layered structure governing task performance, such that positive feedback elicits rule maintenance and negative feedback elicits rule shifting. Failures of these cognitive processes are indicated by the occurrence of set-loss and perseveration errors, respectively. The extended view that emerges from this study suggests that a multi-layered structure governs WCST performance. Due to the multi-layered structure, the reception of feedback is associated with a credit assignment problem (e.g., [<a href="#B57-brainsci-09-00141" class="html-bibr">57</a>]). Our findings suggest that negative feedback is associated with a modulation of the frequency of perseverations errors via response demands (observable as an error suppression effect). However, a modulation of the frequency of set-loss errors in response to positive feedback (i.e., an error enhancement effect) could not be discerned in the present study (as indicated by the broken arrow).</p> Full article ">
2 pages, 168 KiB  
Editorial
New Research in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Major Depression
by Bruno Aouizerate and Emmanuel Haffen
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060140 - 17 Jun 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3995
Abstract
Major depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are among the most frequent psychiatric disorders in the general population [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Major Depression)
15 pages, 1407 KiB  
Article
Mechanisms for Auditory Perception: A Neurocognitive Study of Second Language Learning of Mandarin Chinese
by Jing Yang and Ping Li
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060139 - 17 Jun 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6825
Abstract
Speech perception is an important early skill for language learning. This study uses functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the relationship between auditory perception abilities and second language (L2) vocabulary learning in an effort to explore behavior-brain correlations. Twenty-one English monolinguals learned [...] Read more.
Speech perception is an important early skill for language learning. This study uses functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the relationship between auditory perception abilities and second language (L2) vocabulary learning in an effort to explore behavior-brain correlations. Twenty-one English monolinguals learned 48 auditory Chinese pseudowords over six weeks. Their pre-training abilities in non-linguistic pitch and linguistic tone perception significantly and positively predicted their novel word-learning performance, which correlated with their brain response patterns in the left Heschl’s gyrus. Analyses of regions of interest (ROIs) showed coactivation of the frontal and temporal regions during novel lexical retrieval, and the non-linguistic pitch perception ability modulated brain activations in these regions. Effective connectivity analyses further indicated a collaboration of a ventral stream for speech perception and a dorsal stream for sensory-motor mapping in the L2 network. The ventral stream, compared with the dorsal stream, played a more dominant role in auditory word learning as the L2 proficiency increased. Better pitch and tone perception abilities strengthened the ventral pathways and decreased the reliance on frontal regions. These findings are discussed in light of current models of speech processing and L2 learning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Neuroscience of Cross-Language Interaction in Bilinguals)
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<p>Participants were trained on 48 sound-picture associations (<b>a</b>) and were asked to complete a recognition test with feedback (<b>b</b>) after each training session. After the six-week L2 vocabulary training, they performed a sound-picture association judgment task (<b>c</b>) when their brain images were collected.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Participants’ L2 vocabulary learning performance was significantly and positively correlated with non-linguistic pitch (<b>a</b>) and linguistic tone (<b>b</b>) discrimination abilities.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Brain activations during the sound-picture association judgment task (<b>a</b>); Brain regions where neural responses were positively related with participant’s L2 vocabulary learning attainment (accuracy rates of the sound-picture association judgment task) (<b>b</b>). L, left hemisphere.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Correlation matrix of BOLD signal changes in the regions of interest (ROIs) and (<b>b</b>) significant contemporaneous relationships between ROIs significant at the group level. ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; SMA, supplementary motor areas; MFG, middle frontal gyrus; IFGtri, inferior frontal gyrus, pars triangularis; IFGop, inferior frontal gyrus, pars opercularis; FOC, frontal operculum cortex; aSTG, anterior superior temporal gyrus; PAC, primary auditory cortex (Heschl’s gyrus); pSTG, posterior superior temporal gyrus; pMTG, posterior middle temporal gyrus; pSMG, posterior supramarginal gyrus; and PU, putamen. All regions are in the left hemisphere. A line with an arrow indicates a positive influence of one ROI on another. Lines in orange indicate that L2 proficiency is significantly and positively correlated with the connection strength of the brain pathway. Lines in green indicate that lexical tone perception ability is significantly and positively correlated with the connection strength of brain connectivity. Lines in blue indicate that non-linguistic pitch perception ability is significantly correlated with the connection strength of the brain connectivity: negative correlations for the FOC→IFGop, IFGop→MFG, and SMA→ACC pathways; positive correlation for the pSTG→ACC projection.</p> Full article ">
8 pages, 912 KiB  
Article
Morphogenetic Variability as Potential Biomarker of Functional Outcome After Ischemic Stroke
by Milan Savic, Suzana Cvjeticanin, Milica Lazovic, Ljubica Nikcevic, Ivana Petronic, Dragana Cirovic and Dejan Nikolic
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060138 - 14 Jun 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3254
Abstract
The aim of our study was to evaluate the role of morphogenetic variability in functional outcome of patients with ischemic stroke. The prospective study included 140 patients with acute ischemic stroke, all of whom were tested upon: admission; discharge; one month post-discharge; and [...] Read more.
The aim of our study was to evaluate the role of morphogenetic variability in functional outcome of patients with ischemic stroke. The prospective study included 140 patients with acute ischemic stroke, all of whom were tested upon: admission; discharge; one month post-discharge; and three months post-discharge. The age was analyzed, as well. The Functional Independence Measure (FIM) test and the Barthel Index (BI) were used for the evaluation of functional outcomes for the eligible participants. We analyzed the presence of 19 homozygous recessive characteristics (HRC) in the studied individuals. There was a significant change in FIM values at discharge (p = 0.033) and in BI values upon admission (p = 0.012) with regards to the presence of different HRCs. Age significantly negatively correlated for the FIM score and BI values at discharge for the group with 5 HRCs (p < 0.05), while for BI only, negative significant correlation was noticed for the group with 5 HRCs at three months post-discharge (p < 0.05), and for the group with 3 HRCs at one month post-discharge (p < 0.05) and three months post-discharge (p < 0.05). Morphogenetic variability might be one among potentially numerous factors that could have an impact on the response to defined treatment protocols for neurologically-impaired individuals who suffered an ischemic stroke. Full article
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<p>FIM score changes at different times of observation, given the number of HRCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>BI changes at different times of observation, given the number of HRCs.</p> Full article ">
8 pages, 1527 KiB  
Case Report
First Case Report of Primary Carnitine Deficiency Manifested as Intellectual Disability and Autism Spectrum Disorder
by José Guevara-Campos, Lucía González-Guevara, José Guevara-González and Omar Cauli
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060137 - 13 Jun 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7316
Abstract
Systemic primary carnitine deficiency (PCD) is a genetic disorder caused by decreased or absent organic cation transporter type 2 (OCTN2) carnitine transporter activity, resulting in low serum carnitine levels and decreased carnitine accumulation inside cells. In early life, PCD is usually diagnosed as [...] Read more.
Systemic primary carnitine deficiency (PCD) is a genetic disorder caused by decreased or absent organic cation transporter type 2 (OCTN2) carnitine transporter activity, resulting in low serum carnitine levels and decreased carnitine accumulation inside cells. In early life, PCD is usually diagnosed as a metabolic decompensation, presenting as hypoketotic hypoglycemia, Reye syndrome, or sudden infant death; in childhood, PCD presents with skeletal or cardiac myopathy. However, the clinical presentation of PCD characterized by autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with intellectual disability (ID) has seldom been reported in the literature. In this report, we describe the clinical features of a seven-year-old girl diagnosed with PCD who presented atypical features of the disease, including a developmental delay involving language skills, concentration, and attention span, as well as autistic features and brain alterations apparent in magnetic resonance imaging. We aim to highlight the difficulties related to the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches used to diagnose such patients. The case reported here presented typical signs of PCD, including frequent episodes of hypoglycemia, generalized muscle weakness, decreased muscle mass, and physical growth deficits. A molecular genetic study confirmed the definitive diagnosis of the disease (c.1345T>G (p.Y449D)) in gene SLC22A5, located in exon 8. PCD can be accompanied by less common clinical signs, which may delay its diagnosis because the resulting global clinical picture can closely resemble other metabolic disorders. In this case, the patient was prescribed a carnitine-enriched diet, as well as oral carnitine at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day. PCD has a better prognosis if it is diagnosed and treated early; however, a high level of clinical suspicion is required for its timely and accurate diagnosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Behavior to Pathology: The Underlying Mechanisms in Children with ASD)
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<p>Electrocardiogram of the patient, which shows normal findings for a child of her age.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Brain structural alterations observed in the patient. (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) Axial, magnetic resonance, T2-weighted images showing discrete asymmetry of the lateral ventricles. Note that the right side is larger (indicated by the black arrows). (<b>C</b>) Sagittal, magnetic resonance, T1-weighted image showing discrete frontal subdural hygroma (indicated with white arrows).</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 1291 KiB  
Article
Increased Voluntary Activation of the Elbow Flexors Following a Single Session of Spinal Manipulation in a Subclinical Neck Pain Population
by Mat Kingett, Kelly Holt, Imran Khan Niazi, Rasmus Wiberg Nedergaard, Michael Lee and Heidi Haavik
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060136 - 12 Jun 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5844
Abstract
To investigate the effects of a single session of spinal manipulation (SM) on voluntary activation of the elbow flexors in participants with subclinical neck pain using an interpolated twitch technique with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), eighteen volunteers with subclinical neck pain participated in [...] Read more.
To investigate the effects of a single session of spinal manipulation (SM) on voluntary activation of the elbow flexors in participants with subclinical neck pain using an interpolated twitch technique with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), eighteen volunteers with subclinical neck pain participated in this randomized crossover trial. TMS was delivered during elbow flexion contractions at 50%, 75% and 100% of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) before and after SM or control intervention. The amplitude of the superimposed twitches evoked during voluntary contractions was recorded and voluntary activation was calculated using a regression analysis. Dependent variables were analyzed with two-way (intervention × time) repeated measures ANOVAs. Significant intervention effects for SM compared to passive movement control were observed for elbow flexion MVC (p = 0.04), the amplitude of superimposed twitch (p = 0.04), and voluntary activation of elbow flexors (p =0.03). Significant within-group post-intervention changes were observed for the superimposed twitch (mean group decrease of 20.9%, p < 0.01) and voluntary activation (mean group increase of 3.0%, p < 0.01) following SM. No other significant within-group changes were observed. Voluntary activation of the elbow flexors increased immediately after one session of spinal manipulation in participants with subclinical neck pain. A decrease in the amplitude of superimposed twitch during elbow flexion MVC following spinal manipulation suggests a facilitation of motor cortical output. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collection on Neural Engineering)
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<p>The experimental setup for this study was similar to a previous study (Todd et al., 2003, with permission); however, we used a figure of eight coils, not a circular coil for this current study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Data from a representative subject of force curves for single trial showing decreasing twitch force with increased voluntary contraction. (Force was zeroed at 10 ms before stimulus).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>One representative subject’s data on two different days of linear regression analysis to calculate resting twitch.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Percentage changes in group mean from pre to post of superimposed twitch (SIT), Voluntary activation (VA) with peripheral nerve (electrical) stimulation (<span class="html-italic">N</span> = 11) and cortical (TMS stimulation (<span class="html-italic">N</span> = 18) and MVC in the spinal manipulation (intervention) and passive movements (control) sessions across all participants. * represents <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 448 KiB  
Article
Emotional and Phenomenological Properties of Odor-Evoked Autobiographical Memories in Alzheimer’s Disease
by Ophélie Glachet and Mohamad El Haj
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060135 - 10 Jun 2019
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6346
Abstract
Autobiographical memory, which contains all personal memories relative to our identity, has been found to be impaired in Alzheimer’ Disease (AD). Recent research has demonstrated that odor may serve as a powerful cue for the recovery of autobiographical memories in AD. Building on [...] Read more.
Autobiographical memory, which contains all personal memories relative to our identity, has been found to be impaired in Alzheimer’ Disease (AD). Recent research has demonstrated that odor may serve as a powerful cue for the recovery of autobiographical memories in AD. Building on this research, we investigated emotional characteristics (arousal and valence) and subjective reliving of odor-evoked autobiographical memories in AD. We also investigated the relationship between these characteristics and depression. To this end, we invited participants with mild AD and controls to retrieve autobiographical memories after odor exposure or without odor. Results showed higher arousal, subjective reliving and more positive memories after odor exposure compared with the odor-free condition, these differences being observed only in AD participants. We also found that emotion (arousal and valence) and subjective reliving triggered by odor were associated with depressive symptoms in AD. These findings demonstrate that odor may be a useful cue to trigger more detailed, vivid and positive events in AD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olfaction as a Marker for Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases)
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<p>Means and standard errors in AD and control participants for (<b>a</b>) specificity, (<b>b</b>) subjective reliving, (<b>c</b>) arousal and (<b>d</b>) emotional valence in the odor and the odor-free conditions. Differences between group and condition were significant at: * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001.</p> Full article ">
11 pages, 3386 KiB  
Article
Gamma Knife Radiosurgery for Trigeminal Neuralgia: A Comparison of Dose Protocols
by Warren Boling, Minwoo Song, Wendy Shih and Bengt Karlsson
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060134 - 10 Jun 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4835
Abstract
Purpose: A variety of treatment plans including an array of prescription doses have been used in radiosurgery treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (TN). However, despite a considerable experience in the radiosurgical treatment of TN, an ideal prescription dose that balances facial dysesthesia risk with [...] Read more.
Purpose: A variety of treatment plans including an array of prescription doses have been used in radiosurgery treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (TN). However, despite a considerable experience in the radiosurgical treatment of TN, an ideal prescription dose that balances facial dysesthesia risk with pain relief durability has not been determined. Methods and Materials: This retrospective study of patients treated with radiosurgery for typical TN evaluates two treatment doses in relation to outcomes of pain freedom, bothersome facial numbness, and patient satisfaction with treatment. All patients were treated with radiosurgery for intractable and disabling TN. A treatment dose protocol change from 80 to 85 Gy provided an opportunity to compare two prescription doses. The variables evaluated were pain relief, treatment side-effect profile, and patient satisfaction. Results: Typical TN was treated with 80 Gy in 26 patients, and 85 Gy in 37 patients. A new face sensory disturbance was reported after 80 Gy in 16% and after 85 Gy in 27% (p = 0.4). Thirteen failed an 80 Gy dose whereas seven failed an 85 Gy dose. Kaplan–Meier analysis found that at 29 months 50% failed an 80 Gy treatment compared with 79% who had durable pain relief after 85 Gy treatment (p = 0.04). Conclusion: The 85 Gy dose for TN provided a more durable pain relief compared to the 80 Gy one without a significantly elevated occurrence of facial sensory disturbance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surgery for Spine Disease and Intractable Pain)
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<p>Images of typical corresponding dose plans with the maximum dose targeting the root entry zone (REZ). Green circle is the 15 Gy isodose line.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Kaplan–Meier analysis of Gamma Knife radiosurgery for trigeminal neuralgia using two treatment doses. Log rank test demonstrated improved durability and more patients with pain relief in the 85 Gy treated group (<span class="html-italic">p</span> = 0.04).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Analysis of potential confounders to pain freedom in the two dosage groups. Patient age and a procedure for trigeminal neuralgia prior to Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKR) were both found to be significantly different between the dosage groups.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 731 KiB  
Article
Objective Patterns of Face Recognition Deficits in 165 Adults with Self-Reported Developmental Prosopagnosia
by Sarah Bate, Rachel J. Bennetts, Nicola Gregory, Jeremy J. Tree, Ebony Murray, Amanda Adams, Anna K. Bobak, Tegan Penton, Tao Yang and Michael J. Banissy
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060133 - 6 Jun 2019
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7960
Abstract
In the last 15 years, increasing numbers of individuals have self-referred to research laboratories in the belief that they experience severe everyday difficulties with face recognition. The condition “developmental prosopagnosia” (DP) is typically diagnosed when impairment is identified on at least two objective [...] Read more.
In the last 15 years, increasing numbers of individuals have self-referred to research laboratories in the belief that they experience severe everyday difficulties with face recognition. The condition “developmental prosopagnosia” (DP) is typically diagnosed when impairment is identified on at least two objective face-processing tests, usually involving assessments of face perception, unfamiliar face memory, and famous face recognition. While existing evidence suggests that some individuals may have a mnemonic form of prosopagnosia, it is also possible that other subtypes exist. The current study assessed 165 adults who believe they experience DP, and 38% of the sample were impaired on at least two of the tests outlined above. While statistical dissociations between face perception and face memory were only observed in four cases, a further 25% of the sample displayed dissociations between impaired famous face recognition and intact short-term unfamiliar face memory and face perception. We discuss whether this pattern of findings reflects (a) limitations within dominant diagnostic tests and protocols, (b) a less severe form of DP, or (c) a currently unrecognized but prevalent form of the condition that affects long-term face memory, familiar face recognition or semantic processing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Face Processing: Insights from Typical and Atypical Functioning)
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<p>Relationship between CFMT and CFPT scores in the self-referred DP and control groups, for (<b>A</b>) 18–34 year olds, (<b>B</b>) 35–49 year olds, and (<b>C</b>) 50–59 year olds (those aged over 60 years are not displayed as more varied performance prohibits interpretation). Dotted lines represent two SDs from the control mean.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Relationship between CFMT and famous face scores in the self-referred DP and control groups, for (<b>A</b>) 18–34 year olds, (<b>B</b>) 35–49 year olds, and (<b>C</b>) 50–59 year olds (those aged over 60 years are not displayed as more varied performance prohibits interpretation). Dotted lines represent two SDs from the control mean.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Relationship between famous face <span class="html-italic">z</span>-scores and (<b>A</b>) CFPT and (<b>B</b>) CFMT <span class="html-italic">z</span>-scores in DPs who showed significant dissociations between impaired famous face recognition and both intact CFMT and CFPT performance.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 731 KiB  
Review
Peer Victimization and Onset of Social Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents
by Maria Pontillo, Maria Cristina Tata, Roberto Averna, Francesco Demaria, Prisca Gargiullo, Silvia Guerrera, Maria Laura Pucciarini, Ornella Santonastaso and Stefano Vicari
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060132 - 6 Jun 2019
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 12778
Abstract
Background: In the literature, several studies have proposed that children and adolescents with social anxiety had experienced previously victimization from peers and siblings. The aim of this review was to contribute to the updating of recent findings about the relationship between peer victimization [...] Read more.
Background: In the literature, several studies have proposed that children and adolescents with social anxiety had experienced previously victimization from peers and siblings. The aim of this review was to contribute to the updating of recent findings about the relationship between peer victimization and onset of social anxiety in children and adolescents. Methods: A selective review of literature published between 2011 and 2018 on Social Anxiety Disorder in children and adolescents that experienced peer victimization during childhood and adolescence. Results: Seventeen studies are included. All studies showed that peer victimization is positively correlated to the presence of social anxiety. Moreover, the perpetration of peer victimization may contribute to the maintenance and the exacerbation of social anxiety symptoms. Conclusions: In children and adolescents with Social Anxiety Disorder, it is necessary to evaluate firstly the presence of peer victimization experiences. Subsequently, therapeutics programs targeted to elaborate these experiences and to reduce the anticipatory anxiety and the avoidance that characterized these children and adolescents can be proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Collection on Developmental Neuroscience)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
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<p>PRISMA 2009 Flow Diagram [<a href="#B37-brainsci-09-00132" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 575 KiB  
Review
Major Depressive Disorder Is Associated with Impaired Interoceptive Accuracy: A Systematic Review
by Michael Eggart, Andreas Lange, Martin J. Binser, Silvia Queri and Bruno Müller-Oerlinghausen
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060131 - 6 Jun 2019
Cited by 114 | Viewed by 14102
Abstract
Interoception is the sense of the physiological condition of the entire body. Impaired interoception has been associated with aberrant activity of the insula in major depressive disorder (MDD) during heartbeat perception tasks. Despite clinical relevance, studies investigating interoceptive impairments in MDD have never [...] Read more.
Interoception is the sense of the physiological condition of the entire body. Impaired interoception has been associated with aberrant activity of the insula in major depressive disorder (MDD) during heartbeat perception tasks. Despite clinical relevance, studies investigating interoceptive impairments in MDD have never been reviewed systematically according to the guidelines of the PRISMA protocol, and therefore we collated studies that assessed accuracy in detecting heartbeat sensations (interoceptive accuracy, IAc) in MDD (databases: PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO, and PsycARTICLES). Out of 389 records, six studies met the inclusion criteria. The main findings suggest that (i) moderately depressed samples exhibit the largest interoceptive deficits as compared with healthy adults. (ii) difficulties in decision making and low affect intensity are correlated with low IAc, and (iii) IAc seems to normalize in severely depressed subjects. These associations may be confounded by sex, anxiety or panic disorder, and intake of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Our findings have implications for the development of interoceptive treatments that might relieve MDD-related symptoms or prevent relapse in recurrent depression by targeting the interoceptive nervous system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collection on Clinical Neuroscience)
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<p>PRISMA flowchart of study selection process.</p> Full article ">
41 pages, 1064 KiB  
Hypothesis
Four Social Brain Regions, Their Dysfunctions, and Sequelae, Extensively Explain Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptomatology
by Charles S. E. Weston
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060130 - 4 Jun 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7764
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a challenging neurodevelopmental disorder with symptoms in social, language, sensory, motor, cognitive, emotional, repetitive behavior, and self-sufficient living domains. The important research question examined is the elucidation of the pathogenic neurocircuitry that underlies ASD symptomatology in all its [...] Read more.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a challenging neurodevelopmental disorder with symptoms in social, language, sensory, motor, cognitive, emotional, repetitive behavior, and self-sufficient living domains. The important research question examined is the elucidation of the pathogenic neurocircuitry that underlies ASD symptomatology in all its richness and heterogeneity. The presented model builds on earlier social brain research, and hypothesizes that four social brain regions largely drive ASD symptomatology: amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), temporoparietal cortex (TPC), and insula. The amygdala’s contributions to ASD largely derive from its major involvement in fine-grained intangible knowledge representations and high-level guidance of gaze. In addition, disrupted brain regions can drive disturbance of strongly interconnected brain regions to produce further symptoms. These and related effects are proposed to underlie abnormalities of the visual cortex, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), caudate nucleus, and hippocampus as well as associated symptoms. The model is supported by neuroimaging, neuropsychological, neuroanatomical, cellular, physiological, and behavioral evidence. Collectively, the model proposes a novel, parsimonious, and empirically testable account of the pathogenic neurocircuitry of ASD, an extensive account of its symptomatology, a novel physiological biomarker with potential for earlier diagnosis, and novel experiments to further elucidate the mechanisms of brain abnormalities and symptomatology in ASD. Full article
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<p>Summary of disrupted neurocircuitry. Four social brain regions are commonly disrupted and these disruptions and the resulting symptoms drive additional abnormalities of the visual cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, caudate nucleus, and hippocampus. ASD, autism spectrum disorders; IFG, inferior frontal gyrus; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex; TPC, temporoparietal cortex; VC, visual cortex.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Disruption of four social brain regions extensively explains ASD symptomatology. Multiple factors are causally associated with ASD, and presumably disrupt assembly of social brain regions and circuits. ASD, autism spectrum disorders; IOS, insistence on sameness; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex; RRBs, restricted repetitive behaviors; SIBs, self-injurious behaviors; TPC, temporoparietal cortex.</p> Full article ">
33 pages, 2193 KiB  
Review
A Focus on the Functions of Area 25
by Laith Alexander, Hannah F. Clarke and Angela C. Roberts
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060129 - 3 Jun 2019
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 8540
Abstract
Subcallosal area 25 is one of the least understood regions of the anterior cingulate cortex, but activity in this area is emerging as a crucial correlate of mood and affective disorder symptomatology. The cortical and subcortical connectivity of area 25 suggests it may [...] Read more.
Subcallosal area 25 is one of the least understood regions of the anterior cingulate cortex, but activity in this area is emerging as a crucial correlate of mood and affective disorder symptomatology. The cortical and subcortical connectivity of area 25 suggests it may act as an interface between the bioregulatory and emotional states that are aberrant in disorders such as depression. However, evidence for such a role is limited because of uncertainty over the functional homologue of area 25 in rodents, which hinders cross-species translation. This emphasizes the need for causal manipulations in monkeys in which area 25, and the prefrontal and cingulate regions in which it is embedded, resemble those of humans more than rodents. In this review, we consider physiological and behavioral evidence from non-pathological and pathological studies in humans and from manipulations of area 25 in monkeys and its putative homologue, the infralimbic cortex (IL), in rodents. We highlight the similarities between area 25 function in monkeys and IL function in rodents with respect to the regulation of reward-driven responses, but also the apparent inconsistencies in the regulation of threat responses, not only between the rodent and monkey literatures, but also within the rodent literature. Overall, we provide evidence for a causal role of area 25 in both the enhanced negative affect and decreased positive affect that is characteristic of affective disorders, and the cardiovascular and endocrine perturbations that accompany these mood changes. We end with a brief consideration of how future studies should be tailored to best translate these findings into the clinic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Multi-Dimensional Contributions of Prefrontal Circuits to Emotion Regulation during Adulthood and Critical Stages of Development)
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<p>The connectivity of area 25 in macaques and the infralimbic cortex (IL) in rodents. In the macaque (<b>A</b>) area 25 has widespread efferent and afferent connections with many cortical and subcortical regions that are comparable to the efferent and afferent connections of IL in the rat (<b>B</b>). Afferents and efferents are depicted superimposed on orbital, medial and lateral views of the macaque and rat brains based on anterograde and retrograde tracing studies. Macaque: [<a href="#B1-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B4-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">5</a>,<a href="#B6-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B7-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B8-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B10-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B13-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">13</a>,<a href="#B14-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">14</a>,<a href="#B15-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. Rat: [<a href="#B4-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B6-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B9-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. Abbreviations: AC, Anterior Cingulate; Acb, Accumbens; AIa/p, Agranular Insula anterior/posterior; Amyg, Amygdala (AA, anterior amygdala; AB, Accessory Basal; BMA, basomedial; BLA, basolateral; Bpc/mc, Basal parvicellular/magnocellular; CE, CM, centromedial; central; COA, cortical; LA, lateral; MEA, medial; PA, posterior; TR, Amygdalo-piriform transition zone); AON, Anterior Olfactory Nucleus; BF, Basal Forebrain (BNST, Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis; DB, Diagonal Band of Broca; EN, endopiriform nucleus; LS, Lateral Septum; MPO, Medial Preoptic Area MS, Medial Septum; SI, Substantia Innominata; TTv/d, ventral/dorsal Taenia Tecta); cc, Corpus Callosum; Cdm, medial Caudate; CLA, Claustrum; CLi, Central linear nucleus; CPu, CaudatePutamen; EC, Entorhinal Cortex; ECT, Ectorhinal Cortex; FPm, Frontal Polar Cortex, medial; HF, Hippocampal Formation, Hyp, Hypothalamus (AH, anterior nucleus; AHAvm, Anterior Hypothalamic area, ventromedial; DHA, Dorsal Hypothalamic area; DMH, Dorsomedial, LHA, Lateral Hypothalamic area; LPOA, lateral Preoptic area; MB, Mammillary bodies; MPOA, medial Preoptic area; Pef, Perifornical; PH, Posterior nucleus; PHA, Posterior Hypothalamic area; PeriMam, Peri-mammillary; SupraMam, Supra-mammillary; TM, Tubero-mammillary; ParaMam, Paramammillary); IL, Infralimbic;; IP, interpeduncular nucleus; OFC, Orbitofrontal cortex (LO, lateral orbital; VLO, ventrolateral orbital; VO, ventral orbital; MO, medial orbital); Opro, Orbital proisocortex; OPAI, Orbital periallocortex; Pons/Medulla (Barrington’s N, Barrington’s Nucleus; CN, Cuneiform nucleus; dlPAG, dorsolateral Periaqueductal Grey; DMNvagus, Dorsal Motor Nucleus of Vagus; DR, Dorsal Raphe; LC, Locus Coeruleus; LDT, Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus; MR, Median Raphe; NI, Nucleus Incertus; NSTract, Nucleus of the Solitary Tract; PBl/m, Parabrachial lateral/medial; RF, Reticular Formation); pg, perigenual; PL, Prelimbic; PRC, Perirhinal Cortex; RPO, Nucleus pontis oralis; RSC, Retrosplenial Cortex; SNc, Substantia nigra pars compacta; Thalamus: (Am, medial Anterior; CEs/m/dc, Central superior/medial/ densocellular; IAM, Interanteriomedial; IMD, Intermediodorsal; LD, Lateral dorsal; LH, Lateral Habenula; Lim, Limitans; LP, Lateral posterior; MDpc/mc, Mediodorsal parvocellular.magnocellular; PF, parafascicular; PM, medial Pulvinar; PT, Parataenial; PV, Paraventricular, R, Reuniens; RH, Rhomboid; sc, subcallosal; SM, Submedial; Vamc, Ventral Anterior magnocellular); STG, Superior Temporal Gyrus, STS, Superior Temporal Sulcus; TEI, TF, TH, TP, Temporal pole; VTA, Ventral Tegmental Area; Brodmann’s Areas, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 36, 46, TE1, TF, TH. Nomenclature of prefrontal cortex parcellation in macaque based on [<a href="#B15-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Examples of the relationship between cardiovascular and endocrine responsivity and area 25/infralimbic (IL) activity in emotional and non-emotional conditions in human, macaque, marmoset and rat. (<b>A</b>) In humans, (<b>i</b>) stimulation of area 25 via deep brain stimulation (red circles indicate stimulation loci) causes a brief hypertension followed by pronounced hypotension in anesthetized humans [<a href="#B34-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">34</a>] while (<b>ii</b>) the administration of peripheral cortisol decreases area 25 activation to sad stimuli (brain region shaded blue) in the absence of any stressors [<a href="#B36-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">36</a>]. (<b>B</b>) In macaques (<b>i</b>) stimulation of area 25 in anesthetized animals caused a brief hypertension followed by pronounced hypotension [<a href="#B22-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">22</a>], similar to humans, and (<b>ii</b>) cortisol release correlates with ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) activity during neutral conditions (large demarcated area), and specifically with area 25 during both stressful and neutral conditions (small demarcated area; [<a href="#B37-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">37</a>]). (<b>C</b>) In marmosets, pharmacological inactivation of area 25 with GABA A and B agonists (muscimol and baclofen; ‘musbac’) in a neutral condition caused a reduction in heart rate (HR) and mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) that was accompanied by an increase in heart rate variability (HRV). Subdivision of the cardiac vagal and cardiac sympathetic indices (CVI and CSI) revealed that this HRV change was caused by a selective increase in the parasympathetic CVI [<a href="#B38-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">38</a>]. (<b>D</b>) In rats (<b>i</b>) inactivation of IL had no effect on HR and MAP [<a href="#B39-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">39</a>], unlike humans and non-human primates, but (<b>ii</b>) selective glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) silencing within the IL reduced activity within the open field test indicating that cortisol can modulate IL’s impact on emotional behavior [<a href="#B40-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. Thus, whereas manipulation of area 25 in a neutral setting consistently modulates cardiovascular function in humans and non-human primates, such changes are not apparent after IL manipulation in the rat. However, glucocorticoids appear to modulate negative emotion in both area 25 and IL indicating similarities in some functional domains, but not others.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Over-activation and inactivation of area 25 in marmoset has largely opposing effects on tests measuring the regulation of responsivity to rewarding and punishing stimuli. Top from left. Over-activation via presynaptic glutamatergic disinhibition increased the bias away from punishment in an approach-avoidance decision making paradigm [<a href="#B140-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">140</a>], and over-activation via inhibition of the excitatory glutamate amino acid transporter (EAAT2; with dihydrokainic acid [DHK]) increased anxiety-like behavior in the human intruder paradigm, increased the break point in a progressive ratio task, left sucrose consumption unaltered, and blunted the anticipation of food reward during appetitive conditioning [<a href="#B141-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">141</a>]. Bottom from left. In contrast, inactivation with GABA A and B agonists (muscimol and baclofen) decreased the avoidance of punishment during approach-avoidance decision making [<a href="#B140-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">140</a>] and reversed the blunted cardiovascular responsivity to threat in high trait anxious animals [<a href="#B46-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">46</a>]. Inactivation also blunted the threat-induced anticipatory increases in heart rate and vigilant scanning (not shown) during Pavlovian threat conditioning and enhanced the rate of threat extinction [<a href="#B38-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">38</a>], but had no effect on reward anticipation during appetitive conditioning [<a href="#B141-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">141</a>]. *, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, <sup>†</sup>, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, main effect of manipulation; error bars indicate SEM. Thus, in general, over-activation blunted appetitive responses whilst enhancing threat-induced responses whilst inactivation primarily dampened threat-induced responses.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Re-thinking the role of area 25 in threat extinction in humans, marmosets and rats. (<b>A</b>) Human neuroimaging of extinction recall has identified regions of the subcallosal zone (scACC) in which the deactivation induced by the conditioned stimulus, CS+ is blocked following successful extinction recall [<a href="#B160-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">160</a>,<a href="#B161-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">161</a>,<a href="#B162-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">162</a>]. However, these regions of activity are generally more rostral than area 25. (<b>B</b>) In marmosets, inactivation of area 25 with GABA A and B agonists (muscimol and baclofen; closed circles) hastened the behavioral extinction of an aversive (rubber snake) Pavlovian conditioned association [<a href="#B38-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">38</a>]. In contrast (<b>C</b>) IL inactivation in rats (muscimol; closed circles) impeded the behavioral extinction and extinction recall of conditioned footshock. Redrawn from Sierra-Mercado et al., [<a href="#B157-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">157</a>]. *, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; #, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, manipulation × CS interaction; error bars indicate SEM. Arrow indicates point of inactivation.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>A summary of the physiological and behavioral functions associated with human and monkey area 25 and rodent infralimbic (IL). These representative studies illustrate, (i) the similarities and differences in the functional effects of manipulations of area 25 in monkeys and IL in rodents; (ii) how these map onto effects in humans; and (iii) where there are gaps in our knowledge. Blue bars denote reductions in activity, red bars denote increases in activity whilst green bars denote either that the direction of effects in area 25 are unclear, or that the effects may not be specific to area 25. Thus, if red and blue bars are going in the same direction (as in rodent despair), or if the same colored bars are going in opposite directions (as in rodent anxiety), the results are inconsistent. Headings above the bars indicate physiological measure if in italics, and the behavioral paradigm if non-italic. Hatching indicates correlations rather than manipulations. In terms of physiology, there is reasonable correspondence between monkey and rodent with respect to the reductions/increases in cardiovascular activity following reductions/increases in area 25/IL activity, especially during stress; although there are exceptions (see [<a href="#B39-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">39</a>]). Any correspondence with the effects of stimulation in humans is unclear, however, because the excitatory versus inhibitory effects of stimulation on area 25 activity are unknown; if indeed the effects are due to changes in area 25 at all, since effects on fibers of passage cannot be ruled out. In relation to cortisol, there is agreement between correlatory findings in humans and monkeys that indicate positive correlations between cortisol levels and area 25 activity in monkeys and area 25 functional connectivity in humans. However, this similarity does not extend to rodents [<a href="#B57-brainsci-09-00129" class="html-bibr">57</a>], as radiofrequency ablation of the IL increases corticosteroids; although whether the ablation effects are specific to the IL cannot be determined. Whilst immune function is related to area 25 activity in humans, this hasn’t yet been addressed in monkeys or rodents. With respect to behavior, changes in activity in area 25 in relation to depression can be variable, but successful treatment, especially in treatment resistant patients following DBS, is very often associated with reductions in area 25 activity. In line with this, the most consistent effects in both monkey area 25 and rodent IL are the overactivation-induced anhedonia-like effects. In contrast, the effects in monkeys and rodents of area 25/IL manipulations on conditioned threat responses and their extinction appear opposite, while in rodent studies the effects on despair-like and anxiety-like behaviors are inconsistent. Abl, ablation manipulation; AP5, AP-5 (NMDA antagonist); ACTH, adrenocorticotrophic hormone; Ant, Anticipatory arousal; Bic, Bicuculline (GABA<sub>A</sub> antagonist); CoCl, Cobalt chloride (silences activity); CoT, conditioned threat; Cort, Corticosterone; CVI, Cardiac vagal index of heart rate variability; CVS, Cardiovascular system; DBS, Deep brain stimulation; dCS, d-Cycloserine (NMDA co-agonist); DHK, Dihydrokainic acid (EAAT2 inhibitor); DM, Decision making (approach-avoidance); EPM, Elevated plus maze; Ext, Extinction; ExR, Extinction recall; Fdg, Feeding behaviour; FST, Forced Swim Test; Gen, genetic manipulation; HInt, Human intruder test; HR, Heart rate; HRV, heart rate variability; IL1β, Interleukin 1β; Les, lesion manipulation; LY/C, LY341495 (mGluR2/3 antagonist) and CGP52432 (GABA<sub>B</sub> antagonist); M, Muscimol (GABA<sub>A</sub> agonist); MAP, mean arterial pressure; MB, Muscimol (GABA<sub>A</sub> agonist) and baclofen (GABA<sub>B</sub> agonist); Md, Mood; Mot, Motivational arousal; NAff, Negative affect; NSF, Novelty suppressed feeding, OF, Open Field test; Opto, Optogenetic manipulation; PAff, Positive affect; ReExt, Re-extinction; Sad, Response to sad faces; SPT, Sucrose preference test; SSRI, Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; Stim, Stimulation manipulation; TST, Tail suspension test; V, Veratrine (Sodium channel activator). Numbers indicate the relevant reference.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 387 KiB  
Article
The Relationship between Adult Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Criminogenic Cognitions
by Paul E. Engelhardt, Gavin Nobes and Sophie Pischedda
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060128 - 2 Jun 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7831
Abstract
The relationship between ADHD—in particular hyperactivity—and criminal behavior is well documented. The current study investigated the role of criminogenic cognitions in the explanation of this relationship by examining which symptoms of ADHD are associated with criminogenic cognitions. Community-recruited adults (N = 192) [...] Read more.
The relationship between ADHD—in particular hyperactivity—and criminal behavior is well documented. The current study investigated the role of criminogenic cognitions in the explanation of this relationship by examining which symptoms of ADHD are associated with criminogenic cognitions. Community-recruited adults (N = 192) completed self-report questionnaires for symptoms of ADHD and criminogenic cognitions. Symptoms of inattention were consistently and strongly related to criminogenic cognitions. In particular, inattention was significantly related to cutoff, cognitive indolence, and discontinuity. There was also evidence that impulsivity was positively related to criminogenic cognitions, and specifically, to the power orientation subscale. In contrast, and contrary to expectations, symptoms of hyperactivity were not related to criminogenic cognitions. These results indicate that in community-recruited adults, inattention rather than hyperactivity is related to criminogenic cognitions. We discuss the implications of these findings contrasting with those of previous studies that used forensic and clinical samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A Complex Lifetime Story)
13 pages, 1576 KiB  
Article
Self-Paced Online vs. Cue-Based Offline Brain–Computer Interfaces for Inducing Neural Plasticity
by Mads Jochumsen, Muhammad Samran Navid, Rasmus Wiberg Nedergaard, Nada Signal, Usman Rashid, Ali Hassan, Heidi Haavik, Denise Taylor and Imran Khan Niazi
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060127 - 1 Jun 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5857
Abstract
Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs), operated in a cue-based (offline) or self-paced (online) mode, can be used for inducing cortical plasticity for stroke rehabilitation by the pairing of movement-related brain activity with peripheral electrical stimulation. The aim of this study was to compare the difference [...] Read more.
Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs), operated in a cue-based (offline) or self-paced (online) mode, can be used for inducing cortical plasticity for stroke rehabilitation by the pairing of movement-related brain activity with peripheral electrical stimulation. The aim of this study was to compare the difference in cortical plasticity induced by the two BCI modes. Fifteen healthy participants participated in two experimental sessions: cue-based BCI and self-paced BCI. In both sessions, imagined dorsiflexions were extracted from continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) and paired 50 times with the electrical stimulation of the common peroneal nerve. Before, immediately after, and 30 min after each intervention, the cortical excitability was measured through the motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) of tibialis anterior elicited through transcranial magnetic stimulation. Linear mixed regression models showed that the MEP amplitudes increased significantly (p < 0.05) from pre- to post- and 30-min post-intervention in terms of both the absolute and relative units, regardless of the intervention type. Compared to pre-interventions, the absolute MEP size increased by 79% in post- and 68% in 30-min post-intervention in the self-paced mode (with a true positive rate of ~75%), and by 37% in post- and 55% in 30-min post-intervention in the cue-based mode. The two modes were significantly different (p = 0.03) at post-intervention (relative units) but were similar at both post timepoints (absolute units). These findings suggest that immediate changes in cortical excitability may have implications for stroke rehabilitation, where it could be used as a priming protocol in conjunction with another intervention; however, the findings need to be validated in studies involving stroke patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collection on Neural Engineering)
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Experimental setup for transcranial magnetic stimulation(TMS) measurements. (<b>B</b>) Extraction of the peak–peak amplitude of a motor-evoked potential (MEP). (<b>C</b>) Visual cue that was presented to the participants and an example of an averaged movement-related cortical potential (MRCP) from the 50 movements prior to the cue-based brain–computer interface (BCI) training. Note that in this example the peak negativity occurs prior to the task onset, and it is this latency of peak negativity with respect to the task onset that is considered to be stable throughout the cue-based BCI training. (<b>D</b>) The participants receive electrical stimulation when they imagine a movement. There is no visual cue provided in the self-paced BCI training.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Peak–peak raw MEP amplitudes for the subjects.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Percentage changes in MEP peak–peak amplitudes calculated for each subject. Error bars show mean ± 95% confidence interval (CI).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>A</b>) Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) intensity in mA and (<b>B</b>) TMS machine resting motor threshold (RMT) output in % for each subject. Error bars show mean ± SD.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 5119 KiB  
Article
Testing for Nonselective Bilingual Lexical Access Using L1 Attrited Bilinguals
by He Pu, Yazmin E. Medina, Phillip J. Holcomb and Katherine J. Midgley
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060126 - 1 Jun 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5048
Abstract
Research in the past few decades generally supported a nonselective view of bilingual lexical access, where a bilingual’s two languages are both active during monolingual processing. However, recent work by Costa et al. (2017) brought this into question by reinterpreting evidence for nonselectivity [...] Read more.
Research in the past few decades generally supported a nonselective view of bilingual lexical access, where a bilingual’s two languages are both active during monolingual processing. However, recent work by Costa et al. (2017) brought this into question by reinterpreting evidence for nonselectivity in a selective manner. We manipulated the factor of first language (L1) attrition in an event-related potential (ERP) experiment to disentangle Costa and colleagues’ selective processing proposal versus the traditional nonselective processing view of bilingual lexical access. Spanish–English bilinguals demonstrated an N400 effect of L1 attrition during implicit L1 processing in a second language (L2) semantic judgment task, indicating the contribution of variable L1 lexical access during L2 processing. These results are incompatible with Costa and colleagues’ selective model, adding to the literature supporting a nonselective view of bilingual lexical access. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Neuroscience of Cross-Language Interaction in Bilinguals)
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<p>Development of the second language (L2) lexicon during L2 lexical acquisition as per Costa and colleagues [<a href="#B3-brainsci-09-00126" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. (<b>A</b>) Spreading activation of four first language (L1) and L2 terms during L2 learning; (<b>B</b>) simultaneous activation of all four terms due to Hebbian learning.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Sample trial across time (t) from the semantic judgment task while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Electrode montage and electrode sites used for analyses.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Reaction time (RT) interaction between semantic relatedness and L1 translation lexical relatedness.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Accuracy main effects of semantic relatedness and L1 translation lexical relatedness.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Semantic priming effect (related = black, unrelated = red) across all participants.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The 300–500-ms voltage map of semantic priming effect (semantically unrelated–semantically related) across all participants, with blue indicating a net negative effect.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The 300–500-ms voltage maps of semantic priming effect (semantically unrelated–semantically related) between low and high L1 attrition bilinguals, with blue indicating a net negative effect.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>L1 translation lexical priming effect in semantically unrelated conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The 300–500-ms voltage map of L1 translation lexical relatedness priming effect for semantically unrelated targets (lexically unrelated translations–lexically related translations).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>L1 translation lexical priming effect in low-attrition bilinguals (<span class="html-italic">N</span> = 12).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>L1 translation lexical priming effect in high-attrition bilinguals (<span class="html-italic">N</span> = 8).</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The 300–500-ms voltage maps of the L1 translation lexical relatedness priming effect (lexically unrelated translations–lexically related translations) in low/high L1 attrition bilinguals.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>L1 translation lexical priming N400 effect against participant L1 attrition scores.</p> Full article ">
5 pages, 732 KiB  
Case Report
Self Manipulated Cervical Spine Leads to Posterior Disc Herniation and Spinal Stenosis
by Wyatt McGilvery, Marc Eastin, Anish Sen and Maciej Witkos
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060125 - 29 May 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 12943
Abstract
The authors report a case in which a 38-year-old male who presented himself to the emergency department with a chief complaint of cervical neck pain and paresthesia radiating from the right pectoral region down his distal right arm following self-manipulation of the patient’s [...] Read more.
The authors report a case in which a 38-year-old male who presented himself to the emergency department with a chief complaint of cervical neck pain and paresthesia radiating from the right pectoral region down his distal right arm following self-manipulation of the patient’s own cervical vertebrae. Initial emergency department imaging via cervical x-ray and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) without contrast revealed no cervical fractures; however, there was evidence of an acute cervical disc herniation (C3–C7) with severe herniation and spinal stenosis located at C5–C6. Immediate discectomy at C5–C6 and anterior arthrodesis was conducted in order to decompress the cervical spinal cord. Acute traumatic cervical disc herniation is rare in comparison to disc herniation due to the chronic degradation of the posterior annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus. Traumatic cervical hernias usually arise due to a very large external force causing hyperflexion or hyperextension of the cervical vertebrae. However, there have been reports of cervical injury arising from cervical spinal manipulation therapy (SMT) where a licensed professional applies a rotary force component. This can be concerning, considering that 12 million Americans receive SMT annually (Powell, F.C.; Hanigan, W.C.; Olivero, W.C. A risk/benefit analysis of spinal manipulation therapy for relief of lumbar or cervical pain. Neurosurgery 1993, 33, 73–79.). This case study involved an individual who was able to apply enough rotary force to his own cervical vertebrae, causing severe neurological damage requiring surgical intervention. Individuals with neck pain should be advised of the complications of SMT, and provided with alternative treatment methods, especially if one is willing to self manipulate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surgery for Spine Disease and Intractable Pain)
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<p>Preoperative MRI (STIR sequence sagittal (<a href="#brainsci-09-00125-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>a) and T2 axial (<a href="#brainsci-09-00125-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>b)) taken in the emergency department shows the pathology of C5–C6 posterior acute cervical disc herniation with increased signal in the posterior longitudinal ligament and severe spinal cord compression with cord signal change status post self-manipulation of neck. The encircled area also shows the protrusion of the posterior herniated disc causing spinal stenosis. MRI = magnetic resonance imaging.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Postoperative CT scan showing spinal cord decompression following surgical discectomy and anterior arthrodesis of the C5–C6 vertebrae. CT scan = computerized tomography scan.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Postoperative X-ray showing postsurgical changes related to anterior fusion at C5–C6, with interval decrease in prevertebral soft tissue swelling. C1–C7 are visualized on the lateral view (<a href="#brainsci-09-00125-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>a) for evaluation of alignment. There is straightening of the normal cervical lordosis. Alignment is otherwise grossly unremarkable when allowing for patient rotation. Anterior instrumentation is noted at C5–C6 on both lateral and anterior (<a href="#brainsci-09-00125-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>b) views.</p> Full article ">
11 pages, 2569 KiB  
Article
Cellular Changes in Injured Rat Spinal Cord Following Electrical Brainstem Stimulation
by Walter J. Jermakowicz, Stephanie S. Sloley, Lia Dan, Alberto Vitores, Melissa M. Carballosa-Gautam and Ian D. Hentall
Brain Sci. 2019, 9(6), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9060124 - 28 May 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4632
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a major cause of disability and pain, but little progress has been made in its clinical management. Low-frequency electrical stimulation (LFS) of various anti-nociceptive targets improves outcomes after SCI, including motor recovery and mechanical allodynia. However, the mechanisms [...] Read more.
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a major cause of disability and pain, but little progress has been made in its clinical management. Low-frequency electrical stimulation (LFS) of various anti-nociceptive targets improves outcomes after SCI, including motor recovery and mechanical allodynia. However, the mechanisms of these beneficial effects are incompletely delineated and probably multiple. Our aim was to explore near-term effects of LFS in the hindbrain’s nucleus raphe magnus (NRM) on cellular proliferation in a rat SCI model. Starting 24 h after incomplete contusional SCI at C5, intermittent LFS at 8 Hz was delivered wirelessly to NRM. Controls were given inactive stimulators. At 48 h, 5-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was administered and, at 72 h, spinal cords were extracted and immunostained for various immune and neuroglial progenitor markers and BrdU at the level of the lesion and proximally and distally. LFS altered cell marker counts predominantly at the dorsal injury site. BrdU cell counts were decreased. Individually and in combination with BrdU, there were reductions in CD68 (monocytes) and Sox2 (immature neural precursors) and increases in Blbp (radial glia) expression. CD68-positive cells showed increased co-staining with iNOS. No differences in the expression of GFAP (glia) and NG2 (oligodendrocytes) or in GFAP cell morphology were found. In conclusion, our work shows that LFS of NRM in subacute SCI influences the proliferation of cell types implicated in inflammation and repair, thus providing mechanistic insight into deep brain stimulation as a neuromodulatory treatment for this devastating pathology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surgery for Spine Disease and Intractable Pain)
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<p>Experimental protocol. (<b>A</b>) Experimental timeline. Stimulators were implanted during the same procedure as the C5 contusion but activated one day later in the low-frequency electrical stimulation (LFS) group. (<b>B</b>) Schematic illustrating the size and position of the nucleus raphe magnus (NRM) stimulator relative to the rat brain. (<b>C</b>) Hematoxylin and eosin-stained sections showing a representative C5 lesion cavity 1 mm rostral to the lesion epicenter (<b>i</b>), at the lesion epicenter (<b>ii</b>), and 1 mm caudal to the lesion epicenter (<b>iii</b>). Scale bar is 1 mm. BrdU, bromodeoxyuridine; LFS, low-frequency stimulation; SCI, spinal cord injury.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Immunohistochemical analyses. (<b>A</b>) Representative immunostain at 60× of an LFS-treated animal showing CD68-positive cells (red) co-labeled with arginase-1 (green) at the lesion. (<b>B</b>) Immunostain at 60× of an LFS-treated animal showing cells co-labeled for NG2 (green) and APC (red). (<b>C</b>) 10× micrograph through DWM and the lesion cavity showing GFAP (red) and BrdU (green) cells for a control animal. The lesion is seen in the bottom right corner of the image. (<b>D</b>) Unipolar GFAP/BrdU cell at 60× for an LFS-treated animal. (<b>E</b>) Multipolar GFAP/BrdU cell at 60× for an LFS-treated animal. (<b>F</b>) Immunostain at 60× for Blbp (green), Sox2 (red) and DAPI (blue) at the lesion for an LFS-treated animal. The specific immunostains examined and their corresponding colors are shown in the bottom right corner of each panel, except for D and E where this is shown in between the panels. Scale bars are 20 µm for A, B, and F, 100 µm for C, and 10 µm for D and E.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Effects of LFS of NRM on the expression of immune and neuroglial progenitor cell markers at the lesion. Scatter plots comparing cell counts for animals in the control (blue) and LFS (red) groups. Results are shown for CD68 (<b>A</b>), CD68/iNOS (<b>B</b>), CD68/Arg-1 (<b>C</b>), GFAP (<b>D</b>), NG2 (<b>E</b>), Sox2 (<b>F</b>), and Blbp (<b>G</b>). Only cell counts from DWM and GM are included. The thick horizontal gray bars show the mean of the counts. The thin horizontal gray bars show standard error. Asterixis above the graphs show statistical significance, if present, which was computed using bootstrap analyses. C, control; LFS, low-frequency stimulation.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Effects of LFS of NRM on cellular proliferation at the lesion. Representative sections through DWM and GM of LFS-treated (<b>A</b>) and control (<b>B</b>) animals showing the expression of BrdU-positive cells surrounding the lesion cavity. The scatter plots compare cell counts of BrdU (<b>C</b>) and stains co-labeled with BrdU, namely CD68 (<b>D</b>), GFAP (<b>E</b>), NG2 (<b>F</b>), Sox2 (<b>G</b>), and Blbp (<b>H</b>), for animals in the control (blue) and LFS (red) groups. Only cell counts from DWM and GM are included. The thick horizontal gray bars show the mean of the counts and thin horizontal gray bars show standard error. Asterixis above the graphs denote statistical significance, which was tested for using bootstrap analyses. Scale bar for A and B is 200 µm. C, control; LFS, low-frequency stimulation.</p> Full article ">
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