Agronomy

24 pages, 1814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nutritional and Bioactive Lipid Composition of Amaranthus Seeds Grown in Varied Agro-Climatic Conditions in France

by Ahlem Azri, Sameh Sassi Aydi, Samir Aydi, Mohamed Debouba, Jalloul Bouajila, Muriel Cerny, Romain Valentin, Lucas Tricoulet, Patrice Galaup and Othmane Merah

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 672; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030672 (registering DOI) - 9 Mar 2025

Abstract

Increasing interest has been devoted to the seeds of the amaranth, a plant that has garnered attention for its multifaceted uses in daily life. In this research, we focused on four genotypes of two amaranth species cultivated in two different sites in the [...] Read more.

Increasing interest has been devoted to the seeds of the amaranth, a plant that has garnered attention for its multifaceted uses in daily life. In this research, we focused on four genotypes of two amaranth species cultivated in two different sites in the southwest of France. Oil content, fatty acid composition, and unsaponifiable levels were carried out. The lipid composition was analyzed using Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID) analysis. The total polyphenol contents (TPC) of different seed extracts were measured by a Folin–Ciocalteu assay. Antioxidants and cytotoxic activities were additionally assessed for the methanol (70%), ethyl acetate, and cyclohexane extracts. Results showed that oil content varied greatly and ranged from 4.3 to 6.4%. Lera cultivated at Riscle had the highest squalene yield, reaching 7.7%. Linoleic acid and oleic acid were the most abundant fatty acids for the four genotypes in two sites, followed by palmitic acid. Triglycerides (TAGs) were the main glycerides in all samples growing in both sites. A total of 44 volatile compounds were identified in Amaranthus seed extracts. The chemical compositions of the amaranth have been discussed as influenced by genetic and environmental factors. These data highlight the bioactive potential of the amaranth seed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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Figure 1
Average values of temperature and rainfall at two locations in southwest France during the cropping season of 2023. Full article ">Figure 2
Principal components analysis for the lipid composition of Amaranthus oil seed of four genotypes grown in France. (A): group of Panam and Berry belonging to the A. cruentus and (B): group of Lera and Kharkiv genotypes belonging to the A. hypochondriacus. Full article ">Figure 3
Antioxidant activity of fat and seed cake extracts (at 50 mg/L) from four Amaranthus genotypes grown at Auch and Riscle; MeOH (70%): methanol 70%, CHX: cyclohexane, EtOAc: ethyl acetate; vit C: vitamin C (ref: reference). Mean comparison was based on Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05)); **: moderately significant interaction (p ≤ 0.01); ns: no significant interaction (p > 0.05) with a confidence interval of 95%. Full article ">Figure 4
TPC (mg GAE/g DW) of both fractions (fat and seed cake) extracts of four Amaranthus genotypes grown at Auch and Riscle. MeOH (70%): methanol 70%; CHX: cyclohexane; EtOAc: ethyl acetate. Mean comparison was based on Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05)); **: moderately significant interaction (p ≤ 0.01); *: low significance interaction (p ≤ 0.05); ns: no significant interaction (p > 0.05) with a confidence interval of 95%. Full article ">Figure 5
Reducing sugar content (mg Glucose E/g DW) of Amaranthus seed extracts grown at Auch and Riscle. MeOH (70%): methanol 70%; CHX: cyclohexane; EtOAc: ethyl acetate. Mean comparison was based on Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05). *: low significance interaction (p ≤ 0.05); ns: no significant interaction (p > 0.05) with a confidence interval of 95%. Full article ">

16 pages, 2579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation in Nutritional Substances in Varieties of Leafy Chinese Kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra): A Pilot Trial

by Yating Wang, Huiying Miao, Fen Zhang, Bo Sun and Qiaomei Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030671 (registering DOI) - 9 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra), a native Chinese vegetable, is usually grown for its bolting stems as the common edible part. However, the tender leaves of the vegetable have higher nutritional value. To investigate the effects of cultivation seasons on [...] Read more.

Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra), a native Chinese vegetable, is usually grown for its bolting stems as the common edible part. However, the tender leaves of the vegetable have higher nutritional value. To investigate the effects of cultivation seasons on the nutritional substances in leafy Chinese kale, we conducted a pilot trial to analyze the differences in the content of nutritional substances, including glucosinolates, in five varieties of leafy Chinese kale (JLYC-01, JLYC-02, JLYC-03, JLYC-04, JLYC-05) cultured in fall, winter, and spring. The plant weight was 27.2 g–40.4 g in spring, 20.0 g–38.6 g in winter, and 20.3 g–34.0 g in fall, and the JLYC-05 variety showed superiority among the varieties, with weights of 34.0 g in fall, 38.6 g in winter, and 39.7 g in winter. Overall, the nutritional substance content in leafy Chinese kale cultivated in spring and fall was better than that of those cultivated in winter, providing a key reference for leafy Chinese kale planting. Among the five varieties, JLYC-04 and JLYC-05 are excellent candidates for future breeding programs, since JLYC-04 has a higher content of total phenols (10.1 mg GAE g⁻¹ DW–10.7 mg GAE g⁻¹ DW) and glucosinolates (5.8 μmol g⁻¹ DW–7.1 μmol g⁻¹ DW), exhibiting strong antioxidant capacity, while JLYC-05 contains more chlorophyll (157 mg 100 g⁻¹ FW–214 mg 100 g⁻¹ FW) and carotenoids (31.8 mg 100 g⁻¹ FW–39.1 mg 100 g⁻¹ FW). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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Five varieties of leafy Chinese kale. Full article ">Figure 2
The plant height (A), plant spreading (B), and plant weight (C) of different varieties of leafy Chinese kale cultured in different seasons. Uppercase letters show seasonal differences within varieties, while lowercase letters indicate varietal differences within seasons. Values not sharing a common letter are significantly different at p < 0.05. Error bars stand for ±SD. Full article ">Figure 3
The reducing sugars (A), soluble proteins (B), soluble solids (C), and chlorophyll (D) content in different varieties of leafy Chinese kale cultured in different seasons. Uppercase letters show seasonal differences within varieties, while lowercase letters indicate varietal differences within seasons; comparisons marked solely with lowercase letters were analyzed without simple effects due to non-significant interaction. Values not sharing a common letter are significantly different at p < 0.05. Error bars stand for ±SD. Full article ">Figure 4
The content of carotenoids (A), vitamin C (B), total phenols (C), and the antioxidant capacity (D) in different varieties of leafy Chinese kale cultured in different seasons. Uppercase letters show seasonal differences within varieties, while lowercase letters indicate varietal differences within seasons; comparisons marked solely with lowercase letters were analyzed without simple effects due to non-significant interaction. Values not sharing a common letter are significantly different at p < 0.05. Error bars stand for ±SD. Full article ">Figure 5
PCA of different cultivation seasons among five varieties of leafy Chinese kale cultured in different seasons. (A) PCA Score plot; (B) PLS-DA Score plot; (C) loading plot. The $M2. DA. is a symbol about a clustering. Full article ">Figure 6
Correlation plot of the correlations between nutritional substances and antioxidant capacity in leafy Chinese kale. The dashed lines between indices represent negative correlations, whereas solid lines represent positive correlations (|R2| ≥ 0.65). Full article ">

15 pages, 877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Rice Yield and Quality from 1994 to 2023 in Shanghai, China

by Haixia Wang, Jianjiang Bai, Qi Zhao, Jianhao Tang, Ruifang Yang, Liming Cao and Ruoyu Xiong

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030670 (registering DOI) - 8 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Abstract: In recent years, there has been widespread cultivation of high-quality rice along the southeast coast of China, particularly in Shanghai. However, the specific changes in the yield and quality performance of rice in the Shanghai region have not been well understood. A [...] Read more.

Abstract: In recent years, there has been widespread cultivation of high-quality rice along the southeast coast of China, particularly in Shanghai. However, the specific changes in the yield and quality performance of rice in the Shanghai region have not been well understood. A study conducted on 194 rice varieties in the Shanghai region from 1994 to 2023 focused on yield, growth characteristics, and quality. The findings revealed significant increases in rice yield (+16.8%) and spikelets per panicle (+45.4%) in the Shanghai region over the past 30 years, along with a decrease in amylose content (−27.9%). However, parameters such as grain filling, 1000-grain weight, plant height, panicle length, chalkiness, and gel consistency showed no significant changes over the same period. Additionally, the study found that the yield, nitrogen application amount, growth period, and head rice rate of japonica rice and indica-japonica hybrid rice were higher than those of indica rice, although the panicle length was lower in comparison. Japonica inbred rice exhibited the lowest amylose content and superior taste. Correlation analyses suggested that the breeding of japonica rice varieties in the Shanghai region should focus on balancing nitrogen absorption and high chalkiness, plant biomass, and amylose content, and yield and the appearance and taste quality of rice. In addition, the potential rice yield per unit area in the Shanghai region in the future depends on the promotion of hybrid japonica rice planting and developing best management practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

19 pages, 4056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Native Warm-Season Grasses Show Limited Response to Phosphorus and Potassium

by Eric Bisangwa, Jonathan D. Richwine, Patrick D. Keyser, Amanda J. Ashworth, David M. Butler, Utsala Shrestha and Forbes R. Walker

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030669 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 117

Abstract

Data are needed to identify optimum response to potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) amendment and associated mycorrhizal colonization for native warm-season grasses (NWSGs; big bluestem [BB; Andropogon gerardii Vitman] and switchgrass [SG; Panicum virgatum L.]). To evaluate these responses, experiments were conducted in [...] Read more.

Data are needed to identify optimum response to potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) amendment and associated mycorrhizal colonization for native warm-season grasses (NWSGs; big bluestem [BB; Andropogon gerardii Vitman] and switchgrass [SG; Panicum virgatum L.]). To evaluate these responses, experiments were conducted in Knoxville and Springfield, Tennessee, from 2013 to 2019. In twice-annual harvests, we assessed BB and SG dry matter (DM) yield, crude protein (CP), total digestible nutrients (TDNs), P and K removed by grasses (removal), and soil test P and K in response to P (29 to 88 kg ha⁻¹) and K (70 to 257 kg ha⁻¹) elemental rates, and rates of root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi in response to P. Amendments had no effect (p > 0.05) on DM yield, CP, or TDN for either species. Yield, CP, and TDN fluctuated among years (p < 0.001) for both species, but no consistent temporal trends were observed. Although removal exceeded inputs at the control (no input) for P and K, and at 70 kg K ha⁻¹, there was not an associated reduction in soil test K and P values. Phosphorus rate affected (p = 0.02) total mycorrhizal colonization, with an average of 62% colonization across both species and 70% at the highest P rates. Given the lack of response for yield, CP, TDN, or associated soil nutrient test levels, NWSGs appear to offer a low-input option for forage production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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20 pages, 2631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High Temperature at Grain Filling Stage on Grain Quality and Gene Transcription in Heat-Sensitive Versus Heat-Tolerant Rice Cultivars

by Yujian Guo, Hui Luo, Jiajie Yi, Yuqi Zhu, Xiaojie Ma, Yubing Jiang, Yanjiao Peng, Yunhua Xiao, Guilian Zhang, Xiong Liu and Huabing Deng

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030668 - 7 Mar 2025

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Abstract

There are many factors affecting rice yield and quality during cultivation, including temperature, light, water, and fertilization, among which high temperature (HT) is one of the main factors affecting rice yield and quality. However, less is known about the effects and potential mechanisms [...] Read more.

There are many factors affecting rice yield and quality during cultivation, including temperature, light, water, and fertilization, among which high temperature (HT) is one of the main factors affecting rice yield and quality. However, less is known about the effects and potential mechanisms of different durations of HT stress during the grain filling stage on grain quality. In this study, the differences in rice quality and starch rapid viscosity analyzer (RVA) characteristics of eight indica rice varieties under different high-temperature treatment times were studied by simulating high temperature in an artificial climate chamber. The prolonged duration of HT leads to an overall deterioration in the milling quality, appearance quality, and cooking quality of rice. The impact of HT duration on the starch RVA characteristics of rice is more complex and is mainly related to the varieties. Among them, the starch RVA characteristics of R313 were more stable. It is worth noting that there is a significant difference in the sensitivity of the appearance quality of 8XR274 and 5W0076 to HT duration, with 8XR272 being more sensitive and 5W0076 being the opposite. We selected these two varieties for transcriptome analysis after 14 days of HT treatment and found that the number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in 8XR274 was significantly less than that in 5W0076. The DEGs of 8XR274 were mainly enriched in pathways related to carbohydrates, while 5W0076 was mainly enriched in pathways related to photosynthesis. Our study provides a new perspective on the molecular response and related genes of different rice varieties under high temperature, as well as the high-quality rice breeding under high temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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Chalky grain rate (A) and chalkiness degree (B) of different rice varieties under different durations of high temperature during grain filling stage. CK, rice varieties grown under optimum temperature. Data are shown as mean ± standard error of triplicate measurements. Different letters are marked above the standard deviation to express significant differences (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 2
Amylose content (A), gelatinization temperature (B), gel consistency (C), head rice length (D), cooked rice length (E), and cooked rice elongation (F) were analyzed in rice varieties treated with different durations of high temperature during grain filling stage. Data are shown as mean ± standard error of triplicate measurements. Different letters are marked above the standard deviation to express significant differences (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 3
Principal component analysis of 8XR274 and 5W0076 samples. HT14_076_1, HT14_076_2, and HT14_076_3 were 5W0076 samples under high-temperature treatment for 14 days; CT14_076_1, CT14_076_2, and CT14_076_3 were 5W0076 samples under optimum temperature control; HT14_274_1, HT14_274_2, HT14_274_3 were 8XR274 samples under high-temperature treatment for 14 days; CT14_274_1, CT14_274_2, CT14_274_3 were 8XR274 samples under optimum temperature control. Full article ">Figure 4
Statistical analysis of DEGs between 8XR274 and 5W0076. (A) The volcano diagram shows the relationship between the fold change of DEGs in 8XR274 (HT14_274 vs. CT14_274) and 5W0076 (HT14_076 vs. CT14_076) and the false discovery rate (FDR). The green dots indicate the down-regulated DEGs, the red dots indicate the up-regulated DEGs, and the blue dots indicate unaltered genes. (B) Venn diagram comparison of 8XR274 and 5W0076 total DEGs. Full article ">Figure 5
GO enrichment analysis of DEGs in the heat-sensitive variety 8XR274 (A) and heat-tolerant variety 5W0076 (B). The color of the column represents the p value; the smaller the p value, the closer the color is to red. The length of the column reflects the relative number of DEGs associated with each pathway. Enrichment comparison of KEGG pathways in 8XR274 (C) and 5W0076 (D). The point color represents the padj; the smaller the padj, the closer the color is to red. The size of the points reflects the relative number of DEGs associated with each pathway. Full article ">Figure 6
The heatmaps depict the expression level of DEGs enriched in “carbohydrate” (A) and “photosynthesis” (B). A heatmap was constructed using the log2 fold change values of all samples. Gene expression levels are represented by blue to red spectra, representing low to high expression, respectively. (C) The gene expression level changes (log2 FC values) of OsR498G0204464600.01, OsR498G0917611900.01, OsR498G0100034600.01, OsR498G1221059300.01, OsR498G0713493200.01, and OsR498G0917206700.01 in qRT-PCR and RNA-Seq. Data are given as means ± SD, n = 3. Full article ">

14 pages, 5299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Approach for Detecting Tomato Under a Complicated Environment

by Chen-Feng Long, Yu-Juan Yang, Hong-Mei Liu, Feng Su and Yang-Jun Deng

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030667 - 7 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Tomato is one of the most popular and widely cultivated fruits and vegetables in the world. In large-scale cultivation, manual picking is inefficient and labor-intensive, which is likely to lead to a decline in the quality of the fruits. Although mechanical picking can [...] Read more.

Tomato is one of the most popular and widely cultivated fruits and vegetables in the world. In large-scale cultivation, manual picking is inefficient and labor-intensive, which is likely to lead to a decline in the quality of the fruits. Although mechanical picking can improve efficiency, it is affected by factors such as leaf occlusion and changes in light conditions in the tomato growth environment, resulting in poor detection and recognition results. To address these challenges, this study proposes a tomato detection method based on Graph-CenterNet. The method employs Vision Graph Convolution (ViG) to replace traditional convolutions, thereby enhancing the flexibility of feature extraction, while reducing one downsampling layer to strengthen global information capture. Furthermore, the Coordinate Attention (CA) module is introduced to optimize the processing of key information through correlation computation and weight allocation mechanisms. Experiments conducted on the Tomato Detection dataset demonstrate that the proposed method achieves average precision improvements of 7.94%, 10.58%, and 1.24% compared to Faster R-CNN, CenterNet, and YOLOv8, respectively. The results indicate that the improved Graph-CenterNet method significantly enhances the accuracy and robustness of tomato detection in complex environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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20 pages, 7212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Inorganic Phosphorus Is Closely Associated with pqqC- Gene Abundance and Bacterial Community Richness in Grape Orchards with Different Planting Years

by Xue Wang, Zhubing Shao, Shuo Fang, Jieshan Cheng, Xiaotong Guo, Juan Zhang, Chunyan Yu, Tingting Mao, Guohui Wu and Hongxia Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030666 - 7 Mar 2025

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Abstract

The high application rate and low utilization efficiency of inorganic phosphorus (Pi) fertilizer could lead to significant P accumulation in soil. Soil P cycling is greatly affected by the planting time in perennial fruit yards. However, the mechanism by which soil Pi fractions [...] Read more.

The high application rate and low utilization efficiency of inorganic phosphorus (Pi) fertilizer could lead to significant P accumulation in soil. Soil P cycling is greatly affected by the planting time in perennial fruit yards. However, the mechanism by which soil Pi fractions and pqqC-harboring bacterial communities, and their relationships, are affected by the planting time of fruit vines, remains unclear. Here, the soil Pi fractions, the pqqC-harboring bacterial communities, and their relationships in the grape yards with 0.5, 4, 16 and 22 growth years, designated as Y0.5, Y4, Y16 and Y22, were examined. The results showed that with the increasing growth years, soil organic carbon (SOC) contents and pH values, respectively, increased and decreased. In addition, the contents and percentages of soil labile Pi and moderately labile Pi increased, whereas those of soil stable Pi decreased. In the soils of Y4, Y16 and Y22, the abundance and α-diversity of pqqC decreased compared to the soils of Y0.5. In the soils of Y16, the composition of pqqC-harboring bacterial communities was altered significantly, showing a great difference compared to the soils of Y0.5, Y4 and Y22. At genus level, the relative abundance of pqqC-harboring bacteria was highly correlated with soil P fractions. Further structural equation modeling revealed that the relationships between the abundance and community richness of the pqqC gene and soil Pi transformation were regulated by soil pH. These findings suggest that changes in soil Pi fractions are closely associated with soil pH, pqqC gene abundance, pqqC-harboring bacterial community richness and SOC content in grape orchards with different planting years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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22 pages, 994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Ray-Tracing-Based Irradiance Model for Agrivoltaic Greenhouses: Development and Application

by Anna Kujawa, Natalie Hanrieder, Stefan Wilbert, Álvaro Fernández Solas, Sergio González Rodríguez, María del Carmen Alonso-García, Jesús Polo, José Antonio Carballo, Guadalupe López-Díaz, Cristina Cornaro and Robert Pitz-Paal

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030665 - 7 Mar 2025

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Abstract

A key challenge in designing agrivoltaic systems is avoiding or minimizing the negative impact of photovoltaic-induced shading on crops. This study introduces a novel ray-tracing-based irradiance model for evaluating the irradiance distribution inside agrivoltaic greenhouses taking into account the transmission characteristics of the [...] Read more.

A key challenge in designing agrivoltaic systems is avoiding or minimizing the negative impact of photovoltaic-induced shading on crops. This study introduces a novel ray-tracing-based irradiance model for evaluating the irradiance distribution inside agrivoltaic greenhouses taking into account the transmission characteristics of the greenhouse’s cover material. Simulations are based on satellite-derived irradiance data and are performed with high spatial and temporal resolution. The model is tested by reproducing the agrivoltaic greenhouse experiment of a previous study and comparing the simulated irradiance to the experimentally measured data. The coordinates of the sensor positions in the presented application are optimized based on one day of raw data of minutely measured irradiance from the experimental study. These coordinates are then used to perform simulations over an extended timeframe of several months to take into account the seasonal changes throughout a crop cycle. The average deviation between the simulations and the experimental measurements in terms of radiation reduction is determined as 2.88 percentage points for the entire crop cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integration of Agriculture and Solar Energy Production: Advances and Challenges in Agrivoltaic Systems)

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Rendering of the experimental Venlo greenhouse (GH) implemented in the simulation framework. The estimated position of radiation sensors are indicated by stars. Full article ">Figure 2
Overall transmittance of <tt>Radiance</tt> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> materials depending on <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>f</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>. The color scheme relates to the overall transmittance of the tested material, i.e., the ratio of transmitted irradiance to incident irradiance. Full article ">Figure 3
Schematic picture of the ray tracing procedure for an agrivoltaic (APV) GH. Specular reflection (red), diffuse reflection (blue), specular transmission (red), and diffuse transmission (green) are shown. The sky dome is indicated with the dotted semicircle, and the sun is indicated with a yellow circle. Full article ">Figure 4
Minimization of normalized Root Mean Square Error (nRMSE) values to find the coordinates of the radiation sensors in the simulation. The nRMSE values for the west sensor in the 0% control zone are presented. For that sensor, the pair of x- and y-coordinates with the lowest nRMSE of 0.10 is located at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0.25</mn> <mo> </mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0.20</mn> <mo> </mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> according to the primary guess of the position. Full article ">Figure 5
Comparison between simulation and experimentally measured irradiance by López-Díaz et al. [<a href="#B41-agronomy-15-00665" class="html-bibr">41</a>] for 23 January 2015. The plots on the left refer to the sensors placed on the west of the GH; the plots on the right refer to the sensors placed on the east. The zones are presented in ascending order, with the 0% zone in the first row and 50% in the last row. Red stars: simulation; blue line: irradiance measured by López-Díaz et al. [<a href="#B41-agronomy-15-00665" class="html-bibr">41</a>]; green points: 15 min means of experimentally measured data with <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>±</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mi>σ</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> standard deviation; black curve: outside Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) from Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) used as model’s input. Full article ">Figure 6
Overall radiation reduction with respect to the control zone as a function of shading treatments of 15%, 30% and 50% for the simulation and experimental values of López-Díaz et al. [<a href="#B41-agronomy-15-00665" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. A 2nd-degree polynomial function is fitted to the simulated data (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">R</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>></mo> <mn>0.99</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>). Full article ">Figure 7
Computation times for timestamp 23.01.2015 at 12:00:00 for varying numbers of pixels. Full article ">

14 pages, 1277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Responses of Parasitic Nematodes to Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by Brassica nigra Roots

by Žiga Laznik, Tímea Tóth, Szabolcs Ádám, Stanislav Trdan, Ivana Majić and Tamás Lakatos

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030664 - 6 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Parasitic nematodes, particularly those in the Rhabditidae family, are vital components of belowground ecosystems, contributing to pest regulation and sustainable agriculture. This study investigated the chemotactic responses of three nematode species—Phasmarhabditis papillosa, Oscheius myriophilus, and O. onirici—to volatile organic [...] Read more.

Parasitic nematodes, particularly those in the Rhabditidae family, are vital components of belowground ecosystems, contributing to pest regulation and sustainable agriculture. This study investigated the chemotactic responses of three nematode species—Phasmarhabditis papillosa, Oscheius myriophilus, and O. onirici—to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by Brassica nigra roots under herbivory by Delia radicum larvae. Using a chemotaxis assay, the effects of five VOCs (dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, allyl isothiocyanate, phenylethyl isothiocyanate, and benzonitrile) were tested at two concentrations (pure and 0.03 ppm) and two temperatures (18 °C and 22 °C). The results revealed that VOCs and temperature significantly influenced nematode responses, while nematode species and VOC concentration showed limited effects. Benzonitrile consistently demonstrated strong chemoattractant properties, particularly for O. myriophilus and O. onirici. Conversely, allyl isothiocyanate exhibited potent nematicidal effects, inhibiting motility and causing mortality. Dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl sulfide elicited moderate to strong attractant responses, with species- and temperature-dependent variations. Significant interactions between VOCs, temperature, and nematode species highlighted the complexity of these ecological interactions. These findings emphasize the ecological roles of VOCs in mediating nematode behavior and their potential applications in sustainable pest management. Benzonitrile emerged as a promising candidate for nematode-based biocontrol strategies, while allyl isothiocyanate showed potential as a direct nematicidal agent. The study underscores the importance of integrating chemical cues into pest management systems to enhance agricultural sustainability and reduce reliance on chemical pesticides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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To prepare the experimental setup, three 1 cm diameter marks were drawn on the bottom of each Petri dish: one at the center and two positioned 1.5 cm from the edge on the right and left sides. The volatile organic compound (VOC) under investigation, at a selected concentration, was applied to the right side of the agar (treated area), while the left side was treated with 10 μL of 96% ethanol as the control (control area). VOCs were applied immediately before introducing 100 infective juveniles (IJs) of nematodes, delivered in a 50 μL droplet at the center of the agar. For control setups, 96% ethanol was applied to both sides, and 100 IJs in a 50 μL droplet were placed at the center. Full article ">Figure 2
The chart illustrates the percentage of infective juveniles (IJs) of different nematode species present in the outer segments after 24 h at 18 °C, as influenced by the VOC type, VOC concentration, and nematode species used in the experiment. Error bars indicate the standard error of the mean. Capital letters denote statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among various VOCs at the same concentration within a single nematode species. Lowercase letters indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among the different nematode species for the same VOC and VOC concentration. The nematode species tested in the experiment include: PP = Phasmarhabditis papillosa, OM = Oscheius myriophilus, and OO = Oscheius onirici. The VOCs used in the experiment are as follows: DMS = dimethyl sulfide, DMDS = dimethyl disulfide, AITC = allyl isothiocyanate, PEITC = phenylethyl isothiocyanate, BN = benzonitrile, and control = 96% ethanol. Full article ">Figure 3
The chart illustrates the percentage of infective juveniles (IJs) of different nematode species present in the outer segments after 24 h at 22 °C, as influenced by the VOC type, VOC concentration, and nematode species used in the experiment. Error bars indicate the standard error of the mean. Capital letters denote statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among various VOCs at the same concentration within a single nematode species. Lowercase letters indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among the different nematode species for the same VOC and VOC concentration. The nematode species tested in the experiment include PP = Phasmarhabditis papillosa, OM = Oscheius myriophilus, and OO = Oscheius onirici. The VOCs used in the experiment are as follows: DMS = dimethyl sulfide, DMDS = dimethyl disulfide, AITC = allyl isothiocyanate, PEITC = phenylethyl isothiocyanate, BN = benzonitrile, and control = 96% ethanol. Full article ">

17 pages, 3305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Resolution of Phosphorus Sources in an Agricultural Watershed of Southern China: Application of Phosphate Oxygen Isotopes and Multiple Models

by Dengchao Wang, Jingwei Tan, Xinhua Gao, Shanbao Liu, Caole Li, Linghui Zeng, Yizhe Wang, Fan Wang, Qiuying Zhang and Gang Chen

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030663 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 141

Abstract

Phosphorus is the primary contributor to eutrophication in water bodies, and identifying phosphorus sources in rivers is crucial for controlling phosphorus pollution and subsequent eutrophication. Although phosphate oxygen isotopes (δ¹⁸O_P) have the capacity to trace phosphorus sources and [...] Read more.

Phosphorus is the primary contributor to eutrophication in water bodies, and identifying phosphorus sources in rivers is crucial for controlling phosphorus pollution and subsequent eutrophication. Although phosphate oxygen isotopes (δ¹⁸O_P) have the capacity to trace phosphorus sources and cycling in water and sediments, they have not been used in small- to medium-sized watersheds, such as the Xiaodongjiang River (XDJ), which is located in an agricultural watershed, source–complex region of southern China. This study employed phosphate oxygen isotope techniques in combination with a land-use-based mixed end-member model and the MixSIAR Bayesian mixing model to quantitatively determine potential phosphorus sources in surface water and sediments. The δ¹⁸O_P values of the surface water ranged from 5.72‰ to 15.02‰, while those of sediment ranged from 10.41‰ to 16.80‰. In the downstream section, the δ¹⁸O_P values of the surface water and sediment were similar, suggesting that phosphate in the downstream water was primarily influenced by endogenous sediment control. The results of the land-use–source mixing model and Bayesian model framework demonstrated that controlling phosphorus inputs from fertilizers is essential for reducing phosphorus emissions in the XDJ watershed. Furthermore, ongoing rural sewage treatment, manure management, and the resource utilization of aquaculture substrates contributed to reduced phosphorus pollution. This study showed that isotope techniques, combined with multi-model approaches, effectively assessed phosphorus sources in complex watersheds, offering a theoretical basis for phosphorus pollution management to prevent eutrophication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Land Use Change on Soil Quality Evolution)

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(a) Locations map of the study area; (b) elevation map of the study area; (c) land use and sampling point distribution map along the XDJ. S, GZ, and X (i = 1, 2, 3 …, n) represent Sishui River, Genzi River, and Xiaodongjiang downstream, respectively. Full article ">Figure 2
(a) Spatial distribution of riverine total phosphorus (TP), (b) dissolved total phosphorus (DTP), and (c) sediment TP concentrations; (d) total phosphorus (TP) as a function of precipitation. Full article ">Figure 3
(a) Distributions of δ18OP and Eδ18OP values in the XDJ watershed; (b) deviation of measured δ18OP from Eδ18OP. Full article ">Figure 4
(a) Spatial distributions of the surface water δD and δ18Ow values in the XDJ watershed; (b) δD versus δ18Ow plot in the XDJ watershed. Full article ">Figure 5
Contributions of major phosphorus sources in the XDJ and its sub- watersheds. (a) River water in the SSR watershed; (b) River water in the GZR watershed; (c) Sediments in the SSR watershed; (d) Sediments in the GZR watershed; (e) River water in the XDJ-D sub-watershed; (f) River water in the entire XDJ watershed; (g) Sediments in the XDJ-D sub-watershed; (h) Sediments in the entire XDJ watershed. Full article ">Figure 6
Contribution analysis of four potential sources of phosphorus in the XDJ and its sub-watersheds estimated by the MixSIAR model. Full article ">

20 pages, 3718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Compost and Biological Fertilization with Reducing the Rates of Mineral Fertilizers on Vegetative Growth, Nutritional Status, Yield and Fruit Quality of ‘Anna’ Apples

by Sameh Kamel Okba, Hesham M. Abo Ogiela, Ahlam Mehesen, Gehad B. Mikhael, Shamel M. Alam-Eldein and Ashraf M. S. Tubeileh

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030662 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 149

Abstract

A field trial was conducted on eight-year-old ‘Anna’ apple (Malus domestica) trees from 2021 to 2023 in northern Egypt. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of replacing mineral fertilizer with compost and microorganism applications. Treatments were prepared [...] Read more.

A field trial was conducted on eight-year-old ‘Anna’ apple (Malus domestica) trees from 2021 to 2023 in northern Egypt. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of replacing mineral fertilizer with compost and microorganism applications. Treatments were prepared using combinations of three mineral fertilizer NPK (nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K)) levels (75% recommended NPK rate, 50% and 25% recommended rate), with two compost levels (with/without) and two bacteria/fungi biological blend (PGPM) levels (with/without). This design resulted in 12 treatments in addition to a control treatment consisting of the full NPK recommended rate (100% NPK). Leaf nutrient concentrations, vegetative growth, fruit set percentage, fruit drop percentage, yield and fruit quality were measured in 2022 and 2023. Our results indicated that vegetative growth parameters were significantly influenced by the fertilizer treatments in both seasons. The application of 75% NPK + compost + PGPM or 50% NPK + compost + PGPM significantly increased shoot length, shoot diameter, leaf area and leaf-specific weight compared with the control (100% NPK). The greatest values of leaf nutrients and production and quality parameters were obtained with treatments 75% NPK + compost + PGPM or 50% NPK + compost + PGPM. Applying 75% NPK + compost + PGPM or 50%NPK + compost + PGPM increased total soluble solids and anthocyanin concentrations but reduced fruit nitrate and nitrite levels compared with the control (100% NPK). This study shows that it is possible to reduce mineral fertilizer application by 25–50% while improving the yield if compost and microbial inoculants are applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Biofertilizers and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria for the Sustainable Cultivation of Horticulture Products)

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19 pages, 2861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Within-Field Temporal and Spatial Variability in Crop Productivity for Diverse Crops—A 30-Year Model-Based Assessment

by Ixchel Manuela Hernández-Ochoa, Thomas Gaiser, Kathrin Grahmann, Anna Maria Engels and Frank Ewert

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030661 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 207

Abstract

Within-field soil physical and chemical heterogeneity may affect spatio-temporal crop performance. Managing this heterogeneity can contribute to improving resource use and crop productivity. A simulation experiment based on comprehensive soil and crop data collected at the patchCROP landscape laboratory in Tempelberg, Brandenburg, Germany, [...] Read more.

Within-field soil physical and chemical heterogeneity may affect spatio-temporal crop performance. Managing this heterogeneity can contribute to improving resource use and crop productivity. A simulation experiment based on comprehensive soil and crop data collected at the patchCROP landscape laboratory in Tempelberg, Brandenburg, Germany, an area characterized by heterogeneous soil conditions, was carried out to quantify the impact of within-field soil heterogeneities and their interactions with interannual weather variability on crop yield variability in summer and winter crops. Our hypothesis was that crop–soil water holding capacity interactions vary depending on the crop, with some crops being more sensitive to water stress conditions. Daily climate data from 1990 to 2019 were collected from a nearby station, and crop management model inputs were based on the patchCROP management data. A previously validated agroecosystem model was used to simulate crop growth and yield for each soil auger profile over the 30-year period. A total of 49 soil auger profiles were classified based on their plant available soil water capacity (PAWC), and the seasonal rainfall by crop was also classified from lowest to highest. The results revealed that the spatial variability in crop yield was higher than the temporal variability for most crops, except for sunflower. Spatial variability ranged from 17.3% for rapeseed to 45.8% for lupine, while temporal variability ranged from 10.4% for soybean to 36.8% for sunflower. Maize and sunflower showed a significant interaction between soil PAWC and seasonal rainfall, unlike legume crops lupine and soybean. As for winter crops, the interaction was also significant, except for wheat. Grain yield variations tended to be higher in years with low seasonal rainfall, and crop responses under high seasonal rainfall were more consistent across soil water categories. The simulated results can contribute to cropping system design for allocating crops and resources according to soil conditions and predicted seasonal weather conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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(a) Selected soil sample locations at the patchCROP landscape laboratory (green dots); (b) patch quadrants (Y = biomass and yield-related sampling, S = soil-related sampling, B = biodiversity-related sampling and, M = multipurpose quadrant; sampled quadrants with red border) and buffer areas around the quadrants. Representative 1 m soil auger profiles with (c) sandy layers on top and a loamy layer at the bottom and (d) a fully sandy soil auger profile. See <a href="#app1-agronomy-15-00661" class="html-app">Figure S1</a> for the full soil sampling strategy. Full article ">Figure 2
Average sand content in the extended 2 m profile (bars) and soil organic carbon (SOC) content (diamonds) in the top layer for the sampled patches at the patchCROP landscape laboratory in Tempelberg, Brandenburg, Germany. Error bars correspond to the standard deviation of sand content for the soil samples within a patch. Full article ">Figure 3
Observed annual precipitation (mm) and average (Tmean), minimum (Tmin), and maximum (Tmax) temperature (°C) for a weather station in Müncheberg, close to the experimental site. Full article ">Figure 4
Average simulated grain yield for summer (light blue) and winter crops (dark gray) for the period from 1990 to 2020 at the patchCROP landscape laboratory in Tempelberg, Brandenburg, Germany. The red dot indicates the mean; box lines from bottom to top represent the 25th, median, and 75th percentiles. The upper and lower whiskers extend from the hinge to the largest and smallest values within the 1.5 × interquartile range, respectively. Black dots indicate outliers. Full article ">Figure 5
Temporal (30 years) and spatial (49 soil auger profiles) variability in grain yield for summer and winter crops at the patchCROP landscape laboratory in Tempelberg, Brandenburg, Germany. Error bars denote the standard deviation for the coefficient of variation among the years (temporal) or among the soil auger profiles (spatial). Uppercase (bold) and lowercase letters indicate mean comparisons using the Kruskal–Wallis and Duncan non-parametric tests (p < 0.05) for spatial and temporal variability among crops, respectively. Full article ">Figure 6
Average (1990–2020) simulated grain yield for wheat, soybean, and lupine by (a) soil plant available water capacity (PAWC, <a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>) category and by (b) seasonal rainfall water category (<a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>) when the soil PAWC and seasonal rainfall interaction effect was non-significant (<a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a>). Treatments followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to the Tukey test, p value < 0.05. Mean comparisons were performed separately for each crop by comparing either the soil water categories (a) or the seasonal rainfall categories (b). The red dot indicates the mean; box lines from bottom to top represent the 25th, median, and 75th percentiles. The upper and lower whiskers extend from the hinge to the largest and smallest values within the 1.5 × interquartile range, respectively. Black dots indicate outliers. Full article ">Figure 7
Average (1990–2020) simulated grain yields and standard deviation for the summer crops (a) maize and (b) sunflower by soil plant available water capacity (PAWC, <a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>) category and seasonal rainfall water category (<a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>) when the two-factor interaction was significant (<a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a>). Means labeled with capital letters correspond to the comparison of soil water categories within each seasonal rainfall category. Means labeled with lowercase letters correspond to the comparison of rainfall categories within each soil water category. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to the Tukey test (p < 0.05). Mean comparisons were conducted separately for each crop. Full article ">Figure 8
Average (1990–2020) simulated grain yields and standard deviation for the winter crops (a) rapeseed, (b) barley, and (c) rye by soil plant available water capacity (PAWC, <a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>) category and seasonal rainfall category (<a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>) when the two-factor interaction was significant (<a href="#agronomy-15-00661-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a>). Means labeled with capital letters correspond to the comparison of soil water categories within each seasonal rainfall category. Means labeled with lowercase letters correspond to the comparison of rainfall categories within each soil water category. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to the Tukey test (p < 0.05). Mean comparisons were conducted separately for each crop. Full article ">

22 pages, 35333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms Involved in Soil–Plant Interactions in Response to Poultry Manure and Phytase Enzyme Compared to Inorganic Phosphorus Fertilizers

by Patricia Poblete-Grant, Leyla Parra-Almuna, Sofía Pontigo, Cornelia Rumpel, María de La Luz Mora and Paula Cartes

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 660; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030660 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 223

Abstract

While soil responses to organic and inorganic phosphorus (P) fertilizers have been widely studied, plant physiological and molecular responses remain insufficiently characterized. Such an understanding is necessary to develop sustainable P fertilization strategies that enhance plant performance in soils with P limitations. This [...] Read more.

While soil responses to organic and inorganic phosphorus (P) fertilizers have been widely studied, plant physiological and molecular responses remain insufficiently characterized. Such an understanding is necessary to develop sustainable P fertilization strategies that enhance plant performance in soils with P limitations. This study investigated the impact of poultry manure (PM) and its combination with phytase enzyme on molecular plant responses involved in P use efficiency (PUE) of ryegrass plants growing on a P-deficient Andisol. A greenhouse experiment under controlled conditions was performed to evaluate soil properties, plant biomass, P uptake, plant performance, and the expression of P transporters under the following P treatments: P deficiency (PD), mineral fertilizers (F), PM alone, and PM combined with phytase. The combination of PM and phytase enhanced soil P availability by 60% and increased soil P enzyme activities 2.6-fold, facilitating the mineralization of organic P. This resulted in a 63% increase in shoot P concentration and a 35% enhancement in shoot biomass. Additionally, oxidative stress markers decreased, with lipid peroxidation in roots reduced up to five-fold, while antioxidant activity increased 1.6-fold. Molecular analysis revealed that the expression of the P transporter gene LpPHT1;4 was upregulated 9.3-fold, indicating an improved capacity for P acquisition and utilization. These findings suggest that phytase-mediated hydrolysis of organic P and the activation of plant P transporters are key mechanisms driving enhanced P uptake and efficiency in P-deficient soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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14 pages, 4608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Effects of Inoculation with Earthworms and Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria on Phosphorus Adsorption Capacity of Soils with Different Phosphorus Contents

by Feiyu Dong, Leixin Yu, Yimeng Jiao, Tianqi Wang, Qinghai Yang, Chuang Yang and Lijuan Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030659 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 137

Abstract

Due to the strong fixation and weak mobility of phosphorus (P) in the soil, P fertilizers can easily be left behind in the soil, which greatly increases the environmental pressure. To find a green and environmentally friendly method of P activation, this study [...] Read more.

Due to the strong fixation and weak mobility of phosphorus (P) in the soil, P fertilizers can easily be left behind in the soil, which greatly increases the environmental pressure. To find a green and environmentally friendly method of P activation, this study evaluated the effects of inoculation with earthworms and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) on the adsorption and desorption in low-phosphorus (LP) and high-phosphorus (HP) soils substrates. In LP soils, inoculation with earthworms or (and) PSB reduced the maximum P adsorption, P adsorption affinity constant and maximum buffering capacity by 3–12%, 7–19% and 10–28%, respectively, while the readily desorbed P, degree of P saturation and desorption rates were significantly higher in the inoculated treatments. In HP soils, treatments inoculated with earthworms significantly increased the P adsorption affinity constants (16–22%) and maximum buffer capacity (8–16%) and decreased the adsorption saturation and desorption rates compared to no inoculum. The results indicate that inoculation with earthworms or (and) PSB can effectively reduce the P adsorption capacity and increase the P desorption capacity of LP soils, thus increasing the available P content. However, in HP soils, inoculation with earthworms increased the P adsorption capacity and reduced the risk of P losses due to high-P soil content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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Isothermal adsorption curves of phosphorus in soils with different inoculation treatments. The isothermal adsorption curves of soil phosphorus under different treatments for low-phosphorus soils (LP) and high-phosphorus soils (HP) are represented in (a,b), respectively. Full article ">Figure 2
Phosphorus desorption curves of soils with different inoculation treatments. (a,b) are phosphorus desorption curves under different treatments for low-phosphorus soils (LP) and high-phosphorus soils (HP), respectively. Full article ">Figure 3
Phosphorus desorption rate characteristics of soils with different inoculation treatments. (a,b) show the phosphorus desorption rate curves of soil under different inoculation treatments for low-phosphorus soils (LP) and high-phosphorus soils (HP), respectively. Full article ">Figure 4
Biomass (a) and phosphorus uptake (b) of tomato plants under different inoculation treatments. LP, low-phosphorus soils; HP, high-phosphorus soils. Different lowercase letters for the same assay are significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 in LP and HP soils, respectively. Full article ">Figure 5
Correlation analysis between adsorption–desorption characteristics of soil phosphorus and soil properties; (a,b) are correlation analyses of phosphorus adsorption–desorption properties with soil properties for low-phosphorus soils (LP) and high-phosphorus soils (HP), respectively. TP, total phosphorus; SOC, soil organic carbon; AP, available phosphorus; MBP, microbial biomass phosphorus. Qm, maximum P adsorption capacity of the soil; K, adsorption constants; RDP readily desorbable P; MBC, maximum buffer capacity; DPS, degree of P saturation. The colors represent the strength of correlation coefficients, with blue denoting positive correlations and red indicating negative correlations. * and ** denote statistical significance at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively. Full article ">Figure 6
Redundancy analysis of adsorption–desorption parameter sets related to soil properties. (a,b) are redundancy analyses of phosphorus adsorption–desorption properties and soil properties for low- and high-phosphorus soils, respectively. TP, total phosphorus; SOC, soil organic carbon; AP, available phosphorus; MBP, microbial biomass phosphorus. Qm, maximum P adsorption capacity of the soil; K, adsorption constants; RDP, readily desorbable P; MBC, maximum buffer capacity; DPS, degree of P saturation. Full article ">

21 pages, 5013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Walnut Shell Biochar and Fertilizer on Lettuce Production in Hydroponic and Conventional Systems

by Eliana Sanchez, Romina Zabaleta, Ana Laura Navas, Viviana N. Fernández Maldonado, María Paula Fabani, German Mazza and Rosa Rodriguez

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030658 - 6 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Water scarcity and soil fertility loss are major limitations for agricultural production. This study evaluated the effects of walnut shell biochar (WSB) and fertilizer on the growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. “Gran rapid”) in hydroponic and conventional systems. WSB [...] Read more.

Water scarcity and soil fertility loss are major limitations for agricultural production. This study evaluated the effects of walnut shell biochar (WSB) and fertilizer on the growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. “Gran rapid”) in hydroponic and conventional systems. WSB alone and WSB + fertilizer were applied at different mass ratios to soil (0, 5, 10, and 15%) in the conventional system and to the substrate (0, 10, and 20%) in the hydroponic system. Agronomic parameters such as fresh weight, dry weight, leaf area index, and the number of leaves were evaluated. The results showed that fertilizer addition improved growth in both systems. In hydroponics, the combination of WSB and fertilizer increased fresh weight by 45% and dry weight by 38% compared to the control without biochar or fertilizer. In the conventional system, WSB alone increased fresh weight by 30% and the number of leaves by 25%, without requiring additional fertilizer. Lettuce grown in conventional soil with 15% WSB and fertilizer achieved a 1.8 times higher leaf area index than the control without biochar. These findings suggest that WSB and fertilizer applications enhance lettuce crop yield, supporting the principles of circular economy and sustainable waste management in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste to Wealth: Resource Utilization of Agricultural Waste Through Effective Biomass Management)

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Figure 1
Scheme of NFT hydroponic system (adapted from Velazquez-Gonzalez et al. [<a href="#B53-agronomy-15-00658" class="html-bibr">53</a>]). Full article ">Figure 2
Hydroponic system. (a) Treatments irrigated only with water and (b) treatments irrigated with fertilizer solution. Full article ">Figure 3
Conventional system. (a) treatments irrigated only with water and (b) treatments irrigated with fertilization. Full article ">Figure 4
SEM images of WSB at 450 °C. Full article ">Figure 5
FTIR images of WSB at 450 °C. Full article ">Figure 6
Graphs of the length of lettuce plants growing in hydroponic and conventional systems: (a) Root length, (b) Shoot length, and (c) Total length. Data are means ± SE. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments (Duncan’s test, p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 7
Graphs of weights of lettuce plants growing in hydroponic and conventional systems: (a) Fresh weight and (b) Dry weight. Data are means ± SD. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments (Duncan’s test, p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 8
Graphs of leaf traits of lettuce plants growing in hydroponic and conventional systems: (a) Number of leaves/plant and (b) Leaf area index (LAI). Bars represent standard deviation. Data are means ± SD. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments (Duncan’s test, p < 0.05). Full article ">

4 pages, 144 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Sustainable Forage Production in Crop–Livestock Systems

by Renata La Guardia Nave

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030657 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 116

Abstract

This Special Issue, “Sustainable Forage Production in Crop–Livestock Systems”, explores the urgent need for diversified and sustainable farming practices, focusing on the integration of crop and livestock systems to enhance economic resilience, ecological health, and environmental sustainability [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Forage Production in Crop–Livestock Systems)

17 pages, 8548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the SMXL Gene Family in Common Wheat and Expression Analysis of TaSMXLs Under Abiotic Stress

by Zunjie Wang, Zhengning Jiang, Heping Wan, Xueyan Chen and Hongya Wu

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030656 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 167

Abstract

Strigolactones (SLs), a novel class of plant hormones, play a crucial role in plant growth and development. SMXL (SUPPRESSOR OF MAX2 1-like) is a key gene in the SL signaling pathway, regulating its function by inhibiting the reception of SL signals. [...] Read more.

Strigolactones (SLs), a novel class of plant hormones, play a crucial role in plant growth and development. SMXL (SUPPRESSOR OF MAX2 1-like) is a key gene in the SL signaling pathway, regulating its function by inhibiting the reception of SL signals. Therefore, investigating how SMXL regulates SL to influence wheat growth, development, and stress resistance is of significant importance. In this study, 22 SMXL genes were identified in the Chinese Spring wheat reference genome. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that these genes belong to the Group II subfamily, exhibiting similar physicochemical properties and conserved motifs. Ka/Ks analysis indicated that these genes have undergone purifying selection during evolution. Cis-acting element analysis showed that the promoter regions of TaSMXL genes are enriched with light-responsive elements and regulatory elements related to growth, development, and stress responses. Expression pattern analysis demonstrated that TaSMXL genes exhibit significant differential expression under drought, salt, and cold stress conditions, revealing the potential molecular mechanisms of wheat’s response to multiple abiotic stresses. This study provides a theoretical foundation for understanding the functional roles of SMXL genes in wheat and offers valuable candidate gene resources for breeding stress-resistant wheat varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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19 pages, 6793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Bacterial Communities in a Tobacco Field Plantation and Under Different N Fertilizations in Central Yunnan, China

by Xiaohua Zhang, Yifan Mu, Meiting Li, Xin Yang, Donghui Zhang, Keqin Wang and Yali Song

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030655 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 185

Abstract

Soil microbial communities contribute to the growth, health, and productivity of crops during agricultural production, and yet it is not clear how different fertilization practices affect the diversity, composition, and co-occurrence network of soil bacterial communities at different stages of growing tobacco. Here, [...] Read more.

Soil microbial communities contribute to the growth, health, and productivity of crops during agricultural production, and yet it is not clear how different fertilization practices affect the diversity, composition, and co-occurrence network of soil bacterial communities at different stages of growing tobacco. Here, we report the characteristics of changes in soil bacterial communities at different tobacco growth stages and fallow periods after fertilizer application by selecting long-term continuous crop tobacco fields with different fertilizers (control (CK), a cattle manure organic fertilizer (OM), a cattle manure organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer mix (MNPK), a chemical fertilizer (NPK), and crushed straw (ST)) at the time of tobacco planting, combined with high-throughput sequencing technology and molecular ecological network methods. The results showed that soil bacterial diversity did not respond significantly to fertilizer application during the growing period of roasted tobacco, which only increased bacterial diversity in the fallow period. The key taxa of the co-occurrence network were lost during the peak and maturity periods of tobacco cultivation and were gradually recovered after fallowing. The choice of straw, chemical fertilizer, and cow manure organic fertilizer mixed with chemical fertilizer when planting tobacco can better feed the growth of roasted tobacco, and the choice of an organic matter fertilizer (straw and cow manure) as the base fertilizer can accelerate the repair of the bacterial co-occurrence network after the soil has been fallowed and improve the subhealth of the planted tobacco soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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23 pages, 5230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Sustainable Approach for Assessing Wheat Production in Pakistan Using Machine Learning Algorithms

by Ijaz Yaseen, Amna Yaqoob, Seong-Ki Hong, Sang-Bum Ryu, Hong-Seok Mun and Hoy-Taek Kim

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030654 - 6 Mar 2025

Viewed by 304

Abstract

As we are advancing deeper into the twenty-first century, new challenges as well as technical opportunities in agriculture are rising. One of these issues is the increasing need for food, which is crucial for supporting the population’s nutritional needs, promoting regional trade, and [...] Read more.

As we are advancing deeper into the twenty-first century, new challenges as well as technical opportunities in agriculture are rising. One of these issues is the increasing need for food, which is crucial for supporting the population’s nutritional needs, promoting regional trade, and ensuring food security. Climate change is another ongoing challenge in the shape of changing rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures due to high CO₂ concentrations, and over urbanization which ultimately negatively impact the crop yield. Therefore, for increased food production and the sustainability of agricultural growth, an accurate and timely crop yield prediction could be beneficial. In this paper, artificial intelligence (AI)-based sustainable methods for the evaluation of wheat production (W_P) using multiple linear regression (MLR), support vector machine (SVM), and artificial neural network (ANN) techniques are presented. The historical data of around 60 years, comprising of wheat area (W_A), temperature (T), rainfall (RF), carbon dioxide emissions from liquid and gaseous fusion CE (CE_LF, CE_GF), arable land (AL), credit disbursement (CD), and fertilizer offtake (FO) were used as potential indicators/input parameters to forecast wheat production (W_P). To further support the performance efficiency of computed prediction models, a variety of statistical tests were used, such as R-square (R²), root means square error (RMSE), and mean absolute error (MAE). The results demonstrate that all acceptance standards relating to accuracy are satisfied by the proposed models. However, the SVM outperforms MLR and ANN approaches. Additionally, parametric and sensitivity tests were performed to assess the specific influence of the input parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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16 pages, 2440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Four Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Cultivars at Different Drought Stress Levels

by Müge Teker Yıldız and Cüneyt Akı

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030653 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 187

Abstract

Drought, one of the abiotic stress factors that threatens world food security, destructively limits the growth and development of agricultural plants. Therefore, determining drought-resistant cultivars is of vital importance against increasing climate change. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most [...] Read more.

Drought, one of the abiotic stress factors that threatens world food security, destructively limits the growth and development of agricultural plants. Therefore, determining drought-resistant cultivars is of vital importance against increasing climate change. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most important economic agricultural plants grown worldwide. In this study, different drought stress tolerances (10% PEG (Polyethylene Glycol 6000) and water scarcity) were applied to four commercial tomato cultivars (Rio Grande, Falcon, H−2274, Tyfrane F1) and the effects of drought stress were evaluated within the scope of physiological (germination percentage, shoot length, root length, fresh weight, dry weight, total chlorophyll content, relative water content) and biochemical (protein amount, superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase activity (POX), catalase activity (CAT), hydrogen peroxide content (H₂O₂) and lipid peroxidation activity (TBARs)) parameters. According to the research results, it was determined that drought stress leads to decreased root–shoot lengths, chlorophyll content, relative water content, fresh and dry weights, and antioxidant enzyme activities in Falcon and H−2274 cultures, increasing TBARs and H₂O₂ amounts. While the relative water content, which is an indicator of drought stress, shows the water status of the plant, antioxidant enzyme systems are evidence of the resilience of the defense mechanisms of the cultures. In this context, the Falcon cultivar had significantly reduced shoot length (21%, 37%), relative water content (20%, 30%), chlorophyll content (7%, 23%), fresh weight (51%, 49%) and dry weight (9%, 29%) under PEG and water scarcity application; in contrast to these reductions, TBARs (2%, 14%) and H₂O₂ content (3%, 15%) were significantly increased compared to the control, proving that it is a susceptible cultivar. On the other hand, a slight decrease in relative water content (1%, 3%), a slight increase in total chlorophyll content (6%), intense CAT activity (50%, 67%) and SOD activity (30%), but a decrease in lipid peroxidation level (5%, 22%) and a decrease in H₂O₂ content (11%, 15%), were detected in the Rio Grande cultivar in PEG and water scarcity treatment compared to the control, proving that this cultivar is resistant to drought and can be effectively grown in water-scarce areas. It was determined that four tomato cultivars had different perception and antioxidant defense systems against drought stress. As a result, when four tomato cultivars under different drought stress levels were evaluated in terms of physiological and biochemical parameters, the tolerance levels were determined as Rio Grande > Tyfrane F1 ≈ Tyfrane F1 > H−2274 > Falcon. In this context, the different responses of tomato cultivars to PEG and water scarcity are important for the selection of drought-resistant cultivars and the development of strategies to increase plant productivity under abiotic stress conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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The physiological and biochemical analyses of different drought stress (10% PEG and water scarcity) treatments in S. lycopersicum L. cultivars (Rio Grande, Falcon, H−2274, Tyfrane F1). Full article ">Figure 2
The effects of different drought stress (10% PEG and water scarcity) treatments on growth and physiological analyses (shoot length (a), root length (b), relative water content (c), total chlorophyll content (d), fresh weight (e) and dry weight (f)) in four tomato cultivars (all data are the mean of twenty−seven replicates (n = 27) ± standard error. According to multiple comparisons using the Tukey test (one−way ANOVA), significant differences with (p ≤ 0.05) are indicated by different letters). Full article ">Figure 3
The effects of different drought stress (10% PEG and water scarcity) treatments on biochemical analysis (total protein content (a), catalase activity (CAT) (b), peroxidase activity (POX) (c), superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) (d), lipid peroxidation content (TBARs) (e), hydrogen peroxide content (H2O2) (f)) in four tomato cultivars (all data are the mean of twenty−seven replicates (n = 27) ± standard error. According to multiple comparisons using the Tukey test (one−way ANOVA), significant differences with (p ≤ 0.05) are indicated by different letters). Full article ">Figure 4
The PCA biplot analysis (a) and Heat Map of correlations (b). Physiological and biochemical analyses were investigated in four tomato cultivars (T: Tyfrane F1; R: Rio Grande; F: Falcon; H: H−2274) under different drought stresses (C: control; P: 10% PEG; W: water scarcity) (SL: shoot length; RL: root length; FW: fresh weight; DW: dry weight; RWC: relative water content; Chl: total chlorophyll content; Pro: total protein content; SOD: superoxide dismutase activity; POX: peroxidase activity; CAT: catalase activity; H2O2: hydrogen peroxide content; TBARs: lipid peroxidation content) (all data are the mean of twenty−seven replicates (n = 27)). Full article ">

13 pages, 2398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Impact of Nano-Silica and Silica Hydrogel Amendments on Soil Water Retention and Crop Yield in Rice and Clover Under Variable Irrigation Conditions

by Mohamed A. Abd El-Aziz, Mohssen Elbagory, Ahmed A. Arafat, Hesham M. Aboelsoud, Sahar El-Nahrawy, Tamer H. Khalifa and Alaa El-Dein Omara

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030652 - 5 Mar 2025

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Abstract

The use of water-efficient soil amendments has gained increasing importance in agriculture, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. So, this study evaluates the impact of silica and nano-silica hydrogels on soil water retention, crop yield, and crop water productivity under variable irrigation regimes. [...] Read more.

The use of water-efficient soil amendments has gained increasing importance in agriculture, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. So, this study evaluates the impact of silica and nano-silica hydrogels on soil water retention, crop yield, and crop water productivity under variable irrigation regimes. Using a randomized complete block design with furrow irrigation, the experiment tested different hydrogel application rates and irrigation levels in rice (Oryza sativa L.) and clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) across two growing seasons. Statistical tests, including ANOVA and t-tests, confirm that nano-silica hydrogel significantly improves soil properties, yield, and crop water productivity (CWP), especially at moderate irrigation levels (70–90% of water requirements). In the first season, nano-silica hydrogel enhanced rice yield, with a maximum yield of 10.76 tons ha⁻¹ with 90% irrigation and 119 kg ha⁻¹ of hydrogel compared with other treatments. In the second season, clover yields were also positively affected, with the highest fresh forage yield of 5.02 tons ha⁻¹ with 90% irrigation and 119 kg ha⁻¹ nano-silica hydrogel. Despite seasonal variation, nano-silica hydrogel consistently outperformed silica hydrogel in terms of improving soil water retention, reducing bulk density, and enhancing hydraulic conductivity across different irrigation levels. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that nano-silica hydrogel significantly improved soil water retention properties, including the water-holding capacity (WHC), field capacity (FC), and available water (AW), and reduced the wilting point (WP). These improvements, in turn, led to increased crop yield and water productivity, particularly at moderate irrigation levels (70–90% of the crop’s total water requirements. These findings highlight the potential of nano-silica hydrogel as an effective amendment for improving soil water retention, enhancing crop productivity, and increasing crop water productivity under reduced irrigation conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nano-Farming: Crucial Solutions for the Future)

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Location of the experimental farm. Full article ">Figure 2
Impact of silica hydrogels and nano-silica hydrogel on soil water retention metrics: (a) water-holding capacity (%); (b) field capacity (%); (c) wilting point (%); (d) available water (%) across varying irrigation levels in both seasons. Full article ">Figure 2 Cont.
Impact of silica hydrogels and nano-silica hydrogel on soil water retention metrics: (a) water-holding capacity (%); (b) field capacity (%); (c) wilting point (%); (d) available water (%) across varying irrigation levels in both seasons. Full article ">Figure 3
Impact of silica hydrogels and nano-silica hydrogel on soil structure: (a) hydraulic conductivity (m/day); (b) bulk density (g/cm3) across varying irrigation levels in both seasons. Full article ">Figure 4
Impact of silica hydrogels and nano-silica hydrogel on (a) yield (tons/ha) and (b) crop water productivity (kg/m3) across varying irrigation levels in both seasons. Full article ">Figure 5
PCA biplot shows the relationships between different parameters studied and treatments in both seasons. Full article ">

12 pages, 5386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Straw Rotting and Returning Mode in the Cold Region of Northeast China

by Jinwu Wang, Changyu Wang, Yanan Xu, Chaoyu Wang and Han Tang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030651 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 139

Abstract

The delayed decomposition of rice straw in Northeast China’s cold regions (winter temperatures < −20 °C) due to insufficient accumulated temperature requires innovative solutions. This study developed a synergistic approach combining microbial decomposition with mechanical burial. Pre-experiments identified optimal parameters for the liquid [...] Read more.

The delayed decomposition of rice straw in Northeast China’s cold regions (winter temperatures < −20 °C) due to insufficient accumulated temperature requires innovative solutions. This study developed a synergistic approach combining microbial decomposition with mechanical burial. Pre-experiments identified optimal parameters for the liquid decomposing agent (100 mg/mL concentration, 6 g/m application rate). A novel combined machine was engineered with adjustable parameters: knife roller speed (200–300 r/min), burial depth (15–25 cm), and ground clearance (80–120 mm). Field trials demonstrated a 91.3% straw return rate under optimized settings (220 r/min, 100 mm clearance, 1.7 m/s speed), representing a 28.5% improvement over conventional methods. Spring burial enhanced straw decomposition to 83.6% within 60 days (vs. 67.2% in autumn), significantly increasing soil organic matter and available nitrogen. The integrated technology achieved 1.5 hm²/h operational efficiency, meeting regional agronomic demands. This study provides a replicable model for cold-region straw utilization, aligning with carbon sequestration goals in black soil conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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Agronomic model of straw rotting and returning. Full article ">Figure 2
The rice straw rotting and returning machine. (a) Machine structure; (b) working principle. Full article ">Figure 3
Field experiment test of the rice straw rotting and returning machine to verify the machine’s returning to field performance and the straw’s decomposition performance. Full article ">Figure 4
Pre-experimental preparation for the selection of straw decomposition agents. Full article ">Figure 5
Results of one-factor test for decomposition agent selection. (a) Decomposition of straw over time; (b) effect of decomposition agent type on straw weight loss rate; (c) effect of decomposition agent concentration on straw weight loss rate; (d) effect of decomposition agent application rate on straw weight loss rate; (e) effect of decomposition agent application method on straw weight loss rate. Full article ">Figure 6
Straw rotary burying and field return test and effect. (a) Operating condition; (b) straw return rate measurement; (c) plow depth measurement; (d) effect of knife roller rotational speed on straw return and plow depth; (e) effect of ground clearance on straw return and plow depth; (f) effect of forward speed on straw return and plow depth. Full article ">Figure 7
Straw decomposition rate and tensile force changes over time for different treatments: (a) spring RAA treatment; (b) autumn RAA treatment; (c) spring NRAA treatment; (d) autumn NRAA treatment. The yellow area in the figure represents the mid-stage of straw decomposition. Full article ">

15 pages, 2711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biovalorization of Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus Stems by White Rot Fungi Under Solid-State Fermentation as Ruminant Feed

by Yu-Qiong Wang, Li-Long Luo, Li-Ming Chen and Chang-Long Gou

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030650 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 160

Abstract

The value-added effect of white rot fungi on the feed of Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (AMM) stems was explored. All four types of white rot fungi (Lentinus sajor-caju, Pleurotus ostreatus, Lentinula edodes, and Phanerodontia chrysosporium) reduced the lignocellulose [...] Read more.

The value-added effect of white rot fungi on the feed of Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (AMM) stems was explored. All four types of white rot fungi (Lentinus sajor-caju, Pleurotus ostreatus, Lentinula edodes, and Phanerodontia chrysosporium) reduced the lignocellulose content in AMM stems, improved in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), and influenced the activity of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes. Lentinus sajor-caju and Phanerodontia chrysosporium exhibited superior effects on lignin degradation and IVDMD and significantly altered non-volatile metabolites and antioxidant capacity. Lentinus sajor-caju fermentation resulted in the strongest antioxidant activity compared to that in the other fungal treatments. The fold change (FC) ratio (>100) of sakuranetin, 2′,6′-Di-O-acetylononin, isoformononetin, and artocarpin was compared between Lentinus sajor-caju and Phanerodontia chrysosporium. Among the phenolic compounds, flavonoids play a key role in antioxidant activity, with 5,6-Dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone showing a strong correlation with antioxidant activity. This study provides valuable insights for utilizing AMM stem waste in the context of traditional Chinese medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic New Trends and Innovations in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, and Specialty Crops)

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Degradation of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose in AMM stems fermented using four types of white rot fungi after 35 days. LE, Lentinula edodes; LS, Lentinus sajor-caju; PC, Phanerodontia chrysosporium; PO, Pleurotus ostreatus. The mean difference between A–D were statistically significant (p < 0.001). Full article ">Figure 2
Enzymes activity associated with lignocellulosic degradation in AMM stems after 35 days of fermentation by four types white rot fungi. Lac, Laccase; Lip, Lignin peroxidase; MnP, Manganese peroxidase; CMCase, Carboxymethyl cellulase; LE, Lentinula edodes; LS, Lentinus sajor-caju; PC, Phanerodontia chrysosporium, PO, Pleurotus ostreatus. The mean difference between A–D were statistically significant (p < 0.001). Full article ">Figure 3
Principal component analysis of CT, L. sajor-caju (LS), and P. chrysosporium (PC) samples. CT, control; LS, Lentinus sajor-caju; PC, Phanerodontia chrysosporium. Full article ">Figure 4
Antioxidant activity of extracts from fermented and unfermented AMM stems. CT, control; LS, Lentinus sajor-caju; PC, Phanerodontia chrysosporium. DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; FRAP, Ferric reducing antioxidant power; TPC, Total phenolic content. The mean difference between A–C were statistically significant (p < 0.001). Full article ">Figure 5
Correlation analysis between metabolites in AMM stems fermented with white rot fungi and their antioxidant activity by-products. DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; FRAP, Ferric reducing antioxidant power; TPC, Total phenolic content (* p < 0.05, ** p <0.01). Full article ">

18 pages, 3504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Biological Amendments on Rice Physiology, Yield, Quality, and Soil Microbial Community of Rice–Crab Co-Culture in Saline–Alkali Soil

by Yang Guo, Juncang Tian and Zhi Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030649 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 262

Abstract

The yield and quality of rice are influenced by soil conditions, and the soil issues in saline–alkaline land limit agricultural productivity. The saline–alkaline fields in the northern irrigation area of Yinchuan, Ningxia, China, face challenges such as low rice yield, poor quality, low [...] Read more.

The yield and quality of rice are influenced by soil conditions, and the soil issues in saline–alkaline land limit agricultural productivity. The saline–alkaline fields in the northern irrigation area of Yinchuan, Ningxia, China, face challenges such as low rice yield, poor quality, low fertilizer utilization efficiency, and soil salinity and alkalinity obstacles. To improve this situation, this study conducted experiments in 2022–2023 in the saline–alkaline rice–crab integrated fields of Tongbei Village, Tonggui Township, Yinchuan. This study employed a single-factor comparative design, applying 150 mL·hm⁻² of brassinolide (A1), 15 kg·hm⁻² of diatomaceous (A2), 30 kg·hm⁻² of Bacillus subtilis agent (A3), and an untreated control (CK) to analyze the effects of different biological amendments on rice growth, photosynthesis, yield, quality, and microbial communities. The results indicated that, compared with CK, the A3 increased the SPAD value and net photosynthetic rate by 2.26% and 28.59%, respectively. Rice yield increased by 12.34%, water use efficiency (WUE) by 10.67%, and the palatability score by 2.82%, while amylose content decreased by 8.00%. The bacterial OTUs (Operational Taxonomic Units) and fungal OTUs increased by 2.18% and 22.39%, respectively. Under the condition of applying 30 kg·hm⁻² of Bacillus subtilis agent (A3), rice showed superior growth, the highest yield (8804.4 kg·hm⁻²), and the highest microbial OTUs. These findings provide theoretical and technical support for utilizing biological remediation agents to achieve desalinization, yield enhancement, quality improvement, and efficiency in saline–alkali rice–crab co–culture paddies. Full article

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Study area and climate data (precipitation and temperature) from May to September 2022–2023. Full article ">Figure 2
Effect of different treatments on photosynthetic parameters. The labels above the columns signify statistically marked differences between the treatments (p < 0.05). ((A): Net photosynthetic rate in 2022; (B): Stomatal conductance in 2022; (C): Intercellular CO2 concentration in 2022; (D): Transpiration rate in 2022; (E): Net photosynthetic rate in 2023; (F): Stomatal conductance in 2023; (G): Intercellular CO2 concentration in 2023; (H): Transpiration rate in 2023.). Full article ">Figure 3
The proportion of bacteria and fungi in the top 10 of the total at the phylum and genus levels ((A): bacterial phylum level, (B): bacterial genus level, (C): fungal phylum level, (D): fungal genus level). The results from 2022 have a yellow background, and the results from 2023 have a white background. Full article ">Figure 4
Bacterial functional predictions based on FAPROTAX ((A): 2022, (B): 2023). Full article ">Figure 5
LEfSe multilevel species differential discriminant value LDA > 4 ((A): 2022 bacterial; (B): 2023 bacterial; (C): 2022 fungal; (D): 2023 fungal). Full article ">

13 pages, 1178 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Characterization of an EMS-Induced Ab-γg-Rich Saponin Mutant in Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)

by Junbeom Park, Haereon Son, Hyun Jo, Chigen Tsukamoto, Jinwon Lee, Jeong-Dong Lee, Hak Soo Seo and Jong Tae Song

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 648; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030648 - 5 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Soybean is particularly known for accumulating saponins in its seeds. This study aimed to identify a causal gene to control an increase in Ab-γg saponin in PE1607 from an EMS-treated population of the soybean cultivar Pungsannamul. Segregation analysis in F₂ seeds verified [...] Read more.

Soybean is particularly known for accumulating saponins in its seeds. This study aimed to identify a causal gene to control an increase in Ab-γg saponin in PE1607 from an EMS-treated population of the soybean cultivar Pungsannamul. Segregation analysis in F₂ seeds verified that a single recessive allele controlled the increased Ab-γg saponin in PE1607. Bulk segregant analysis and mutant individuals identified the candidate region, containing the previously reported Sg-3 (Glyma.10G104700) gene, encoding a glucosyltransferase responsible for conjugating glucose as the third sugar at the C-3 position of the aglycone. NGS identified SNPs in the upstream of the Sg-3 gene, designated as the sg-3b allele. Expression analysis revealed that PE1607 exhibited a threefold decrease in Sg-3 expression in the hypocotyls compared to the Pungsannamul. Moreover, Sg-3 expressions significantly differed between the hypocotyls and cotyledons in developing seeds, with relatively low expression observed in the cotyledons. The results conclude that sg-3b allele may contribute to the reduced Sg-3 expression, resulting in an increase in Ab-γg saponin in PE1607. In addition, in the cotyledons, DDMP-βg and DDMP-βa saponins are present, containing rhamnose instead of glucose as the third sugar at the C-3 position of aglycone. This suggests that Sg-3, known as glucosyltransferase, does not significantly contribute to saponin biosynthesis in cotyledons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Crop Molecular Breeding and Genetics—2nd Edition)

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Saponin phenotypes of wild-type and mutant soybean lines in seed hypocotyls. (a) Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis of seed hypocotyls from wild-type cultivars (Pungsannamul and Uram) and the mutant line (PE1607). (b) Liquid chromatography with photodiode array and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-PDA-MS/MS) profiles of saponin extracts from seed hypocotyls of Pungsannamul (upper panel) and PE1607 (lower panel). Saponins are indicated by an upside-down black triangle. (c) Quantification of saponins in seed hypocotyls using LC-PDA-MS/MS. Asterisks indicate significant differences regarding each saponin compound between Pungsannamul and PE1607 using Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01). Error bars represent ± standard deviation of three biological replicates. Full article ">Figure 2
Mapping analysis of PE1607 crossing populations and gene structure of Sg-3 (Glyma.10G104700). (a) Bulk segregant analysis (BSA) mapping and narrowing-down of the candidate region in the Uram × PE1607 F2 population. The BSA mapping results are shown with white bars, which correspond to the PE1607 genotype. The results are presented in four individual mutant lines from two F2 populations, and the white bar corresponds to the PE1607 genotype. The overlapping candidate region, 18 Mb, is highlighted in a box with diagonal lines, and the location of the Sg-3 gene is indicated by an arrow. Physical positions are based on Wm82.a4.v1. Details of the lines used in the cross are provided in <a href="#app1-agronomy-15-00648" class="html-app">Table S1</a>. (b) Gene structure of Sg-3 (Glyma.10G104700) including the upstream, 5′–UTR and 3′–UTR. The coding region of the Sg-3 gene is represented by a black box, the 5′–UTR and 3′–UTR of the Sg-3 gene are indicated by white boxes, and the upstream region of the Sg-3 gene is marked by a gray box. The SNPs in PE1607, compared to the wild-type varieties (Pungsannamul, Uram, Jinpung, and Williams 82), are indicated by a black line, with the SNP variation marked by an arrow to show the change in PE1607 on the right side. The SNP used in this study for the SimpleProbe assay is indicated by a red line (<a href="#app1-agronomy-15-00648" class="html-app">Figure S3</a>). Full article ">Figure 3
Expression profiles of the Sg-3 gene in hypocotyls and cotyledons of developing seeds. Expression levels were calculated relative to the constitutively expressed gene (Cons7) used as the reference. Error bars represent ± standard deviation of three biological replicates. Asterisks indicate significant differences between Pungsannamul and PE1607 using Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ns; not significant). Full article ">

18 pages, 3993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling the Droplet Size Distribution of Atomizers with Different Cage Diameters for Large-Payload Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

by Jiajun Yang, Longlong Li, Qing Tang, Peng Hu, Wenlong Yan and Ruirui Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030647 - 4 Mar 2025

Viewed by 171

Abstract

Spraying drift is a key concern in aerial spraying and relates closely to droplet size. With the growing application of large-load UAVs, large-load plant protection UAVs lack corresponding spraying devices. The rotary cage atomizer, suitable for high-flow aerial spraying, is a better option [...] Read more.

Spraying drift is a key concern in aerial spraying and relates closely to droplet size. With the growing application of large-load UAVs, large-load plant protection UAVs lack corresponding spraying devices. The rotary cage atomizer, suitable for high-flow aerial spraying, is a better option for large-load plant protection UAVs’ spraying needs. A modified rotating cage atomizer based on the AU5000 atomizer in manned aircraft was designed, with cage diameters of 76 mm, 86 mm, 96 mm, 106 mm, and 116 mm. Based on the IEA-I high-speed wind tunnel, this study investigated the impacts of different wind speeds, flow rates, and cage diameters on the atomization characteristic distribution of the modified atomizer and established a model. The results show that when other variables remain constant, for every 1 mm increase in cage diameter, the average droplet size decreases by 0.944 μm. The R² of the predicted values and the measured values of the droplet size model is 0.917. Under the conditions of 50 m/s, 58.3 m/s, and 66.6 m/s wind speeds, as the cage diameter increases, Relative Span (RS) shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing. Among them, the RS of the 106 mm cage diameter is usually the highest. This study can provide a reference for the aerial spraying scheme of large-payload plant protection UAVs, such as the selection of the diameter of the rotating cage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Studies in High-Performance and Precision Plant Protection Products Application—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 1972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pollen–Pistil Interactions in Autochthonous Balkan Sweet Cherry Cultivars—The Impact of Genotype and Flowering Temperature

by Sanja Radičević, Slađana Marić, Ivana Glišić, Radosav Cerović, Milena Đorđević, Nebojša Milošević, Vera Rakonjac, Slavica Čolić, Melpomena Popovska, Viktor Gjamovski and Bojana Banović Đeri

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030646 - 4 Mar 2025

Viewed by 161

Abstract

The efficacy of sweet cherry production is highly dependent on the regularity of flowering events and genetic-determined relations between female sporophyte and male gametophyte, which became even more important with higher flowering temperatures caused by climate change. Special attention is paid to the [...] Read more.

The efficacy of sweet cherry production is highly dependent on the regularity of flowering events and genetic-determined relations between female sporophyte and male gametophyte, which became even more important with higher flowering temperatures caused by climate change. Special attention is paid to the genetic diversity that provides essential sources of potential temperature-tolerance genes. Our study aimed at the genetic and reproductive characterization of Balkan cherry cultivars of autochthonous origin (‘Canetova’, ‘G-2’, ‘Dolga Šiška’ and ‘Ohridska Crna’), and six potential pollenizer To identify S-haplotypes, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method was used to detect the S-ribonuclease (S-RNase) and S-haplotype-specific F-box protein (SFB) alleles, combined with fragment analysis and S-RNase sequencing. Pollination experiments were performed at three Balkan localities over two flowering seasons, and the fluorescence microscopy method was used to assess the cultivars’ male/female reproductive behaviour. A novel S-RNase allele S₄₀ was identified in ‘Ohridska Crna’ for the first time. ‘Ohridska Crna’ also demonstrated the best adaptability to higher temperatures regarding primary ovule longevity. This feature makes it desirable from the aspect of breeding new cultivars that can withstand the impacts of climate change. The findings on male-female relations and their temperature dependence open up the possibility for yield prediction and smart horticultural decisions that can be made to guide cherry production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Factors Affecting Agronomic and Chemical Properties of Fruits)

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Fruits of the autochthonous Balkan sweet cherry cultivars: ‘Canetova’ (a); ‘G-2’ (b); ‘Dolga Šiška’ (c); ‘Ohridska Crna’ (d). Full article ">Figure 2
Alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of S40-RNase (PQ753275) and published S-RNases corresponding to the second intron region [GenBank accession numbers: S1-RNase (AJ635281), S2-RNase (AJ635283), S3-RNase (AJ635285), S4-RNase (AJ635287), S5-RNase (AJ635289), S6-RNase (AJ635291), S7-RNase (AJ635268), S9-RNase (AJ635270), S10-RNase (AJ635272), S12-RNase (AJ635274), S13-RNase (AJ635276), S14-RNase (AJ635277), S16-RNase (AJ635279), S17-RNase (JQ280528), S18-RNase (JQ280524), S19-RNase (AJ862658), S19-RNase (JQ280531), S20-RNase (AJ862659), S21-RNase (AJ863119), S22-RNase (AJ863120), S23-RNase (AY259114), S24-RNase (AY259112), S25-RNase (AY259113), S27-RNase (DQ266439), S28-RNase (DQ266440), S29-RNase (DQ266441), S30-RNase (DQ266442), S31-RNase (DQ266443), S32-RNase (DQ266444), S34-RNase (JQ280525), and S37-RNase (JQ280522)]. Shading indicates conservation: black represents fully conserved amino acids, grey indicates predominantly conserved amino acids, and unshaded regions denote non-conserved amino acids. The arrow indicates the position of the second intron’s splice site. Full article ">Figure 3
‘Burlat’ pollen tube growth in the ‘Canetova’ style (a) and ovary, with the penetration into the nucellus (d); stopping the growth of pollen tubes in the upper third of the style (b) and incompatible pollen tubes (c), ‘Dolga Šiška’ SP; fluorescence of the entire primary ovule, with the fluorescence of the surrounding tissue (e); unusual pollen tube growth in the ‘Dolga Šiška’ ovary: a reverse growth (f), bundle (g), and branching of pollen tubes (h) in the obturator zone. The scale bars represent: 2 mm (a), 20 mm (b), 100 mm (c,e–g), 0.2 mm (d), and 1 mm (h). Full article ">

15 pages, 1382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Water-Saving Management Measures on the Water-Salt Properties of Saline–Alkali Soil and Maize Yield in Ningxia, China

by Tao Li, Jingsong Yang, Rongjiang Yao, Lu Zhang, Wenping Xie, Xiangping Wang, Chong Tang, Wenxiu Li and Jun R. Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030645 - 4 Mar 2025

Viewed by 191

Abstract

Background: The Yellow River irrigation area in Ningxia faces spring drought, resalting, severe water resource shortage, and significant water wastage in saline–alkali soils. Objective: To explore the effects of two different improvement measures on maize fresh biomass and the basic physical and chemical [...] Read more.

Background: The Yellow River irrigation area in Ningxia faces spring drought, resalting, severe water resource shortage, and significant water wastage in saline–alkali soils. Objective: To explore the effects of two different improvement measures on maize fresh biomass and the basic physical and chemical properties of saline soil under four irrigation gradients, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for water-saving irrigation in the Yellow River irrigation area of Ningxia while ensuring maize yield. Methods: The experiment designed four irrigation gradients, W1: local conventional water volume (240 mm), W2: 10% water-saving (216 mm), W3: 20% water-saving (192 mm), W4: 30% water-saving (168 mm), and two different soil improvement treatments, a combination treatment of desulfurization gypsum, ETS microbial agent, and biochar (JC), and a combination treatment of desulfurization gypsum, humic acid, and mulching (FS), with a blank control (CK), resulting in 12 treatments in total. Results: The results showed that compared with CK, both JC and FS treatments reduced soil pH, with JC treatment showing a more significant reduction in soil alkalinity than FS treatment. Both JC and FS treatments inhibited the rise in soil electrical conductivity (EC), with JC showing a significantly higher ability to suppress the rise in EC than FS treatment. Both FS and JC treatments improved soil water retention, but in May 2023 during the maize seedling stage, FS treatment had a stronger water retention ability than JC treatment; however, in July at the maize big jointing stage and in September at the maize maturity stage, JC treatment exhibited better water retention ability than FS treatment. Both JC and FS treatments increased maize fresh biomass under four water conditions, but under WI and W2 conditions, there was no significant difference in the ability of JC and FS treatments to increase maize fresh biomass. Under any irrigation condition, the ability of JC treatment to improve WUE is higher than that of FS treatment. Under W3 and W4 conditions, JC treatment significantly outperformed FS treatment in increasing maize fresh biomass yield. Additionally, under W3 irrigation conditions, using JC treatment not only achieved greater water-saving goals but also prevented crop yield reduction due to water-saving measures. This article can provide a theoretical basis for agricultural irrigation management, especially in the Ningxia Yellow River irrigation area of China. It can help ensure crop yields while protecting the ecological environment and promoting sustainable agricultural development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safe and Efficient Utilization of Water and Fertilizer in Crops)

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Figure 1
Soil pH under different water conditions for each treatment. Note: (a) indicates data from the 0−20 cm soil layer, and (b) indicates data from the 20−40 cm soil layer. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among the amendment treatments (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 2
Soil EC growth rate under different water volume conditions for each treatment. Note: (a) indicates data from the 0−20 cm soil layer, and (b) indicates data from the 20−40 cm soil layer. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among the amendment treatments (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 3
Soil moisture content under different water volume conditions for each treatment. Note: (a) indicates data from the 0−20 cm soil layer, and (b) indicates data from the 20−40 cm soil layer. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among the amendment treatments (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 4
Maize plant height and SPAD value at the tasseling stage under different water volume conditions for each treatment. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among the amendment treatments (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 5
Fresh biomass of maize at maturity stage. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among soil improvement treatments (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 6
Water use efficiency of each treatment under different water conditions. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among soil improvement treatments (p < 0.05). Full article ">

14 pages, 4660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agronomic Characteristics of Glycyrrhiza korshinskyi Grig. Newly Registered as Origin Plants in Korean Pharmacopoeia

by Dongkyun Son, JaeWan Park, Sunhee Woo and Jeonghoon Lee

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030644 - 4 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza spp.) is a medicinal plant belonging to the Fabaceae family. In Korean Pharmacopoeia, three species of G. uralensis, G. glabra, and G. inflata are listed as licorice. Recently, G. korshinskyi has been registered in the Korean Pharmacopoeia, but there [...] Read more.

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza spp.) is a medicinal plant belonging to the Fabaceae family. In Korean Pharmacopoeia, three species of G. uralensis, G. glabra, and G. inflata are listed as licorice. Recently, G. korshinskyi has been registered in the Korean Pharmacopoeia, but there is no comprehensive monograph covering its agronomic characteristics. This research evaluated the agronomic characteristics of G. korshinskyi through growth characteristics, character correlations analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA) using 50 lines. We evaluated growth characteristics of the stem, root, stolon (rhizome), the emergence rate, and glycyrrhizin content. Correlation analysis showed that plant height and root diameter strong positively correlated with root weight and glycyrrhizin content. PCA was useful for understanding the agronomic characteristics of G. korshinskyi, with plant height, root diameter, root weight, stolon diameter, glycyrrhizin content, stolon length, stolon number, and stolon weight as key factors. Cluster analysis grouped G. korshinskyi lines into three groups. Group III contained nine lines with a high plant height, leaf length, leaf width, root diameter, root weight, and glycyrrhizin content. In conclusion, this research evaluated the agronomic characteristics of G. korshinskyi resources through growth traits, correlation analysis, and principal component analysis. This research establishes a foundation for future breeding programs and functional studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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21 pages, 1696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing the Soil Management Assessment Framework to the Haney Soil Health Test Across Managed Agroecosystems

by Xucheng Hu, Megan B. Machmuller, Steve W. Blecker, Cassidy M. Buchanan, Ian B. Aksland, Alexandra G. Firth and James A. Ippolito

Agronomy 2025, 15(3), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030643 - 4 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Soil health assessments within managed agroecosystems help to further understand conservation practice efficacy when management practices are altered. In this study, soil health was quantified via the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) and the Haney Soil Health Test (HSHT) within eight fields (a [...] Read more.

Soil health assessments within managed agroecosystems help to further understand conservation practice efficacy when management practices are altered. In this study, soil health was quantified via the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) and the Haney Soil Health Test (HSHT) within eight fields (a dryland pasture and seven dryland fields under no-till conditions for various time lengths, cropping system diversity differences, and (in)organic fertilizer use) in Northeastern Colorado. The results across cropping systems were variable when comparing the two frameworks, yet the pasture site received the greatest soil health score (SHS) from both frameworks. Management differences were present for soil physical, chemical, and biological indicators in SMAF, yet the HSHT outcomes show high variability between each field, and the SHS did not align with the understanding of management practices. The HSHT SHSs greatly relied on the single indicator Solvita CO₂-C burst (r = 0.82). The HSHT mineralizable N overestimated N availability and was not correlated to the SMAF 28-day N mineralization (R² < 0.01), and via a pathway analysis, only two SMAF biological indicators (β-glucosidase (BG) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC)) along with bulk density (Bd) correlated to the HSHT. The overall soil health scores between the two frameworks were only moderately correlated (r = 0.48), which was ascribed to the lack of HSHT soil physical and chemical indicators. While the HSHT can still be useful for tracking general trends in soil biological health over time, the SMAF remains the more comprehensive and robust tool for assessing soil health in the studied agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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Pearson correlation coefficient diagram of the soil health indicators and overall soil health scores (SHSs) from the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) and Haney Soil Health Tool (HSHT). Significant levels of p < 0.05, p < 0.01, and p < 0.001 are shown according to the correlations between each indicator. SM = soil moisture, Bd = bulk density, WSA = water-stable aggregates, EC = electrical conductivity, MBC = microbial biomass carbon, PMN = potentially mineralizable nitrogen, SOC = soil organic carbon, BG = β-glucosidase activity, SHS (S) = Soil Management Assessment Framework overall soil health score, CO2-C = Solvita 24 h CO2-C burst, WEOC = water-extractable organic carbon, WEON = water-extractable organic nitrogen, SHS (H) = Haney Soil Health Tool soil health score. Full article ">Figure 2
Pathway analysis of Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) and Haney Soil Health Tool (HSHT) indicators. Indicators were selected based on (in)direct significance from the Pearson correlation matrix at p < 0.05. Values above the arrowed lines are standardized pathway coefficients that were used to compare the effect size-independent variables have on the Haney SHS and variables that directly affect the Haney SHS. Bd = bulk density, WSA = water-stable aggregates, EC = electrical conductivity, MBC = microbial biomass carbon, PMN = potentially mineralizable nitrogen, SOC = soil organic carbon, BG = β-glucosidase activity, Solvita CO2-C = Solvita 24 h CO2-C burst, WEOC = water-extractable organic carbon, WEON = water-extractable organic nitrogen, Haney SHS = Haney Soil Health Score. Full article ">Figure 3
Soil-extractable phosphorus and potassium comparison between the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) and Haney Soil Health Tool (HSHT). (A) Linear regression of H3A- and Mehlich-3-extractable phosphorus. (B) Linear regression of H3A- and Mehlich-3-extractable potassium. Full article ">Figure 3 Cont.
Soil-extractable phosphorus and potassium comparison between the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) and Haney Soil Health Tool (HSHT). (A) Linear regression of H3A- and Mehlich-3-extractable phosphorus. (B) Linear regression of H3A- and Mehlich-3-extractable potassium. Full article ">

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Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 3 (March 2025) – 166 articles

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