ritualization of skulls

Archaeological records of the treatment of human skulls for ceremonial or cult purposes appear at the end of Palaeolithic and are shown in different ways, being able to identify through the taphonomic modifications. According to this, the presence of skull cups (bowls from human calvaria) is currently considered evidence of ritualistic treatment of human bodies and it is found in many occasions associated to cannibalism. Prehistoric skull cups are characterized by a careful and repetitive fracture pattern and elevated frequency of cut marks. We aim to assess whether it is possible to identify a common pattern, through the cut marks disposition and frequency, in the treatment of modified skulls to produce skull-cups, by comparing evidence from different prehistoric assemblages in Europe. We compared published data and drawings of cut marks recorded on the surface of human skulls specimens from TD6.2 of Gran Dolina (early Pleistocene, Spain), Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and El Mirador Cave. Cut marks were spatially plotted as polylines over the bone templates in ArcGIS, which has allowed us to evaluate their distribution and greater or lesser presence in the different views of the human skulls. In all samples except in TD6.2 have been proposed some ritual component on the remains and perhaps of the cannibalism events. In three of the sites (Gough’s, Herxheim and El Mirador) the elaboration of skull cups was recorded. The location and distribution of cut marks on the studied skulls, were analysed using the ESRI ArcGIS software package. In order to statistically compare patterns among skulls of the same site and between skulls from different sites the cut marks were digitalised on standardised templates of a skull in six side-views: anterior face; dorsal; left lateral; right lateral; superior; and inferior). Results show a high frequency and a spatial distribution with a clustered pattern of cut marks are also shown common in all the skull cups and Fontbrégoua. This is particularly concerning the longitudinal cut marks located in the upper part of the skulls and superimposed or parallel to the sagittal suture. However, no parallels were observed with the treatment of Homo antecessor skulls. The scalping of the craniums from Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and El Mirador may be therefore associated with the preparation of the skulls (skull cups and non-skull cups) for ritual purposes. We statistically demonstrated that on skull cups there are areas with higher concentration of cut marks, corresponding mainly the removal of the scalp. The high frequency of cut marks can also be associated with defleshing and is found on the lateral and ventral facets of the skull. We have located patterns of spatial distribution of aggregate and regularly scattered cut marks in the skull craniums, with higher densities than in the skulls without prearranged morphology. Repetitive patterns, intended for intensive cleaning bone, have been recognised in specimens from Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and El Mirador Cave. A methodical process has been identified in the manufacturing of the skull cups. The removal of the scalp and defleshing was meticulous and intensive according to the number of cut marks, in all skull cups and Fontbrégoua. This pattern is repeated from the Magdalenian sites of Gough’s Cave to the Bronze Age site of El Mirador Cave, providing further evidence of the preparation of the skulls for their possible ritualization. Intensive tissue removal can be an indicator of human cannibalism in a ritual context.

Archaeological records of the treatment of human skulls for ceremonial or cult purposes appear at the end of Palaeolithic and are shown in different ways, being able to identify through the taphonomic modifications. According to this, the presence of skull cups (bowls from human calvaria) is currently considered evidence of ritualistic treatment of human bodies and it is found in many occasions associated to cannibalism. Prehistoric skull cups are characterized by a careful and repetitive fracture pattern and elevated frequency of cut marks. We aim to assess whether it is possible to identify a common pattern, through the cut marks disposition and frequency, in the treatment of modified skulls to produce skull-cups, by comparing evidence from different prehistoric assemblages in Europe. We compared published data and drawings of cut marks recorded on the surface of human skulls specimens from TD6.2 of Gran Dolina (early Pleistocene, Spain), Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and El Mirador Cave. Cut marks were spatially plotted as polylines over the bone templates in ArcGIS, which has allowed us to evaluate their distribution and greater or lesser presence in the different views of the human skulls. In all samples except in TD6.2 have been proposed some ritual component on the remains and perhaps of the cannibalism events. In three of the sites (Gough’s, Herxheim and El Mirador) the elaboration of skull cups was recorded. The location and distribution of cut marks on the studied skulls, were analysed using the ESRI ArcGIS software package. In order to statistically compare patterns among skulls of the same site and between skulls from different sites the cut marks were digitalised on standardised templates of a skull in six side-views: anterior face; dorsal; left lateral; right lateral; superior; and inferior). Results show a high frequency and a spatial distribution with a clustered pattern of cut marks are also shown common in all the skull cups and Fontbrégoua. This is particularly concerning the longitudinal cut marks located in the upper part of the skulls and superimposed or parallel to the sagittal suture. However, no parallels were observed with the treatment of Homo antecessor skulls. The scalping of the craniums from Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and El Mirador may be therefore associated with the preparation of the skulls (skull cups and non-skull cups) for ritual purposes. We statistically demonstrated that on skull cups there are areas with higher concentration of cut marks, corresponding mainly the removal of the scalp. The high frequency of cut marks can also be associated with defleshing and is found on the lateral and ventral facets of the skull. We have located patterns of spatial distribution of aggregate and regularly scattered cut marks in the skull craniums, with higher densities than in the skulls without prearranged morphology. Repetitive patterns, intended for intensive cleaning bone, have been recognised in specimens from Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and El Mirador Cave. A methodical process has been identified in the manufacturing of the skull cups. The removal of the scalp and defleshing was meticulous and intensive according to the number of cut marks, in all skull cups and Fontbrégoua. This pattern is repeated from the Magdalenian sites of Gough’s Cave to the Bronze Age site of El Mirador Cave, providing further evidence of the preparation of the skulls for their possible ritualization. Intensive tissue removal can be an indicator of human cannibalism in a ritual context.

Archaeological records of the treatment of human skulls for ceremonial or cult purposes appear at the end of Palaeolithic and are shown in different ways, being able to identify through the taphonomic modifications. According to this, the presence of skull cups (bowls from human calvaria) is currently considered evidence of ritualistic treatment of human bodies and it is found in many occasions associated to cannibalism. Prehistoric skull cups are characterized by a careful and repetitive fracture pattern and elevated frequency of cut marks. We aim to assess whether it is possible to identify a common pattern, through the cut marks disposition and frequency, in the treatment of modified skulls to produce skull-cups, by comparing evidence from different prehistoric assemblages in Europe. We compared published data and drawings of cut marks recorded on the surface of human skulls specimens from TD6.2 of Gran Dolina (early Pleistocene, Spain), Gough’s Cave, Fontbrégoua, Herxheim, and E...